Chapters 5.25

5.25 -Foxtail millet

Nathan Kodde,University of Guelph, Canada

Suggested citation for this chapter.

Kodde,N. (2022) Foxtail millet, In Farmpedia, The Encyclopedia for Small Scale Farmers. Editor, M.N. Raizada, University of Guelph, Canada. http://www.farmpedia.org

Background

Foxtail millet, also commonly known as Setaria italica, is an essential crop for subsistence farmers due to its ability to be grown in poor dry soils as well as its high tolerance to drought. Millets are small grain cereal crops. Foxtail millet is one of the most ancient crops known to mankind (Baltensperger, 2002). Foxtail millet is said to have originated in Eastern Asia around 7,400 years before the present (Doust et al., 2009). Millets are a significant food source for millions of people around the globe but specifically for people living in hot, dry areas that receive little rainfall. Millets are mostly grown in areas where cereals, such as corn, rice and wheat, cannot produce ample yields, thus making it a suitable crop for farmers living in dry regions of the world (Amadou et al., 2013). Foxtail millet is the consumed in various countries in the subtropics of Asia, as well in southern Europe where the soil is poor. Foxtail millet is the most important of all of the millets in China due to its economic value (Baltensperger, 2002).

Foxtail millet is an important crop worldwide and is the second most cultivated millet. This staple crop provides around 6 million tons of food worldwide (Baltensperger, 2002). Foxtail millet has long leafy stems that can grow up to heights of 4-6 feet (Reddy, 2017). The seed head is hairy and varies in length from 5 cm to 25 cm long. The seeds are very small and thin and usually are about 2mm in diameter (Reddy, 2017). Millets are small grains that have a deep root system that allows them to survive in dry climates (Ravi, 2004), which is very beneficial for smallholder farmers living in these desolate areas. Foxtail millet is a good option for smallholder farmers to combat climate change due to its ability to grow in poor dry conditions, the fact that both humans as well as animals can consume it, and because it is very nutritious. This chapter will examine the potential of this crop for wider adoption by smallholder farmers to combat climate change, as well as provide critical analysis of improvements needed to promote wider adoption and benefits.

Drought Tolerance

Drought stress is a major factor in lowering crop yields in semiarid regions of the world (Niu et al., 2018). The changes in average global air temperature and different rainfall patterns are leading to longer and more severe drought conditions. These changes are having lasting effects on food production in some developing countries (Niu et al., 2018). Foxtail millet's ability to grow and thrive in areas that receive very little rain makes it a critical crop for smallholder farmers. This ability stems from its deep root system. The deep root system allows the plant to extract moisture from the ground (Ravi, 2004). Other characteristics that make foxtail millet drought tolerant include its small leaf surface area as well as thick cell walls (Niu et al., 2018). This fascinating little grain can survive in regions that receive an average annual precipitation of 300mm. To compare, sorghum requires 400 mm, and maize needs at least 500 mm to grow (Leder, 2004). Due to its drought tolerance, foxtail millet is a significant crop in combatting climate change.

Consumption and Nutritional Benefits for Humans and Animals

Another major benefit of foxtail millet is that both humans and animals can consume it. Depending on the farmers need, this crop can be either produced for human consumption or animal consumption. It can be used for grain to feed humans or as hay that can be used as forage for cattle. 85 percent of millet is used for food and 9 percent of it is used for feed (Leder, 2004). The seeds of foxtail millet are very nutritious. It is high in protein, contains crude fibre and is a great source of vitamins and amino acids. The crude fibre present in foxtail millet is good for a healthy digestive system. Millets contain high amounts of essential amino acids; and they are especially high in sulphur containing amino acids such as methionine. Foxtail millet is high in carbohydrate energy content, which makes it an important part of having a balanced nutritional diet (Amadou et al., 2013). The protein in foxtail millet is easily digested by the body, which is important for human consumption. Per 100 g of edible portion, foxtail millet contains 11.2 g of protein, 4 g of fat, 6.7g of crude fibre and 63.2 g of carbohydrates. Foxtail millet also contains 351 kcal of energy (Saleh et al.,2013). Due to all of these important health benefits, foxtail millet is especially recommended for children (Leder, 2004). Another nutritional benefit is that foxtail millet is gluten-free making it an excellent option for people who struggle to consume wheat or other cereal gains due to their gluten content (Amadou et al., 2013). Foxtail millet can be implemented into many foods such as baby food, porridge, and millet wine (Saleh et al., 2013). However, inserting foxtail millet into baby food and snacks for young children is an excellent way to ensure that children are getting the right nutrients necessary. Foxtail millet is often served in the form of porridge or bread (Leder, 2004).

