Chapters 5.34: Difference between revisions

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(Created page with "<div> <div class="title"><h3>5.34 -Drought Tolerant Bean Varieties (Phaseolus vulgaris) Utilized to Overcome the Negative Effects of Climate Change </h3><br><h3 class="ch-owner">Jordan Candido, University of Guelph, Canada </h3></div> <div class="hero-img-2"> 300px <p>Suggested citation for this chapter.</p> <p>Candido,J. (2022) Drought Tolerant Bean Varieties (Phaseolus vulgaris) Utilized to Overcome the Negative Effects of Climate Change, In Farmpedia,...")
 
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  <div class="title"><h3>5.34 -Drought Tolerant Bean Varieties (Phaseolus vulgaris) Utilized to Overcome the Negative Effects of Climate Change </h3><br><h3 class="ch-owner">Jordan Candido, University of Guelph, Canada </h3></div>
  <div class="title"><h3>5.34 -Bambara Groundnut: Overcoming Climate Change in Africa </h3><br><h3 class="ch-owner">Nathalie Amyotte , University of Guelph, Canada </h3></div>
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<p>Suggested citation for this chapter.</p>
<p>Suggested citation for this chapter.</p>
<p>Candido,J. (2022) Drought Tolerant Bean Varieties (Phaseolus vulgaris) Utilized to Overcome the Negative Effects of Climate Change, In Farmpedia, The Encyclopedia for Small Scale Farmers. Editor, M.N. Raizada, University of Guelph, Canada. http://www.farmpedia.org</p>
<p>Amyotte,N. (2022) Bambara Groundnut: Overcoming Climate Change in Africa, In Farmpedia, The Encyclopedia for Small Scale Farmers. Editor, M.N. Raizada, University of Guelph, Canada. http://www.farmpedia.org</p>
       <h3 class="title-bg">Background</h3>
       <h3 class="title-bg">Background</h3>
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           <p>During the formation of the International Centre for Tropical Agriculture, or CIAT, in 1967, headquartered in Colombia, the vast majority of starving and malnourished people residing in tropical and sub-tropical regions were smallholder farmers (CIAT, 2017). Thus, the goal of increasing yield potential became a primary priority for CIAT (CIAT, 2017). The current areas of concern are in regard to common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) production systems, the landscapes where its production occurs, and its yield potential (CIAT, 2015). Millions of farmers within Africa and Latin America depend on high yield outcomes from their bean crops not only to provide food but also to provide an income for themselves and their families. However, due to the high demand of the crop and the drastic effects of climate change, farmers continue to struggle to meet the needs of consumers (CIAT, 2015).</p>  
           <p>In the face of a climate emergency, the world is in search of new solutions to keep farmer livelihoods intact. “Underutilized crops” such as Bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranea (L.) Verdc), have tremendous potential the stabilize food insecurity concerns caused by climate change (Mkandawire, 2007).
Bambara groundnut is a legume, related to cowpea believed to have been domesticated in Nigeria (Mkandawire, 2007). Much like the peanut plant, flowers are low to the soil and the seed pods grow underground (Republic of South Africa Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, 2011). The grain comes in 7 different forms, all with different advantages and disadvantages to farmers:</P>
<p>Throughout the previous several decades, the impacts of climate change have been worsening (IFPRI, 2009). Climate change projections state that regions in Sub-Saharan Africa, Latin America, and the Caribbean will be greatly affected by an increase of drought conditions and a rise in average annual temperatures. Due to these conditions, the threats to agricultural production within these land areas are escalating (IFPRI, 2009). Within these regions, the common bean is a staple crop; beans are often referred to as “the meat of the poor” (CIAT, 2016). They contain high levels of protein, fibre, vitamins and micronutrients. An estimated 400 million people residing in the tropics consume beans in their daily diet due to their high nutritional content (CIAT, 2016).</p>
<p>• Black: fast maturation rate, small pods, low yield
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<p>• Red: slowest maturation rate, largest pods, good yield, pod inclined to rot
<p>• Cream/Black eye: large pods, good yield
<p>• Cream/Brown eye: medium-sized pods, good yield
<p>• Cream/No eye: smallest-sized pods, low yield
<p>• Speckled: small pods, low yield
<P>Brown: medium or large pods, yield varies (Republic of South Africa, 2011).</p>
<p>Figure 1: Illustration of Bambara Groundnut(National Research Council, 2006)</p>
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<p>Bambara groundnut is often termed as “an underutilized, indigenous crop” because its planting was displaced through the introduction of the peanut plant by foreigners (Mkandawire, 2007). Historically, Bambara groundnut was a crop planted by women subsistence farmers because of its tolerance to harsh climates and poor soil fertility, making it a reliable crop for both nutritional and economic purposes. However, lack of interest and research funding available to scientists means little is known about the legume and it still can benefit from breeding programs (Mkandawire, 2007). (More details are in Section 4)
Climate change in Africa will result in decreased crop production and increases in malnutrition through the projected temperature increase of 3-4°C (Thompson, Barrang-Ford, & Ford, 2010). Bambara groundnut presents an opportunity to stabilize these food security challenges involved with climate change.</p>
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       <h3 class="title-bg">Benefits of Drought Tolerant Bean Varieties to Small Scale Farmers </h3>
       <h3 class="title-bg">Requirements to Grow and Harvest Bambara Groundnut </h3>
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<p>In terms of cost, as one example that was available, a pack of 25 Bambara groundnut seed costs 26 ZAR from Livingseeds, South Africa’s first online seed store. This approximates to $2.36 CAD. A small pack of seed costs 13 ZAR, approximately $1.18 CAD (Livingseeds, 2019).
<p>The world’s largest and most diverse collection of beans is preserved by CIAT (CIAT, 2015). Beans were domesticated within the neo-tropics thousands of years ago, which is where the majority of CIAT’s germplasm originated. With such an extensive range of beans available, the seed bank contains many options for farmers; a variety of colours, nutritional content, and production requirements can be found within these different strains (CIAT, 2015).</p>
It is best to grow in climates with temperatures ranging from 20-28°C and between 500-600 mm of rain but can tolerate water stress, meaning it can thrive in dryland climates (Republic of South Africa, 2011). If the plant experiences heavy rainfall before harvest, this will damage the crop and most likely kill it (Republic of South Africa, 2011). Bambara groundnut is a short photoperiod plant and many landraces cannot flower and hence produce grain in locations where the daylength is longer than 12 hours; in general, the landraces are daylength-adapted to their latitude and may not flower if moved north or south (Azam-Ali et al., 2001). The best soil conditions are deep, well-drained soils that are generally sandy loams (Louw, 2018) with a pH of 5.0-6.5 (Republic of South Africa, 2011).</p>  
<p>In regards to herbicides, those used on cowpea can be used on Bambara groundnut, but it is most often hand-weeded to reduce costs and because weeding technology is not available for pod crops (Republic of South Africa, 2011). Many common pests do not often affect Bambara groundnut due to the pods being underground, although nematodes can be detrimental to this crop (Mkandawire, 2007; Republic of South Africa, 2011). Nematode infestation may be avoided by planting earlier in the season before nematode colonies have a chance to grow (Republic of South Africa, 2011).</p>  
<p>Within the previous 15 years, researchers at the Consortium of International Agricultural Research Centres (CGIAR), CIAT’s umbrella organization, have created incredible advances towards solving issues surrounding drought, and increasing the heat-tolerance and nutritional content levels within common bean varieties (CIAT, 2015). CIAT researchers have been able to identify lines that display a tolerance to a 3˚C increase in temperature. These lines derive from a variety of crosses between common and tepary bean species (Phaseolus acutifolius). Currently cultivated traditional bean varieties have been projected to suffer a 20-50% loss by 2050, whereas heat-tolerant bred beans are projected to suffer minimal losses within that same time period (CIAT, 2015).</p>  
<p>Bambara groundnut is often pollinated by ants because of the low-to-the-ground flowers (Mkandawire, 2007). It will reach maturation at 110-150 days (Republic of South Africa, 2011). Typically, the plant is harvested by hand and will be stored in the shell to prevent crop loss from weevils. If shelled, seeds must be stored in sand, wood ash, vegetable oil or be dusted with insecticide (Republic of South Africa, 2011).</p>
 
