Chapter 5.18

5.18 -Potential of Grapes to Help Smallholder Farmers Combat Climate Change

Bridgette Clapp, University of Guelph, Canada

Suggested citation for this chapter.

Clapp,B. (2022) Potential of Grapes to Help Smallholder Farmers Combat Climate Change, In Farmpedia, The Encyclopedia for Small Scale Farmers. Editor, M.N. Raizada, University of Guelph, Canada. http://www.farmpedia.org

Background/Uses/Where to Obtain Seeds

Common grapes (Vitis vinifera), originating from Turkey and Iraq, are a fruit that originates from a perennial grapevine (Friedman, 2014; Creasy et al., 2018). This family produces climbing vines with some that are shrubby. It can be used for direct consumption, wine, juice, and raisin production (Friedman, 2014; Creasy et al., 2018). Consumers prefer seedless grapes for eating and creating raisins (Pezzuto, 2016). Some of the most common table grape varieties are Sultana, Flame, Muscat, Almeria, and Emperor (Pezzuto, 2016). V. amurensis, V. munsoniana, V. rotundifolia, V. labrusca and V. popenoei are other major species of grapes. However, V. vinifera is very tolerant to pests and diseases (Friedman, 2014; Creasy et al., 2018). Globally, there are 8000 different grape varieties (Pezzuto, 2016).

Growing Conditions/Harvesting

In the northern hemisphere, the growing season for grapes is from about April to October, while in the southern hemisphere it is from October to April (Creasy et al., 2018). Grapevines do not have a specific type of soil required to grow, although the common grape is not very tolerant to highly acidic soils, preferring pH 5.5 to 6.5 (Creasy et al., 2018). Soil decisions should be made based on the amount of water supply available: the plant prefers about 24 mm of water available in the soil on a steady-state basis (i.e. daily) but can tolerate as low as 10 mm for a short period of time (Creasy et al., 2018). For instance, if there is an abundance of water available, then sandy or gravel soils will be sufficient, but not if there is limited water (Creasy et al., 2018). Nitrogen fertilizer is required (Creasy et al., 2018). Generally, the flavour of grapes is affected by nitrogen availability in the soil (Palčić, 2019). A nitrogen deficiency could slow fermentation and the production of sugars (Palčić, 2019). Other macronutrients required by grapes are phosphorus, sulphur, potassium, calcium and magnesium (Creasy et al., 2018). The ideal temperature range for grapevines is between 10-20°C, although the vine can adapt to many different environments (Pezzuto, 2016;Creasy et al., 2018). Weeding and canopy management are also requirements for this crop (Creasy et al., 2018). Leaf removal is sometime required for the grapes to be exposed to more sunlight for them to develop quicker, resulting in more flavour and colour as well (Creasy et al., 2018).

A grape vine will start to grow fruit after 3 years (Creasy et al., 2018). In terms of maintaining the quality of the product, harvesting is required to be done with care usually by hand (Creasy et al., 2018). Post harvest opportunities include processing grapes into other forms of products such as wine, juice, or raisins, as already mentioned (Creasy et al., 2018). In subsistence farming cultures and in areas of dry heat, it may be of great value to produce raisins, as these products will store and preserve well (Friedman, 2014;Creasy et al., 2018). This can be done by laying harvested grape clusters in the sun. This direct sunlight will cause the fruit to lose water and they will shrivel (Friedman, 2014;Creasy et al., 2018).

How Grape Crops Can Combat Climate Change

Areas affected by climate change may become very humid; this is where fungal pathogens can become an issue (Gajbhiye et al., 2011). A solution to fungal pathogens is to grow grape vines in a climate affected area that has become drier and hotter (Gajbhiye et al., 2011). This is an indirect way of combatting fungal pathogens without the intervention of expensive and unsustainable pesticides (Gajbhiye et al., 2011). However, the heat and dryness associated with climate change (Sen et al., 2012) may cause the ripening process of grapes to increase substantially, causing the levels of sugar, polyphenols and anthocyanins to become unbalanced (Crupi et al., 2020). This unbalance causes discoloration, making the market value less (Crupi et al., 2020). If a drier area is not accompanied by a river or body of water nearby, then drip irrigation may be required to meet plant water requirements (Li, 2020).

Inactivated yeast extracts (YE) are a solution to this unbalance as they are an environmentally sustainable way to maintain the proper balance of sugars in these dry/hot areas, increasing market value as well (Crupi et al., 2020). These YE are already found in the vineyard ecosystem, making them extremely sustainable (Crupi et al., 2020). They contain compounds which trigger the plants defense mechanisms (Crupi et al., 2020). YE can be used in areas that are experiencing more heat from climate change but are still fruitful with water sources coming from mountains or rivers; (Sen et al., 2012) & (Cakmak, 2004). Soil that is much finer will hold onto water more than sand or gravel and will be more suitable for areas that have a challenge of supplying water either naturally or mechanically (Creasy et al., 2018). Grapes can tolerate many soil types including clay (Creasy et al., 2018). Clay soils have produced high quality wines especially in drier areas as they can prevent water from leaching (Creasy et al., 2018).

How to Implement - Opportunities & Benefits

Subsistence farmers can grow grapes in a climate affected area with the intervention of the YE innovation (Crupi et al., 2020; Giacosa et al., 2019); a potential supplier can be found in Practical Information Link#1. This is a water-soluble compound that can be mixed with equal portions of water and sprayed onto the grapes. This should be done in two intervals 10 days apart and once the grapes start to bloom (Giacosa et al., 2019). A study has confirmed the effectiveness of applying yeast extracts in stimulating the biosynthesis of anthocyanins in grapes (Crupi et al., 2020). It was also found that this process is more effective in varieties with lower anthocyanins, such as Crimson Seedless grapes (Crupi et al., 2020). The benefits of using this innovation include the fact that it does not compromise the quality of the grapes, and it is relatively simply to implement (Crupi et al., 2020).