Practice of growing crop, harvesting and storage

In developing countries, almost all millet is produced by smallholder farmers to feed their families or to trade at the local market. There are a vast number of landraces that have been developed by both natural and human selection (Li, 1996). Most of the breeding of foxtail millet took place in China, Russia and Indian during the 1900s (Baltensperger, 2002). Sowing is done my planting the crop in rows in order to increase yield as well as to make weeding an easier task. The rows are typically 25 to 30 cm apart and should be planted at a depth of ¼ to ½ inches, at a rate of 8-10 kg/ha (Prasad, 2009). If fertilizer is available, the application of 20-40 kg of nitrogen fertilizer and 20 kg of phosphate fertilizer (P2O5) is optimal (Prasad, 2009). However, foxtail millet is usually grown without any irrigation and without the use of chemical fertilizer. According to the United States Department of Agriculture, it can grow in sandy and loamy soils that have a pH of 5.5-7 (USDA). The crop can produce 1 ton of forage on as little as 2.5 inches of moisture, which is a third less than corn requires (Sharma, 2018). Harvesting is accomplished by hand. This is done by chopping the heads or by simply cutting the entire plant (Prasad, 2009). If being grown for human use, foxtail millet is harvested after 75-90 days (Sharma, 2018). If the growing purpose is for animal feed, then it is harvested after 70-75 days. Foxtail millet is thus one of the fastest maturing cereals, which will become increasingly important as the rainy season becomes more unpredictable in parts of the world due to climate change. Furthermore, the rapid maturation of foxtail millet makes it an ideal catch crop, which means that it can grow between successive plantings of the main crop (Leder, 2004).

Critical Analysis

Similar to every other crop, foxtail millet also has its disadvantages. Some of these include the difficulty in processing as well as the significant labour needed to process the crop and make it consumable for humans. The processing of foxtail millet is done at household level and is done without the use of mechanized technology. This process is commonly done by hand grinding which is much less efficient than using machinery (Amadou at al., 2013). Most smallholders cannot afford to purchase imported processing equipment, so they must make do with what they have (Amadou at al., 2013). A problem with foxtail millet is that it possesses some anti-nutrients. A study done by Pawar and Machewad showed that by doing simple things such as dehulling and soaking can decrease the anti-nutrient content by 50 percent. These methods will also increase the digestive protein by 32 percent (Sharma, 2018). Foxtail millet is grown by subsistence farmers using traditional methods passed down from generation to generation, and it has not received enough global attention and research. Further research on processing techniques is necessary to ensure that the benefits of foxtail millet are available to future generations (Sharma, 2018).

The yield of foxtail millet can be up to 2500 kg/ha (Baltensperger, 2002) under optimal conditions which is competitive with the major cereal crops (Omafra, 2017) but most smallholder farmers do not have ideal growing conditions Pests and diseases can be devastating for subsistence farmers. Diseases such as downy mildew, rusts and blast have been known to affect foxtail millet. These diseases can cause losses of up to 50 percent. Some pests that have been reported to hurt foxtail millet are insects such as stem borers, locusts and grasshoppers. Also, birds have given farmers headaches and are difficult to contain (Rosentrater at al, 2017).