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<p>In order for the new bean varieties to have drought resistant qualities, different traits from different genetic groups were required (Beebe, 2014). Many of the traits which are linked to drought resistance were found within both bean roots and shoots. In order to guarantee a higher success rate of the bean plant, a lengthy root system was required. Additionally, early maturation of the bean crops was a common tactic to combat drought tolerance. A total of 36 genotypes were tested in 2009 during a growing season with significant drought stress. Table 1 shows the field trial results of 5 genotypes grown under different field conditions (Beebe, 2014).</P>
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<p>Table 1. Drought associated traits associated with improved bean genotypes </p>
      <h3 class="title-bg">Practical Uses for Bambara Groundnut </h3>
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<p>The crops were managed by the irrigation systems for up to 25 days following planting. In order to induce drought stress, the crops were fed a total of 105 mm of water initially followed by an allotted amount of 59 mm of rainwater. An analysis of these trials recommended that the most elite drought tolerant lines expressed heightened stomatal control of transpiration and contained Mexican genetics (Beebe, 2014).</p>
<p>Bambara groundnut can be processed into several foodstuffs. They can be roasted for snack food, ground into flour, mixed into porridges or stews or even processed into milk (Louw, 2018). Check out Section 9 for recipe ideas.</p>
 
<p>This crop has significant nutritional value. It is very filling and high in protein and carbohydrates (National Research Council, 2006). One seed is 63% carbohydrate, 19% protein, 6.5% fat (Mkandawire, 2007) and very high in the essential amino acid methionine (National Research Council, 2006). Per 100 g, it has 367-414 calories, much greater than common beans (National Research Council, 2006).</p>
<p>Since 1996, The Pan-Africa Bean Research Alliance (PABRA) has released over 550 new drought resistant bean varieties to many of the countries within Africa in co-ordination with assistance from CIAT (CIAT, 2016). Utilizing germplasm available, the new varieties of beans (known as BIO101 and BIO107) contain 60% more iron and 50% more zinc than those of traditional bean crops. Following the creation of these specially bred beans, a trial with pregnant and young women in Rwanda discovered that the new varieties of beans reduced iron-deficiency and increased immune system strength in each of the women (CIAT, 2016). With these new advances, PABRA will assist future production by making the crops more resilient to climate change threats while simultaneously targeting direct effects on the human population (CIAT, 2015).</p>
<p>The Bambara plant makes good animal feed. The beans can be fed to poultry while the stem and the leaves of the plant make great livestock feed due to its high amino acid content (National Research Council, 2006).</p>
 
