Template:Chapter 4.27
4.27 - Pigeon pea for degraded soils
Paige Mary Abernethy, University of Guelph, Canada
Source:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ch%C3%A3_das_Caldeiras-Pois_(1).JPG
Suggested citation for this chapter.
Abernethy,PM. (2022) Pigeon pea for degraded soils. In Farmpedia, The Encyclopedia for Small Scale Farmers. Editor, M.N. Raizada, University of Guelph, Canada. http://www.farmpedia.org
Introduction
Traditionally, Cajanus cajan (pigeon pea), a type of legume, had little significance on a world scale, however it’s now rapidly becoming an integral crop for food security, trade and income (Boukar, 2013). Food security is a large issue for subsistence farmers, especially in India where the country has the land area to produce enough food to feed the population, however millions live without two full meals a day (Ninkovic, 2013). Much of India is populated by subsistence farmers, who may not afford the tools to properly cultivate the land and replenish soils with nutrients. Poor quality soils and low levels of fertilization highly contribute to food shortages in India and other developing countries. Pigeon pea should be considered as an important first crop to help restore degraded soils.
In order to restore the soil of its nutrients, pigeon pea may be sown to fix nitrogen in the profile and to solubilise rock phosphate – the two most limiting nutrients to grow crops. Pigeon pea, or “yellow split pea” is thought to have originated in India, then later made its way to Africa where it obtained the name “Congo pea”. This was named by the women in the region and it refers to the high amount of protein in the crop (ICRISAT, 2016). Yellow split pea may give people living with malnutrition the protein they need. This may be especially valuable in Haiti, where 80% of the population is living in poverty, and most of its residents live on less than $2 per day (Sionfonds for Haiti, 2016). The perennial crop is sown primarily for food however may also be used for fuel, forage, fodder and medicinal uses. Pigeon pea is increasingly becoming more widespread with global production increasing from 1.96 million tons in 1980 to 3.46 million tons produced in 2006 (Bradtke, 2016). Overall, pigeon pea is grown over 4.74 million hectares worldwide, where 77% of this is produced in India (Youn, 2014) where the crop originated. Soil fertility is considered one of the largest problems limiting successful crop production, hence addressing this issue is vital for sustainability of the land. If the production of pigeon pea is increased in developing countries such as Haiti, it will have great potential to reduce hunger and food insecurity.
Benefits of pigeon pea for subsistence farmers
Pigeon pea is a highly sustainable crop due to its ability to improve degraded soils. It has deep roots which may hold the topsoil down, protecting the nutrients in the A horizon. This offers protection from erosion when grown on mountain slopes, benefiting the millions of farmers growing crops on hillsides in Africa (Adjei-Nsiah, 2012). Similarly, the deep roots (up to 2 m) may benefit the soil in droughts as it may extract water from deep in the soil (CGIAR, 2016). Thus, pigeon pea may tolerate the dry regions in India and Sub-Saharan Africa. Moreover, pigeon pea has the capability of fixing 41 to 280 kg/ha of nitrogen, which may provide the soil with adequate nutrients for succeeding crops (Bradtke, 2016). The nitrogen is fixed by rhizobium on root nodules, which may release plant available nitrogen in the soil. Hence, pigeon pea may act as a substitute for fertilisers, which is an advantage for subsistence farmers, especially for residents in Haiti who may not afford synthetic fertilisers (ICRISAT, 2015). Nitrogen is an essential macronutrient in soils, and access to nitrogen may greatly increase yield. Pigeon pea or “red gram” may also amend degraded soils through solubilizing rock phosphorus (Delgado, 1999). This occurs, via extracting phosphorus from deep in the profile and releasing soil bound P into plant available form. These adaptations provide farmers with valuable organic matter and micronutrients. Pigeon pea seeds offer high nutritive value as it contains carbohydrates, vitamins and 10-25% crude protein (Adjei-Nsiah, 2012). Immature stems may also be cut and used as green manure which may Improve soil nitrogen and organic matter (CGIAR, 2015).
Cajanus cajan is a low maintenance crop, therefore reduces the labour intensity for subsistence farmers. The deep roots allow the legume to withstand periods without rainfall and irrigation, due to its ability to hold water and access it at great depths (Saishi, 2016). This may save time for women who would otherwise need to regularly apply water to the field, in the arid areas of India and Africa. Pigeon pea would have great potential as a staple crop in Haiti, as large droughts have affected production of their major crops such as maize and rice (Haiti Agriculture, 2016). Lastly, as the crop is a perennial there will be fewer harvests than an annual crop. Thus, farmers may use their extra time tending to the livestock or other crops. Pigeon pea is also high yielding and low cost crop allowing increased income for subsistence farmers, as discussed in the cost analysis.