Additional Readings and Links

Very informative guide on foxtail millet. Includes adaptation, uses, planting guidelines, management: https://plants.usda.gov/plantguide/pdf/pg_seit.pdf

Growing guide (http://www.heirloom-organics.com/guide/va/guidetogrowingmillet.html)

Youtube videos:

• Health benefits of foxtail millet-(https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PFeAvnIRF-c)

• How to remove the husk (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CtHMj39MoJQ)

• 43 foxtail millet recipe’s (https://cookpad.com/us/search/foxtail%20millet)

References

1. Amadou , I., Gounga, M., & Le, G.-W. (2013, May 1). Millets: Nutritional Composition, Some Health Benefits and Processing – A review. Emirates Journal of Food and Agriculture, 25(7), 501-508

2. Baltensperger, D. D. (2002). Progress with proso, pearl and other millets. Trends in New Crops and New Uses, 100-103. https://hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/ncnu02/pdf/baltensperger.pdf

3. Doust, A. N., Kellogg, E. A., Devos, K. M., & Bennetzen, J. L. (2009). Foxtail Millet: A Sequence-Driven Grass Model System. Plant Physiology, 149(1), 137 LP-141. https://doi.org/10.1104/pp.108.129627

4. Li, Y., & Wu, S. (1996). Traditional maintenance and multiplication of foxtail millet (Setaria italica (L.) P. Beauv.) landraces in China. Euphytica, 87(1), 33-38. Retrieved from https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF00022961

5. Léder, I. (2004). Sorghum and millets. Cultivated Plants, Primarily as Food Sources, In Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS), Developed under the Auspices of the UNESCO, Eolss Publishers, Oxford ,UK, [1] 1, 66-84. Retrieved from http://www.eolss.net/ebooks/sample%20chapters/c10/e5-02-01-04.pdf

6. Millet. (n.d.). In Oxford Dictionary Retrieved from https://www.lexico.com/en/definition/millet.

7. Morton, W. L., & Hall, R. D. (2019, November 5). Soils and plant and animal life. Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc Retrieved from https://www.britannica.com/place/Canada/Soils-and-plant-and-animal-life

8. Niu, X., Song, L., Xiao, Y., & Ge, W. (2018). Drought-Tolerant Plant Growth-Promoting Rhizobacteria Associated with Foxtail Millet in a Semi-arid Agroecosystem and Their Potential in Alleviating Drought Stress. Frontiers in Microbiology, 8, 2580. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2017.02580

9. Nitya Sharma & Keshavan Niranjan (2018) Foxtail millet: Properties, processing, health benefits, and uses, Food Reviews International, 34:4, 329-363, DOI: 10.1080/87559129.2017.1290103.

10. OMAFRA: (2017) Field crop statistics, Ontario Ministry of Agriculture, Food, and Rural Affairs, Retrieved from http://www.omafra.gov.on.ca/english/stats/crops/estimate_new.htm

11. Prasad, P. V., & Staggenborg, S. A. (2009). Growth and production of sorghum and millets. soils, plant growth and crop production, 2. Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/profile/P_V_Vara_Prasad/publication/260392531_Growth_and_Production_of_Sorghum_and_Millets/links/0c9605311770e75b1b000000.pdf

12. Reddy, J. (2017). Foxtail Millet Farming Information Guide. Retrieved from https://www.agrifarming.in/foxtail-millet-farming

13. Ravi, S. B. (2004). Neglected millets that save the poor from starvation. LEISA India, 6(1), 1-8. Retrieved from http://www.nuscommunity.org/uploads/tx_news/millet_artcile_Bala_ravi_unpub.pdf

14. Kurt A. Rosentrater, A.D. Evers, Chapter 1 - Introduction to cereals and pseudocereals and their production, Editor(s): Kurt A. Rosentrater, A.D. Evers, In Woodhead Publishing Series in Food Science, Technology and Nutrition, Kent's Technology of Cereals (Fifth Edition),

15. Woodhead Publishing, 2018, Pages 1-76, ISBN 9780081005293, https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-100529-3.00001-3.

(http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780081005293000013)

16. Saleh, A. S., Zhang, Q., Chen, J., & Shen, Q. (2013). Millet grains: nutritional quality, processing, and potential health benefits. Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety, 12(3), 281-295. Retrieved from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/1541-4337.12012

17. USDA, NRCS. 2019. The PLANTS Database (http://plants.usda.gov, 26 November 2019). National Plant Data Team, Greensboro, NC 27401-4901 USA. Retrieved from https://plants.sc.egov.usda.gov/core/profile?symbol=SEIT