<p><b>Bambara groundnut provides some medicinal benefits:</b></p>
<p>The regions within Latin America, Oceania and Sub-Saharan Africa contain the highest percentage of women participating in the agricultural sector. It is within these regions that 60% of the total agricultural production is completed by women (Huyer, 2016). In the world’s least developed regions, 79% of the women contributing to their national economy report that they work in the agriculture sector (Huyer, 2016). When women engage in the agricultural production (with new technologies such as heat-tolerant bean varieties) it creates a sense of empowerment and thus builds essential assets, which the women are then able to use in all other aspects of their lives (Muriel, 2019). With the climate change innovations available within common bean variety crops, female farmers are considered to be important influences (Huyer, 2016). When the women’s knowledge of available innovative resources and access to information increases, it establishes an increase in food supply as well as a more resilient community. Likewise, an attempt is made to close the gender gap, thus providing a higher chance for equal opportunities between both men and women (Huyer, 2016), which would in turn help to positively shape the future of those regions affected.</p>  
<p>1) When boiled with maize, it is drunk to relieve diarrhea (Republic of South Africa, 2011).</p>
<p>2) When eaten raw, it is believed to relieve nausea experienced by pregnant women (Republic of South Africa, 2011).</p>
<p>3) Due to its high fibre content, it is also good for preventing heart disease and colon cancer (National Research Council, 2006).</p>
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       <h3 class="title-bg">Gender Issues Associated with Production of Drought Tolerant Bean Varieties </h3>
       <h3 class="title-bg">Production Trends + Benefits</h3>
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<p>If the farmers, though especially female farmers, are not able to utilize and benefit from these new seed varieties, the food supply decreases and the gender gap increases, which diminishes the resiliency of the community (Huyer, 2016). Additionally, since very little information is available with regards to how poor regions with higher gender discrepancy respond to the threats and impacts of climate change within agricultural production, it is difficult to forecast results for future decades (Huyer, 2016).</p>
<p>When looking at current production trends of Bambara groundnut it is grossly underproduced.</p>
[[File:Capture 675.JPG]]
<p><b>Figure 2:</b> Production trends in Bambara Groundnut and Cowpea in Africa from 2008-2017 (FAOSTAT, 2019)</p>
 