Some of the opportunities of growing grapes involve marketing on a broader scale (Jano, 2017). There is potential for small scale farmers to grow their business and to sell commercially to wine producers (Jano, 2017;Dudu, 2018).

Helpful Hints/Conclusion

There is also a program through FAO called a farmer’s field school which helps farmers grow their farming skills and combat the challenges of climate change in agriculture (Jiggins et al., 2006). It is active in over 90 countries around the world; it is community based, hands on and taught by a master trainer (Jiggins et al., 2006). One can contact them on their website to find out the closest training location, (see Practical Information section below, Link #2). This program really supports community growth and would therefore be a great opportunity for women farmers to work together in a community and on a communal vineyard crop (Jiggins et al., 2006). With the help of a trainer and the combination of resources from a community of farmers, a community may have a greater chance of obtaining YE products and having success with them.

Some other simple tips that could make or break a vineyard crop has to do with row orientation (Creasy et al., 2018). Rows that are north to south orientated will get an equal amount of sun from the east and the west, whereas east to west orientated rows will only have direct sunlight coming from the north. This will increase the opportunity for disease on the south side which is shaded. A helpful video to learn more tips for growing grapes can be found in the Practical Information section below at Link #3.

Helpful resources to get started

Link #1 - http://www.levex.com.tr/en/solutions/special-applications/9

Link #2 - http://www.fao.org/farmer-field-schools/overview/en/

Link #3 - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8Ik7b6UcDP8

Link #4 - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JIqDoaV2Fcs (How grow a grape vine from pulling seeds from a grape fruit itself)

Link #5 - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=09VrXnXutZo (How to grow grape vine from a cutting)

Link #6 - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Yagm2rijBAA (How to prune the vines – during dormancy)

References

1. Cakmak, B., Unver, I. H. O., & Akuzum, T. (2004). Agricultural water use in turkey. Water International, 29(2), 257–264. https://doi.org/10.1080/02508060408691776

2. Creasy, G. L., & Creasy, L. L. (2018). Grapes (Vitis vinifera). Wallingford, UK ; Boston, USA: CABI.

3. Crupi, P., Palattella, D., Corbo, F., Clodoveo, M. L., Masi, G., Caputo, A. R., Battista, F., & Tarricone, L. (2021). Effect of pre-harvest inactivated yeast treatment on the anthocyanin content and quality of table grapes. Food Chemistry, 337, 1-7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2020.128006

4. Dudu, H., & Çakmak, E. H. (2018). Climate change and agriculture: an integrated approach to evaluate economy-wide effects for Turkey. Climate and Development, 10(3), 275–288. https://doi.org/10.1080/17565529.2017.1372259

5. Freedman, B. (2014). Grapes. In The Gale Encyclopedia of Science (Vol. 4, pp. 2031–2033).

6. Gajbhiye, V. T., Gupta, S., Mukherjee, I., Singh, S. B., Singh, N., Dureja, P., & Kumar, Y. (2011). Persistence of azoxystrobin in/on grapes and soil in different grapes growing areas of India. Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 86(1), 90–94. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00128-010-0170-2

7. Giacosa, S., Ossola, C., Botto, R., Río Segade, S., Paissoni, M. A., Pollon, M., Gerbi, V., & Rolle, L. (2019). Impact of specific inactive dry yeast application on grape skin mechanical properties, phenolic compounds extractability, and wine composition. Food Research International, 116, 1084–1093. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2018.09.051

8. Graddy-Lovelace, G. (2014). Saving Seeds. In Encyclopedia of Food and Agricultural Ethics (pp. 1631–1638). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-0929-4_79

9. Jano, P. A. (2017). Quality Choice and Market Access: Evidence from Chilean Wine Grape Production. Agribusiness, 33(3), 324–338. https://doi.org/10.1002/agr.21468

10. Jiggins, J., Braun, A., Jiggins, J., Röling, N., Van Den Berg, H., Snijders, P., Rietveldlaan, E., Braun, A., Röling, N., Van Den Berg, H., & Snijders, P. (2006). A Global Survey and Review of Farmer Field School Experiences Facilitating social innovation View project A Global Survey and Review of Farmer Field School Experiences A Global Survey and Review of Farmer Field School Experiences. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/228343459

11. Li, L. (2020). Experimental study and multi–objective optimization for drip irrigation of grapes in arid areas of northwest China. Agricultural Water Management, 232, 106039–. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agwat.2020.106039

12. Palčić, J. (2019). Soil type affects grape juice free amino acids profile during ripening of cv. Malvasia Istriana ( Vitis vinifera L.). New Zealand Journal of Crop and Horticultural Science, 48(1), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1080/01140671.2019.1657910

13. Pezzuto, J. (2016). Grapes and health. Springer, New York.

14. Schultz, H. R. (2016). Global Climate Change, Sustainability, and Some Challenges for Grape and Wine Production. Journal of Wine Economics, 11(1), 181–200. https://doi.org/10.1017/jwe.2015.31

15. Sen, B., Topcu, S., Türkeş, M., Sen, B., & Warner, J. F. (2012). Projecting climate change, drought conditions and crop productivity in Turkey. Climate Research, 52(1), 175–191. https://doi.org/10.3354/cr01074