Sowing pigeon pea
Desirable growing conditions for pigeon pea include non-saline and free draining soils. The crop may tolerate a range soil textures from sandy to heavy black clays, and may be grow on different pH levels, however prefer the pH 5-7 range (Delgado, 1999). It should be noted to farmers that the crop is a perennial therefore must fit the cropping calendar or may be used as an initial crop to improve degraded soils. To prepare the seed bed, it is necessary to remove the previous crop and cultivate the soil, by harrowing or discing. Pigeon pea prefers deep ploughed soil, for the removal of previous crop residue and lifted seed beds for better drainage. Seeds are generally sown in the last week of May on flat land but may change dependant on the topography and are broadcasted and covered or drilled into the rows at 35 cm apart. The depth of these seedlings should be 2.5-10 cm at a rate of 0.5-4 kg/ha. Seedlings should emerge at 2-3 weeks and the first six weeks is critical for weed and disease management (Saishi, 2016).
How to cook
Once the crop is harvested, it may be cooked in a variety of dishes. Yellow split pea may be eaten fresh, as a green leafy vegetable or let fully mature and dried to give a mealy texture when cooked. As it’s a large grain, a pressure cooker is preferable as it may take as little as 10 minutes to cook. Alternatively, pigeon pea may be soaked overnight in water and cooked on the stove top with spices, onions and vegetables, and served with rice. In developing countries pigeon pea is commonly be eaten with cereals such as sorghum and millet for a mix of nutrients. These cooking methods are commonly used in South Asia, Eastern Africa, Central America and Caribbean, however it’s most common in India, where 80% of the world’s pigeon pea is produced (Oulton, 2004).
Cost analysis
In the semi-arid conditions of parts of Africa, pigeon pea may yield around 500-600 kg/ha of grain, while dry matter yield may reach 25-40 t/ha (Delgado, 1999). Seeds cost approximately $11 a kilogram, and as fertiliser and irrigation isn’t required, the input costs are low (CGIAR, 2015). When sown with maize in the crop rotation, yields may be increased by 75-200%, compared to a field with only maize (Waldman, 2016). International and domestic trade is another important aspect of aspect of pigeon pea production. The imported market for the crop in India is 250,000 tonnes annually, which increases the economy of developing nations (Youn, 2014). As pigeon pea has a variety of uses, the income is not limited to grain revenue. As shown on Table 1, soil amendment is as high as 89% in Zomba (Malawi) which may allow long term benefits to the soil, including fertilisation for subsequent crops. This increases the economic value of pigeon pea, as following crops may benefit from increased yield.
Table1: The main products of pigeon pea in relation to the region in Malawi, Africa.
Critical analysis
The primary issue in pigeon pea production is the perennial nature of the crop, making the crop less desirable to farmers, in part because it excludes the ability to plant annual crops. Furthermore, pressure is placed on subsistence farmers as income is delayed for perennial crops to mature. However, recent hybrid varieties have been developed by ICRISAT and partners in India which allow pigeon pea maturation in 4-6 months. These hybrids may also allow resilience to drought, salinity and greater root to shoot biomass. A challenge with adopting these hybrids, is that seeds may be too expensive for subsistence farmers to afford. However, the Indian government heavily subsidises these hybrid costs (ICRISAT, 2016). Another alternative may be sowing pigeon pea as an intercrop with maize as this may maximise the productivity of the land area.
The storage of pigeon pea may attract Fusarium fungal pathogens and pod borers which may reduce farmers’ income. The pod borers attack pigeon pea and is responsible for US $1.1 billion annual loss of production (Le, 2014). To avoid this issue, Hermetic grain storage bags (PICS or GrainPro) may be used to prevent contamination from these pests and diseases (Agrilinks, 2016).
Pigeon pea productivity may also be limited by environmental conditions. In areas of high rainfall, there is poor pollination for pigeon pea, this is a major initial challenge, as it may greatly reduce the yield. Pigeon pea is also not suited to high frost areas and waterlogging; however new varieties are currently being developed with resilience to these environment factors (Saishi, 2016). Lastly, in areas where the crop is not commonly consumed, it may be difficult for subsistence farmers to sell their crop in the local market stalls. However, what is not sold may be fed to livestock as crushed dried seed, which may increase cattle’s live weight by 0.7-1.25 kg a day (Adjei, 2012).
Picture Based Lesson to Train Farmers
For the South Asian version (pictures only, text for you to insert), click this link for lesson 5.27:http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/5.27_south_asian.pdf.
For the East/South Asian version (pictures only, text for you to insert), click this link for lesson 5.27:http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/5.27e.s.a.pdf
For the Sub-Saharan Africa/Caribbean version (pictures only, text for you to insert), click this link for lesson 5.27:http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/5.27subsaharan_africa_carribean.pdf
For the Latin-America version (pictures only, text for you to insert), click this link for lesson 5.27:http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/5.27latin_america.pdf
For North Africa And Middle East version (pictures only, text for you to insert), click this link for lesson Chapter 5. 4.23:http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/4.23n._africa_middleeast.pdf
Source: MN Raizada and LJ Smith (2016) A Picture Book of Best Practices for Subsistence Farmers: eBook, University of Guelph Sustainable Agriculture Kit (SAK) Project, June 2016, Guelph, Canada. Available online at: www.SAKBooks.com
Links to helpful resources
•To access pigeon pea, the following links show different seed varieties, and provide a point of contact to order the seed.