<p>Approximately 100 million Africans eat Bambara groundnut, yet total production is extremely low (National Research Council, 2006), for example compared to its close relative, cowpea (Figure 2). Bambara yields per hectare can also be low, with the reasons explored in the next section. One way to increase production trends is to promote its potential as secure food source in the face of climate change.</p>
<p>Bambara groundnut is a nitrogen-fixating legume, meaning it produces its own nitrogen fertilizer through symbiotic association with root bacteria (Mkandawire, 2007). This indicates that it is an excellent plant to intercrop or plant in rotation with crops that have higher nitrogen requirements. FAO suggests Bambara groundnut pairs well with maize, cassava and other cereal crops like millet and sorghum (n.d.). Synthetic fertilizers are often inaccessible to poor farmers because of economic and political issues (World Bank, 2010).  On average, 20% of West Africa’s fertilizers have been reported as nutrient deficient (World Bank, 2010).This concern can be reduced because the Bambara groundnut is tolerant of nutrient-poor soils and can help provide nitrogen to companion crops (Mkandawire, 2007).</p>
<p>Bambara is very drought tolerant (FAO, n.d.). During a drought, the Bambara groundnut can still have substantial yields when most other crops would fail (FAO, n.d.). Bambara groundnut is consequently a reliable crop for poor farmers since rainfall is becoming increasingly reduced in dry areas of Africa because of climate change (National Research Council, 2006).</p>
<p>This plant is even able to thrive in red, acidic soil in tropical areas that are toxic to most crops, meaning it also has the potential to grow in tropical regions provided there is no heavy rainfall before harvest (Mkandawire, 2007). If planting is timed properly, heavy rainfall at harvest may be avoided allowing it to thrive in tropical climates on top of its ability to tolerate dry climates (Mkandawire, 2007).</p>
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       <h3 class="title-bg">Production of Drought Tolerant Beans (Phaseolus Vulgaris) in Arid Regions </h3>
       <h3 class="title-bg">Critical Analysis</h3>
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<p>Although there are several benefits to growing this crop there should be some important issues to consider.
Bambara Groundnut is photoperiod sensitive, as previously noted in Section 1 (Azam-Ali et al., 2001). Research by Berchie et al. (2013) indicates that some landraces are less photoperiod sensitive, meaning that they can be moved north/south and be used in pan-African breeding programs, but they are lower yielding under non-native daylength (i.e. they do not flower efficiently) (Berchie et al., 2013).</p>
<p>A common issue with the Bambara groundnut is pod-shattering (National Research Council, 2006). Pod-shattering is a wild trait in beans that causes the pod to shatter when harvested  (Murgia et al., 2017). This is a significant issue for farmers because pod-shattering results in loss of seed. Luckily, this trait may be able to be bred out of domestic varieties of Bambara groundnut, like it was in maize and barley if research funding is provided (Murgia et al., 2017). Establishing a dedicated seed bank, which exists for the world’s other major crops, would be incredibly beneficial towards the improvement of this crop’s genetics. Currently Bambara groundnut does not have one.</p>
<p>As Discussed in Section 1 there are a few pests that may affect Bambara groundnut. Sandy soils are needed for the pods of Bambara groundnut and the nitrogen-fixating nodules to grow (Louw, 2018). However, Bambara groundnut is more susceptible to nematode infestations in sandy soil (Kim et al.,  2017). Infestations can be avoided with earlier planting before populations increase (Republic of South Africa, 2011). After harvest, when not stored in its shell, the grain may deteriorate during storage (Republic of South Africa, 2011). While drying the grain, it is especially prone to weevil damage. To prevent weevils, insecticides (which may not be affordable) would need to be spread over the drying seeds or the grain can be stored in sand (Republic of South Africa, 2011).</p>
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      <h3 class="title-bg">Conclusion</h3>
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<p>It is necessary that farmers are equipped with all of the relevant information required to achieve the highest quality results from their newly adapted bean varieties (PABRA, 2016). Becoming knowledgeable about land preparation, crop management and harvesting is vital to ensuring success within production systems. Integrated crop management (ICM) is a holistic approach utilized by PABRA that assists farmers throughout their cultivation. The desired outcome from ICM is to give smallholder farmers access to cost-effective, climate change resistant crops. This is achieved by working with many international partners. Multiple techniques exist within ICM such as pest management, soil quality, planting and intercropping. With such techniques, approximately six million farmers have been able to improve their bean yields. The ICM research encompasses a variety of areas:</p>
<p>As climate change occurs, Africa’s soils will continue to degrade, water will continue to become scarce and food insecurity will increase (Thompson, Barrang-Ford, & Ford, 2010). Bambara groundnut presents a real solution to some of these issues and can improve with breeding programs. Research and development must be invested into indigenous crops like Bambara groundnut for reasons such as nutritional benefits to both animals and humans, economic benefits from cost-saving practices and environmental benefits from replenishing soil nitrogen. Bambara groundnut has a tremendous opportunity to be explored, improved and benefit peoples all across Africa if provided renewed interest.</p>
<p>-   Cropping systems: Assessing the different varieties of beans while comparing the benefits of intercropping and rotation.</p>   
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<p>-    Inputs: Evaluating the varieties of fertilisers available which are best suitable for the farmer’s chosen bean variety.</p>  
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<p>-    Water Management: In order to combat the negative effects of climate change and drought, improved practices regarding irrigation and water conservation are fundamental. </p>  
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<p>-    Soil Fertility: By working with the technologies available within the private sector, this promotes biological nitrogen fixation capabilities which increases yield potential.</p>
      <h3 class="title-bg">Further Reading + Additional Videos</h3>
<p>-    Pest and Disease Management: Bean varieties are frequently affected by an array of pests and diseases which have very negative effects on crop yields. PABRA analyses integrated pest management systems with utilization of both biological and chemical methods (PABRA, 2016).</p>  
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<p>• Lost Crops of Africa Book chapter on Bambara Groundnut by The National Academic  Press: https://www.nap.edu/read/11763/chapter/4</p>
<p>• Production Guidelines for growing Bambara Groundnut developed by Republic of South Africa’s Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries: https://www.nda.agric.za/docs/Brochures/ProdguideBambara.pdf</p>
<p>• How Bambara Groundnut can Improve Food Security by University of Nottingham: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vdB5L1nsDlo</p>
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       <h3 class="title-bg">Helpful Links to Get Started </h3>
       <h3 class="title-bg">Places to Buy Seed Online</h3>
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<p>• https://livingseeds.co.za/bambara-nut.html</p>
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      <h3 class="title-bg">Videos on how to grow Bambara Groundnut by Crops for the Future</h3>
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<p>Resource for Requesting Seeds:</p>
<p>• Sowing Bambara Groundnut: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CTyKk9UBvXo</p>
<p>https://genebank.ciat.cgiar.org/genebank/inforequestmaterial.do</p>
<p>• Flowering of Bambara Groundnut: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vdB5L1nsDlo</p>
<p>CIAT innovations on heat-tolerant beans:</p>
<p>• Bambara Groundnut Harvest: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eyGbj43Zn5s</p>
<p>https://blog.ciat.cgiar.org/heat-tolerant-wild-beans-tapped-to-breed-commercial-beans-for-hotter-climates/</p>
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<p>What is ‘Seed Security’?</p>
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<p>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xvqSaw49wnE</p>
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<p>Agricultural Business Skills for seed-producers:</p>
      <h3 class="title-bg">Recipes</h3>
<p>https://cgspace.cgiar.org/bitstream/handle/10568/54569/handbook_3_english.pdf</p>
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<p>Crop Management:</p>
<p>• Prepping Bambara Groundnut for Roasting: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=25yaMhgCxLE</p>  
<p>https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/detail/national/newsroom/features/?&cid=nrcs143_023350</p>
<p>• Highly visual recipe for cooking Bambara groundnut stew: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lmHZyNa1SO4</p>  
<p>Smallholder Farmers Stories Who Have Adopted Drought Tolerant Bean Varieties:</p>
<p>• Recipe for Bambara Groundnut Dumplings:
<p>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=O2UqFbnOc6U</p>
http://www.fao.org/traditional-crops/bambaragroundnut/en/</p>  
<p>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=x3D3DiZ4I-8</p>
<p><b>Appendix</b></p>
<p>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Qd4RS66FMJM&t=8s</p>
<p>Data used to generate Figure 2 (FAOSTAT, 2019).</p>
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       <h3 class="title-bg">References </h3>
       <h3 class="title-bg">References </h3>
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<p>1. Azam-Ali, S. N., Sesay, A., Karikari, S. K., Massawe, F. J., Aguilar-Manjarrez, J., Bannayan, M., &
a. Hampson, K. J. (2001). Assessing the Potential of an Underutilized Crop – a Case Study
b. Using Bambara Groundnut. Experimental Agriculture, 37 (4), 433-472. Retrieved from
c. https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/experimental-agriculture/article/assessing-
d. the-potential-of-an-underutilized-crop-a-case-study-using-bambara-groundnut/
e. B543A6DE27794BF7031EE8DD81F65412.</p>
<p>2. Berchie, J.N., Amelie, G., McClymont, S., Raizada, M., Adu-Dapaah, H. & Sarkodie-Addo, J.
a. (2013). Performance of 13 Bambara Groundnut (Vigna subterranea (L.) Verdc.)
b. Landraces under 12 H and 14 H Photoperiod. Journal of Agronomy, 12, 20-28. Retrieved
c. from https://scialert.net/abstract/?doi=ja.2013.20.28. doi: 10.3923/ja.2013.20.28.</p>
<p>3. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. (n.d.). Traditional Crops: Bambara
a. Groundnut. FAO, Rome. Retrieved from http://www.fao.org/traditional-crops/bambaragroundnut/en/.</p>
<p>4. Kim, E., Seo, Y., Kim, Y. S., Park, Y., & Kim, Y. H. (2017). Effects of Soil Textures on
a. Infectivity of Root-Knot Nematodes on Carrot. Plant Pathology, 66 (1), 66-74. Retrieved
b. from https://doi.org/10.5423/PPJ.OA.07.2016.0155.</p>
<p>5. Living Seeds. (n.d.). Nyimo Beans Vegetables Seeds [Seed Supplier Website]. Retrieved
a. from https://livingseeds.co.za/bambara-nut.html.</p>
<p>6. Louw, M. (2018). Bambara Groundnut: South African Indigenous Grains. Retrieved
a. from http://southafrica.co.za/bambara-groundnut.html.</p>
<p>7. Mkandawire, C. H. (2007). Review of Bambara Groundnut (Vigna subterranea (L.) Verdc.)
a. Production in Sub-Sahara Africa. Agricultural Journal, 2 (4), 464-470. Retrieved from
b. http://docsdrive.com/pdfs/medwelljournals/aj/2007/464-470.pdf.</p>
<p>8. National Research Council. (2006). Bambara Bean. In Lost Crops of Africa: Volume II:
a. Vegetables (52-73). Washington, DC: National Academies Press. Retrieved from
b. https://doi.org/10.17226/11763.</p>
<p>9. Murgia, M. L., Attene, G., Rodriguez, M., Bitocchi, E., Bellucci, E., Fois, D., Nanni, L., . . . Rau, D.
a. (2017). A comprehensive phenotypic investigation of the “Pod-shattering syndrome” in
b. common bean. Frontiers in Plant Science, 8: 251. Retrieved from
c. https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpls.2017.00251/full. doi: 10.3389/fpls.2017.00251.</p>
<p>10. Republic of South Africa Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries. (2011). Production
a. Guidelines for Bambara Groundnuts [Brochure]. South Africa: Directorate Agricultural
b. Information Services. Retrieved from https://www.nda.agric.za/docs/Brochures/
c. ProdguideBambara.pdf.</p>
<p>11. RMIT University. (2015, August 11). Fact check: Is Australia the sunniest continent on Earth?
a. ABC News. Retrieved from https://www.abc.net.au/news/2015-08-10/solar-coverage-
b. fact-check-is-australia-sunniest-continent/6659316.</p>
<p>12. Thompson, H.E., Barrang-Ford, L., & Ford, J. D. (2010). Climate Change and Food Security in
a. Sub-Saharan Africa: A systematic Literature Review. Sustainability, 2, 2719-
b. 2733. Retrievered from https://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/2/8/2719. doi:10.3390/su2082719.</p>


