Chapter 9.14
9.14 - Adding small amounts of meat to foods to improve iron absorption
Andrew Nguyen,University of Guelph, Canada
Suggested citation for this chapter.
Andrew,N. (2022) Adding small amounts of meat to foods to improve iron absorption, The Encyclopedia for Small Scale Farmers. Editor, M.N. Raizada, University of Guelph, Canada. http://www.farmpedia.org
Introduction to iron
Iron is an essential mineral that has its place among many functions and reactions needed to sustain life. It has roles in oxygen transport across the body (hemoglobin), energy production (electron transport) and tissue maintenance (DNA synthesis) (WHO, 2020). As such, iron concentrations are usually tightly regulated because excessive iron leads to cancer (free radical formation) while inadequate iron leads to a myriad of different disorders. Maintaining adequate iron intake is therefore recommended, especially for growing children, with normal, full-term infants needing 0.3 mg of iron daily, as well for women, as they lose around 0.6 mg of iron daily when menstruating (Botwell, et al., 1989). However, iron deficiency anemia, a condition when you don’t have enough iron in your body, is one of the most prevalent nutritional deficiencies in the world, with a staggering 52% of women in developing countries and 22% of women in developed countries being deficient (Navas-Carretero, et al., 2009). People experiencing this may endure fatigue, dizziness and more importantly, being unable to mount an effective immune response to disease (Saha, et al., 2014), a huge problem in developing countries where medicinal treatment is not easily obtainable, and diseases such as HIV and malaria may be prevalent. For this reason, increasing iron absorption by adding small amounts of meat may be an easier solution to prevent this from happening in the first place.
Micronutrient profile
There are two types of absorbable iron: non-heme iron, which is mainly found in vegetables and leafy greens, and heme iron, which is found in meats (Hallberg, et al., 1979). Meat-based iron is more absorbable when compared to vegetarian non-heme iron (25% vs. 2-20%). The National Institutes of Health (2006) showed that non-heme iron absorbed at a rate of 0.2 mg/day, while heme iron absorbed at a rate of 0.54 mg/day, presenting a much more desirable pathway of iron utilization. Additionally, it was found that meats stimulate the absorption of iron in vegetables and cereals when eaten in combination (Rogov, et al., 1989), providing even further incentive for meat consumption and limiting iron content reduction after cooking the meat (Garcia, et al., 1996). Some leafy greens that can be eaten in conjunction with meat include: quail grass, morogo, amaranth, celosia and Lagos spinach, which are commonly found and grown in Africa (National Research Council, 2006). Other methods of increasing iron absorption can be achieved by adding small amounts of vitamin C, an iron enhancer, which can increase iron absorption by 1.5 to 10-fold depending on dosage and iron status (Levine, 1999). Good sources of meats that can be commonly found in Africa can include: chicken, beef, goat and lamb.
Challenges to meat consumption
Unlike many developed countries around the world, African countries face a unique barrier when it comes to meat consumption and iron supplementation. Countless communities see livestock as a form of currency or a sign of property rather than an available meat source (Schönfeldt & Gibson, 2012). Additionally, traditions such as Lobola are sometimes practiced, where the groom will give cattle and livestock to his future in-laws as a sign of economic status and as compensation for losing their daughter (Schönfeldt & Gibson, 2012). Many communities also have not had sufficient resources to develop sufficient livestock herds that can sustain a growing population: there are 14 million new consumers in Africa per year (Schönfeldt & Gibson, 2012). According to the FAO, the annual consumption per capita of animal products in Sub-Saharan Africa was 13.3 kg/capita/year for meat and 1.6 kg/capita/year for eggs in 2005; to sustain the current population, an additional 1 million tons of meat, 1.1 million tons of milk and 0.27 million tons of eggs are needed (Schönfeldt & Gibson, 2012). Coupled with inadequate and infrequent rainfalls, high evaporation rates and low-moderate crop yields, feeding livestock may not be an option for many Northern and Southern African residents, especially during extended dry seasons when seasonal malnutrition occurs (Kubuga, et al., 2019). Even if these communities have the means to produce a sufficient amount of livestock to satisfy population needs, there is often limited access to grocery stores (Schönfeldt & Gibson, 2012), and if they can access local stalls, they may not have the cash income to purchase products. Not only that, but trading between African countries is also a barrier to meat consumption, including a lack of infrastructure, sanitary regulations, and inadequate product standards (Schönfeldt & Gibson, 2012).