•ICRISAT, in India, has primary responsibility globally for collecting, storing, breeding and distributing pigeon pea seeds: http://www.icrisat.org/new-hybrid-and-varieties-of-pigeonpea-released-by-telangana-india-3/
•To purchase general pigeon pea seed locally, in India, the following link is an alternative option: http://dir.indiamart.com/impcat/pigeon-pea-seeds.html
•To purchase general pigeon pea seen in Africa http://www.veseys.com/ca/en/store/flowerseed?gclid=CMHV_JrG0dACFcEbgQod8K8G8w
•To purchase general pigeon pea seed in Haiti: http://www.reimerseeds.com/pigeon-peas.aspx
•Other sources: https://www.edenseeds.com.au/?name=Product-Info-Seeds&product=trees-pigeon-pea http://www.seedsforafrica.co.za/products/pigeon-peas-sprouting-seeds-200-grams
•To view a training manual for more information of pigeon pea establishment, use the following link An example of a useful manual for pigeon pea in Malawi: http://www.cabi.org/gara/FullTextPDF/2009/20093200517.pdf
•A manual for pigeon pea in India, released by ICRISAT: http://oar.icrisat.org/6617/1/EngagingSmallholders_205-216_2012.pdf
•For further information of pigeon pea and alternative crop production in Haiti, follow the link below. This manual may give more in depth information regarding crop alternatives which directly relate to environmental conditions in Haiti. https://www.wfp.org/sites/default/files/Haiti%202010-2013%20Report_English.pdf
•For an idea of the size and appearance of pigeon pea crop, use the following link
References
1.Agrilinks. (2016). It’s in the bag: The Story of Purdue Improved Crop Storage Bag (PICS). Retrieved from https://agrilinks.org/blog/it%E2%80%99s-bag-story-purdue-improved-crop-storage-bag-pics
2.Adjei-Nsiah, S. (2012). Role of Pigeonpea Cultivation on Soil Fertility and Farming System Sustainability in Ghana. International Journal of Agronomy, (1), 1-8.
3.Boukar, O., Bhattacharjee, R., Fatokun, C., & Kumar, L. (2013). Cowpea. Genetic and Genomic Resources of Grain Legume Improvement, 181-202.
4.Bradtke, Brirgit. (2016) Growing Pigeon Pea. Tropical permaculture. Retrieved from http://www.tropicalpermaculture.com/pigeon-pea.htm
5.CGIAR. (2015) Drought tolerant crops for dryland. A Global Agricultural Research Partnership. Retrieved from http://www.cgiar.org/web-archives/www-cgiar-org-impact-global-des_fact2-html/
6.Delgado, C., Rosegrant, M., Steinfield, H., Ehui, S., & Courbois, C. (1999). Tropical forages. Cajanus cajan. Retrieved from http://www.tropicalforages.info/key/Forages/Media/Html/Cajanus_cajan.html
7.Haiti Agriculture. (2016) Agriculture in Haiti. Retrieved from http://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/Americas/Haiti-AGRICULTURE.html
8.ICRISAT. (2016). Pigeon pea. Facts and figures. Retrieved from http://exploreit.icrisat.org/page/pigeonpea/687
9.Le, H. (2014) Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp. FAO. Retrieved from http://www.fao.org/ag/agp/agpc/doc/gbase/data/pf000150.htm
10.Ninkovic, N., & Lehmann, J. (2013). Indias Food Crises. A close up. Retrieved from http://www.theglobalist.com/indias-food-crises-close-up/
11.Osman, A.G., Ahmed, M., Elhassan, R., & Mohammed, E. (2011). Effects of biofertilization on nodulation, nitrogen and phosphorus content and yield of pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan). Advances in Environmental Biology, (Vol 1), 242-249.
12.Oulton, R. (2004). Cooks Info. Pigeon Peas. Retrieved from http://www.cooksinfo.com/pigeon-peas
13.Saishi, R. (2016) Pigeon Pea: Toor Dal farming. Agri Farming. Retrieved from http://www.agrifarming.in/toor-dal-farming
14.Siofonds for Haiti. (2016). Empowering Haitian Families: Basic Facts about Haiti. Retrieved from http://sionfondsforhaiti.org/facts-about-haiti/
15.Upadhyaya, Hari D., Shivali, Sharma., Reddy, K.N., & Rachit, Saxena. (2013). Pigeonpea. Genetic and Genomic Resources of Grain Legume Improvement, 181-202.
16.Waldman, K., Ortega, D., Richardson, R, & Snapp, S. (2017) Estimating demand for perennial pigeon pea in Malawi using choice experiments. Ecological Economics, 1(131), 222-230.
17.Youn, A., & Handler, N. (2014). Pigeon Pea – Long rain season, Kenya. One Acre Fund. Retrieved from https://www.oneacrefund.org/uploads/allfiles/Pigeon_Pea_Research_White_Paper_One_Acre