<p>1. Beebe, S.E., et al. (2014) Common beans, biodiversity, and multiple stresses:
<p>13. World Bank. (2010). Silent and lethal: How quiet corruption undermines Africa's development
a. challenges of drought resistance in tropical soils. Crop and Pasture Science 65, 667-675. Retrieved from https://www.publish.csiro.au/cp/cp13303</p>
a. efforts. Africa’s Development Indicators. Retrieved from http://redcultura.com/index.
<p>2. Buruchara, R. (2011). Development and Delivery of Bean Varieties in Africa: The Pan-
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a. African Bean Research Alliance (PABRA) Model, p.227-245. African Crop Science Journal. Retrieved from https://www.ajol.info/index.php/acsj/article/view/74168/64827</p>
<p>3. Huyer, S, et al. (2016). CCAFS Gender and Social Inclusion Strategy, p.8-11. The
a. Consortium of International Agricultural Research Centres. Retrieved from https://cgspace.cgiar.org/handle/10568/72900</p>
<p>4. International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI). (2009). Climate Change: Impact
a. on Agriculture and Costs of Adaptation. Retrieved from https://books.google.ca/books?hl=en&lr=&id=1Vpe0JvYTJYC&oi=fnd&pg=PR7&ots=Xmu2c8Swla&sig=GX4sDC1DiDa7I5408r0a3nz2sJo&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false</p>
<p>5. Muriel, J., et al. (2019). The Abbreviated Women’s Empowerment in Agriculture Index
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<p>6. The International Centre for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT). (2015). Developing Beans that
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Revision as of 00:07, 2 July 2022