Ideas to improve meat consumption during critical periods
However, some potential solutions can be implemented to reduce the incidence of iron deficiency anemia, especially in the dry season. Since iron deficiency is such a huge problem around the world, including in Africa, international agencies and governments have been working on possible solutions. Drying out chicken pieces, making chicken jerky or chicken biltong may be options to preserve iron stores, which can be consumed during the dry season, when iron levels typically decrease (Kubuga, et al., 2019), or during emergencies to maintain iron intake year-long (Zdanowska-Sąsiadek, 2022). Using low-value fish products, which can be sun-dried, salted, smoked or boiled, can also be an option for low-income Africans. For example, Mukene products have high iron content, along with other vital micronutrients, providing further benefits (Kabahenda, et al., 2011). Aside from meat, iron fortification of staple foods and ingredients like wheat and flour have been administered with varying levels of success (Mwangi, et al., 2017). Certain associations, like the AAPNEM (Association Algérienne pour la Nutrition de l’Enfant et de la Mère) have been developing educational programs to raise awareness and improve iron uptake in Algeria as an example (Mwangi, et al., 2017). More efforts have also been going into improved food quality, using well-absorbed forms of iron along with iron enhancers like vitamin C (ascorbic acid), a multi-purpose vitamin that helps prevent cancer (antioxidant) and aids in the production of blood (red blood cells) (Lane, et al., 2014); vitamin C has been found to reduce the prevalence of iron deficiency by 75% compared to a control group of low-absorbing iron (Mwangi, et al., 2017).
Figure 1. Naked Neck chickens as depicted by (Manyelo, et al., 2020).
Cost-benefit analysis
Figure 2. An Ovambo chicken (Manyelo, et al., 2020).
In regions of Africa with harsh environments, only specific breeds of animals can thrive, as such, chickens are recommended as they are adapted to such environments and are able to forage for food (Mujyambere, et al., 2022), resulting in much lower maintenance costs (in Kenya: $20 - $60 USD for intensive poultry systems vs. $9 - $10 USD for free-range poultry systems). This is already true for the majority of family-owned birds, with one study stating up to 67.4% of birds are free scavenging (Mbuza, et al., 2016). Some breeds of chicken that can be used include: Naked Neck (Figure 1), Potchefstroom Koekoek as well as Ovambo chickens (Figure 2) which can serve as a dual-purpose breed for both meat and eggs (Manyelo, et al., 2020). Unfortunately, these free-range birds are more predisposed to eating parasites and getting diseases, with limited access to veterinary care, resulting in a high flock mortality rate. Another problem that may arise is predation from other animals, and as such it is recommended to build a night shelter so the chickens are not so exposed (Mbuza, et al., 2016). Although there are some challenges to using free-ranged chickens, the advantages definitely outweigh the disadvantages in this case, as chickens provide a year-long source of much-needed meat and iron, with minimal human intervention.
Final thoughts
Iron deficiency remains a challenging problem for many developed and developing countries. Adding small bits of meat to a meal can drastically increase iron absorption and can help mitigate the onset of iron deficiency anemia. Raising family-owned chickens can be useful for easy access to meat and eggs, with the benefit of being low maintenance.
Practical resources
https://www.hendrix-genetics.com/en/about/our-company/sustainability-program/sappsa/ Website and organization that helps Africans gain access to genetically improved chickens suitable to the environment
https://youtu.be/GqovGQ2y4e4?si=tqoCq3rJJP5QyT04 Youtube video explaining the importance of meat and why women are more susceptible to iron deficiency
https://www.nutritionvalue.org/Chicken%2C_raw%2C_meat_and_skin%2C_breast%2C_broilers_or_fryers_nutritional_value.html#:~:text=broilers%20or%20fryers-,Chicken%2C%20raw%2C%20meat%20and%20skin%2C%20breast%2C%20broilers%20or,the%20rest%20is%20complex%20carbohydrate. Website showing nutrient values of chicken meat and what each macro/micronutrient does
http://www.aviculture-europe.nl/nummers/12E04A10.pdf An article that describes indigenous chicken breeds of Africa
https://mogalemeat.com/ An organization driving cell-cultured meat production in Southern Africa
https://youtu.be/RG4q9myz6ho?si=LoojwUUMfCCQEgaY Youtube video explaining how to build a cost-effective chicken coop
https://www.fao.org/3/cb7812en/cb7812en.pdf Infographic that highlights the pros of animal-sourced foods and iron
https://www.fao.org/fao-stories/article/en/c/1095882/#:~:text=derives%20from%20fishery.-,Coastal%20communities%20are%20some%20of%20Somalia's%20most%20food%20insecure%20people,food%20for%20the%20larger%20population. An article teaching women and fishermen how to sun-dry fish
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