5.34 -Bambara Groundnut: Overcoming Climate Change in Africa


Nathalie Amyotte , University of Guelph, Canada

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Suggested citation for this chapter.

Amyotte,N. (2022) Bambara Groundnut: Overcoming Climate Change in Africa, In Farmpedia, The Encyclopedia for Small Scale Farmers. Editor, M.N. Raizada, University of Guelph, Canada. http://www.farmpedia.org

Background

In the face of a climate emergency, the world is in search of new solutions to keep farmer livelihoods intact. “Underutilized crops” such as Bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranea (L.) Verdc), have tremendous potential the stabilize food insecurity concerns caused by climate change (Mkandawire, 2007). Bambara groundnut is a legume, related to cowpea believed to have been domesticated in Nigeria (Mkandawire, 2007). Much like the peanut plant, flowers are low to the soil and the seed pods grow underground (Republic of South Africa Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, 2011). The grain comes in 7 different forms, all with different advantages and disadvantages to farmers:

• Black: fast maturation rate, small pods, low yield

• Red: slowest maturation rate, largest pods, good yield, pod inclined to rot

• Cream/Black eye: large pods, good yield

• Cream/Brown eye: medium-sized pods, good yield

• Cream/No eye: smallest-sized pods, low yield

• Speckled: small pods, low yield

Brown: medium or large pods, yield varies (Republic of South Africa, 2011).

Figure 1: Illustration of Bambara Groundnut(National Research Council, 2006)

Capture 673.JPG

Bambara groundnut is often termed as “an underutilized, indigenous crop” because its planting was displaced through the introduction of the peanut plant by foreigners (Mkandawire, 2007). Historically, Bambara groundnut was a crop planted by women subsistence farmers because of its tolerance to harsh climates and poor soil fertility, making it a reliable crop for both nutritional and economic purposes. However, lack of interest and research funding available to scientists means little is known about the legume and it still can benefit from breeding programs (Mkandawire, 2007). (More details are in Section 4) Climate change in Africa will result in decreased crop production and increases in malnutrition through the projected temperature increase of 3-4°C (Thompson, Barrang-Ford, & Ford, 2010). Bambara groundnut presents an opportunity to stabilize these food security challenges involved with climate change.

Requirements to Grow and Harvest Bambara Groundnut

In terms of cost, as one example that was available, a pack of 25 Bambara groundnut seed costs 26 ZAR from Livingseeds, South Africa’s first online seed store. This approximates to $2.36 CAD. A small pack of seed costs 13 ZAR, approximately $1.18 CAD (Livingseeds, 2019). It is best to grow in climates with temperatures ranging from 20-28°C and between 500-600 mm of rain but can tolerate water stress, meaning it can thrive in dryland climates (Republic of South Africa, 2011). If the plant experiences heavy rainfall before harvest, this will damage the crop and most likely kill it (Republic of South Africa, 2011). Bambara groundnut is a short photoperiod plant and many landraces cannot flower and hence produce grain in locations where the daylength is longer than 12 hours; in general, the landraces are daylength-adapted to their latitude and may not flower if moved north or south (Azam-Ali et al., 2001). The best soil conditions are deep, well-drained soils that are generally sandy loams (Louw, 2018) with a pH of 5.0-6.5 (Republic of South Africa, 2011).

In regards to herbicides, those used on cowpea can be used on Bambara groundnut, but it is most often hand-weeded to reduce costs and because weeding technology is not available for pod crops (Republic of South Africa, 2011). Many common pests do not often affect Bambara groundnut due to the pods being underground, although nematodes can be detrimental to this crop (Mkandawire, 2007; Republic of South Africa, 2011). Nematode infestation may be avoided by planting earlier in the season before nematode colonies have a chance to grow (Republic of South Africa, 2011).

Bambara groundnut is often pollinated by ants because of the low-to-the-ground flowers (Mkandawire, 2007). It will reach maturation at 110-150 days (Republic of South Africa, 2011). Typically, the plant is harvested by hand and will be stored in the shell to prevent crop loss from weevils. If shelled, seeds must be stored in sand, wood ash, vegetable oil or be dusted with insecticide (Republic of South Africa, 2011).

Practical Uses for Bambara Groundnut

Bambara groundnut can be processed into several foodstuffs. They can be roasted for snack food, ground into flour, mixed into porridges or stews or even processed into milk (Louw, 2018). Check out Section 9 for recipe ideas.

This crop has significant nutritional value. It is very filling and high in protein and carbohydrates (National Research Council, 2006). One seed is 63% carbohydrate, 19% protein, 6.5% fat (Mkandawire, 2007) and very high in the essential amino acid methionine (National Research Council, 2006). Per 100 g, it has 367-414 calories, much greater than common beans (National Research Council, 2006).

The Bambara plant makes good animal feed. The beans can be fed to poultry while the stem and the leaves of the plant make great livestock feed due to its high amino acid content (National Research Council, 2006).

Bambara groundnut provides some medicinal benefits:

1) When boiled with maize, it is drunk to relieve diarrhea (Republic of South Africa, 2011).

2) When eaten raw, it is believed to relieve nausea experienced by pregnant women (Republic of South Africa, 2011).

3) Due to its high fibre content, it is also good for preventing heart disease and colon cancer (National Research Council, 2006).

Production Trends + Benefits

When looking at current production trends of Bambara groundnut it is grossly underproduced.

Capture 675.JPG

Figure 2: Production trends in Bambara Groundnut and Cowpea in Africa from 2008-2017 (FAOSTAT, 2019)

Approximately 100 million Africans eat Bambara groundnut, yet total production is extremely low (National Research Council, 2006), for example compared to its close relative, cowpea (Figure 2). Bambara yields per hectare can also be low, with the reasons explored in the next section. One way to increase production trends is to promote its potential as secure food source in the face of climate change.

Bambara groundnut is a nitrogen-fixating legume, meaning it produces its own nitrogen fertilizer through symbiotic association with root bacteria (Mkandawire, 2007). This indicates that it is an excellent plant to intercrop or plant in rotation with crops that have higher nitrogen requirements. FAO suggests Bambara groundnut pairs well with maize, cassava and other cereal crops like millet and sorghum (n.d.). Synthetic fertilizers are often inaccessible to poor farmers because of economic and political issues (World Bank, 2010). On average, 20% of West Africa’s fertilizers have been reported as nutrient deficient (World Bank, 2010).This concern can be reduced because the Bambara groundnut is tolerant of nutrient-poor soils and can help provide nitrogen to companion crops (Mkandawire, 2007).

Bambara is very drought tolerant (FAO, n.d.). During a drought, the Bambara groundnut can still have substantial yields when most other crops would fail (FAO, n.d.). Bambara groundnut is consequently a reliable crop for poor farmers since rainfall is becoming increasingly reduced in dry areas of Africa because of climate change (National Research Council, 2006).

This plant is even able to thrive in red, acidic soil in tropical areas that are toxic to most crops, meaning it also has the potential to grow in tropical regions provided there is no heavy rainfall before harvest (Mkandawire, 2007). If planting is timed properly, heavy rainfall at harvest may be avoided allowing it to thrive in tropical climates on top of its ability to tolerate dry climates (Mkandawire, 2007).

Critical Analysis

Although there are several benefits to growing this crop there should be some important issues to consider. Bambara Groundnut is photoperiod sensitive, as previously noted in Section 1 (Azam-Ali et al., 2001). Research by Berchie et al. (2013) indicates that some landraces are less photoperiod sensitive, meaning that they can be moved north/south and be used in pan-African breeding programs, but they are lower yielding under non-native daylength (i.e. they do not flower efficiently) (Berchie et al., 2013).

A common issue with the Bambara groundnut is pod-shattering (National Research Council, 2006). Pod-shattering is a wild trait in beans that causes the pod to shatter when harvested (Murgia et al., 2017). This is a significant issue for farmers because pod-shattering results in loss of seed. Luckily, this trait may be able to be bred out of domestic varieties of Bambara groundnut, like it was in maize and barley if research funding is provided (Murgia et al., 2017). Establishing a dedicated seed bank, which exists for the world’s other major crops, would be incredibly beneficial towards the improvement of this crop’s genetics. Currently Bambara groundnut does not have one.

As Discussed in Section 1 there are a few pests that may affect Bambara groundnut. Sandy soils are needed for the pods of Bambara groundnut and the nitrogen-fixating nodules to grow (Louw, 2018). However, Bambara groundnut is more susceptible to nematode infestations in sandy soil (Kim et al., 2017). Infestations can be avoided with earlier planting before populations increase (Republic of South Africa, 2011). After harvest, when not stored in its shell, the grain may deteriorate during storage (Republic of South Africa, 2011). While drying the grain, it is especially prone to weevil damage. To prevent weevils, insecticides (which may not be affordable) would need to be spread over the drying seeds or the grain can be stored in sand (Republic of South Africa, 2011).

Conclusion

As climate change occurs, Africa’s soils will continue to degrade, water will continue to become scarce and food insecurity will increase (Thompson, Barrang-Ford, & Ford, 2010). Bambara groundnut presents a real solution to some of these issues and can improve with breeding programs. Research and development must be invested into indigenous crops like Bambara groundnut for reasons such as nutritional benefits to both animals and humans, economic benefits from cost-saving practices and environmental benefits from replenishing soil nitrogen. Bambara groundnut has a tremendous opportunity to be explored, improved and benefit peoples all across Africa if provided renewed interest.

 

Further Reading + Additional Videos

• Lost Crops of Africa Book chapter on Bambara Groundnut by The National Academic Press: https://www.nap.edu/read/11763/chapter/4

• Production Guidelines for growing Bambara Groundnut developed by Republic of South Africa’s Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries: https://www.nda.agric.za/docs/Brochures/ProdguideBambara.pdf

• How Bambara Groundnut can Improve Food Security by University of Nottingham: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vdB5L1nsDlo

Places to Buy Seed Online

• https://livingseeds.co.za/bambara-nut.html

Videos on how to grow Bambara Groundnut by Crops for the Future

• Sowing Bambara Groundnut: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CTyKk9UBvXo

• Flowering of Bambara Groundnut: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vdB5L1nsDlo

• Bambara Groundnut Harvest: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eyGbj43Zn5s

Recipes

• Prepping Bambara Groundnut for Roasting: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=25yaMhgCxLE

• Highly visual recipe for cooking Bambara groundnut stew: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lmHZyNa1SO4

• Recipe for Bambara Groundnut Dumplings: http://www.fao.org/traditional-crops/bambaragroundnut/en/

Appendix

Data used to generate Figure 2 (FAOSTAT, 2019).

Capture 677.JPG

References

1. Azam-Ali, S. N., Sesay, A., Karikari, S. K., Massawe, F. J., Aguilar-Manjarrez, J., Bannayan, M., & a. Hampson, K. J. (2001). Assessing the Potential of an Underutilized Crop – a Case Study b. Using Bambara Groundnut. Experimental Agriculture, 37 (4), 433-472. Retrieved from c. https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/experimental-agriculture/article/assessing- d. the-potential-of-an-underutilized-crop-a-case-study-using-bambara-groundnut/ e. B543A6DE27794BF7031EE8DD81F65412.

2. Berchie, J.N., Amelie, G., McClymont, S., Raizada, M., Adu-Dapaah, H. & Sarkodie-Addo, J. a. (2013). Performance of 13 Bambara Groundnut (Vigna subterranea (L.) Verdc.) b. Landraces under 12 H and 14 H Photoperiod. Journal of Agronomy, 12, 20-28. Retrieved c. from https://scialert.net/abstract/?doi=ja.2013.20.28. doi: 10.3923/ja.2013.20.28.

3. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. (n.d.). Traditional Crops: Bambara a. Groundnut. FAO, Rome. Retrieved from http://www.fao.org/traditional-crops/bambaragroundnut/en/.

4. Kim, E., Seo, Y., Kim, Y. S., Park, Y., & Kim, Y. H. (2017). Effects of Soil Textures on a. Infectivity of Root-Knot Nematodes on Carrot. Plant Pathology, 66 (1), 66-74. Retrieved b. from https://doi.org/10.5423/PPJ.OA.07.2016.0155.

5. Living Seeds. (n.d.). Nyimo Beans Vegetables Seeds [Seed Supplier Website]. Retrieved a. from https://livingseeds.co.za/bambara-nut.html.

6. Louw, M. (2018). Bambara Groundnut: South African Indigenous Grains. Retrieved a. from http://southafrica.co.za/bambara-groundnut.html.

7. Mkandawire, C. H. (2007). Review of Bambara Groundnut (Vigna subterranea (L.) Verdc.) a. Production in Sub-Sahara Africa. Agricultural Journal, 2 (4), 464-470. Retrieved from b. http://docsdrive.com/pdfs/medwelljournals/aj/2007/464-470.pdf.

8. National Research Council. (2006). Bambara Bean. In Lost Crops of Africa: Volume II: a. Vegetables (52-73). Washington, DC: National Academies Press. Retrieved from b. https://doi.org/10.17226/11763.

9. Murgia, M. L., Attene, G., Rodriguez, M., Bitocchi, E., Bellucci, E., Fois, D., Nanni, L., . . . Rau, D. a. (2017). A comprehensive phenotypic investigation of the “Pod-shattering syndrome” in b. common bean. Frontiers in Plant Science, 8: 251. Retrieved from c. https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpls.2017.00251/full. doi: 10.3389/fpls.2017.00251.

10. Republic of South Africa Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries. (2011). Production a. Guidelines for Bambara Groundnuts [Brochure]. South Africa: Directorate Agricultural b. Information Services. Retrieved from https://www.nda.agric.za/docs/Brochures/ c. ProdguideBambara.pdf.

11. RMIT University. (2015, August 11). Fact check: Is Australia the sunniest continent on Earth? a. ABC News. Retrieved from https://www.abc.net.au/news/2015-08-10/solar-coverage- b. fact-check-is-australia-sunniest-continent/6659316.

12. Thompson, H.E., Barrang-Ford, L., & Ford, J. D. (2010). Climate Change and Food Security in a. Sub-Saharan Africa: A systematic Literature Review. Sustainability, 2, 2719- b. 2733. Retrievered from https://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/2/8/2719. doi:10.3390/su2082719.

13. World Bank. (2010). Silent and lethal: How quiet corruption undermines Africa's development a. efforts. Africa’s Development Indicators. Retrieved from http://redcultura.com/index. b. php/pdf/download/id=382453&type=file. doi: 10.1596/978-0-8213-8202-8.

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