Chapters 5.48: Difference between revisions

From Farmpedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
(Created page with "<div> <div class="title"><h3>5.48 -Drought Tolerant Bean Varieties (Phaseolus vulgaris) Utilized to Overcome the Negative Effects of Climate Change </h3><br><h3 class="ch-owner">Jordan Candido, University of Guelph, Canada </h3></div> <div class="hero-img-2"> 300px <p>Suggested citation for this chapter.</p> <p>Candido,J. (2022) Drought Tolerant Bean Varieties (Phaseolus vulgaris) Utilized to Overcome the Negative Effects of Climate Change, In Farmpedia,...")
 
No edit summary
Line 1: Line 1:
<div>
<div>
  <div class="title"><h3>5.48 -Drought Tolerant Bean Varieties (Phaseolus vulgaris) Utilized to Overcome the Negative Effects of Climate Change </h3><br><h3 class="ch-owner">Jordan Candido, University of Guelph, Canada </h3></div>
  <div class="title"><h3>5.48 -Use of Peanuts (Groundnuts) for Smallholder Farmers to Combat the Effects of Climate Change </h3><br><h3 class="ch-owner">  
Isabel Fuentes,University of Guelph, Canada </h3></div>
<div class="hero-img-2">
<div class="hero-img-2">
[[File:4.jpg|300px]]
[[File:4.jpg|300px]]
<p>Suggested citation for this chapter.</p>
<p>Suggested citation for this chapter.</p>
<p>Candido,J. (2022) Drought Tolerant Bean Varieties (Phaseolus vulgaris) Utilized to Overcome the Negative Effects of Climate Change, In Farmpedia, The Encyclopedia for Small Scale Farmers. Editor, M.N. Raizada, University of Guelph, Canada. http://www.farmpedia.org</p>
<p>Fuentes,I. (2022)Use of Peanuts (Groundnuts) for Smallholder Farmers to Combat the Effects of Climate Change, In Farmpedia, The Encyclopedia for Small Scale Farmers. Editor, M.N. Raizada, University of Guelph, Canada. http://www.farmpedia.org</p>
       <h3 class="title-bg">Background</h3>
       <h3 class="title-bg">Introduction</h3>
         <div class="cont-bg">
         <div class="cont-bg">
           <p>During the formation of the International Centre for Tropical Agriculture, or CIAT, in 1967, headquartered in Colombia, the vast majority of starving and malnourished people residing in tropical and sub-tropical regions were smallholder farmers (CIAT, 2017). Thus, the goal of increasing yield potential became a primary priority for CIAT (CIAT, 2017). The current areas of concern are in regard to common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) production systems, the landscapes where its production occurs, and its yield potential (CIAT, 2015). Millions of farmers within Africa and Latin America depend on high yield outcomes from their bean crops not only to provide food but also to provide an income for themselves and their families. However, due to the high demand of the crop and the drastic effects of climate change, farmers continue to struggle to meet the needs of consumers (CIAT, 2015).</p>
           <p>Peanut (Arachis hypogaea), called groundnut in Africa, is a drought tolerant legume crop that can help smallholder farmers cope with drought associated with climate change. Peanuts are believed to have originated in South America, and domestication of the crop has been traced to Bolivia and Argentina (Akram et al., 2018; FAO, 2011). The peanut is the world’s third more important source of vegetable protein and the fourth most important source of edible vegetable oil, with 46% of production concentrated in Africa (Rao et al., 2015). The target countries for peanut crops are subtropical and tropical areas of Africa, Asia and South America due to the fact that a large percentage of peanut cultivation occurs in low-income countries with food deficits and few resources (Akram et al., 2018).</p>  
<p>Throughout the previous several decades, the impacts of climate change have been worsening (IFPRI, 2009). Climate change projections state that regions in Sub-Saharan Africa, Latin America, and the Caribbean will be greatly affected by an increase of drought conditions and a rise in average annual temperatures. Due to these conditions, the threats to agricultural production within these land areas are escalating (IFPRI, 2009). Within these regions, the common bean is a staple crop; beans are often referred to as “the meat of the poor” (CIAT, 2016). They contain high levels of protein, fibre, vitamins and micronutrients. An estimated 400 million people residing in the tropics consume beans in their daily diet due to their high nutritional content (CIAT, 2016).</p>
</p>
</div>
</div>
   </div>
   </div>
  <div style="margin-top: 30px;">
  <div style="margin-top: 30px;">
       <h3 class="title-bg">Benefits of Drought Tolerant Bean Varieties to Small Scale Farmers </h3>
       <h3 class="title-bg">Growth and Cultivation of the Peanut</h3>
         <div class="cont-bg">  
         <div class="cont-bg">
 
<p>Peanut has multiple varieties including the Runner, Virginia, Spanish, and Valencia (APC, n.d.). These four varieties are the most commonly known, however there are additional varieties being released globally including in Africa (ICRISAT, n.d.). Peanut varieties continue to be improved and changed in order to adapt to environmental factors. In a survey conducted in Uganda, it was reported that more than 50% of the country’s peanut-producing area was occupied by improved and modified varieties that are resistant to factors such as drought (ICRISAT, n.d.). These varieties differ based on size, colour of skin, kernel to pod ratio, flavour, and stress resistance (APC, n.d.). Farmer organizations can obtain peanut varieties through ICRISAT as well as the USDA FSIS.</p>  
<p>The world’s largest and most diverse collection of beans is preserved by CIAT (CIAT, 2015). Beans were domesticated within the neo-tropics thousands of years ago, which is where the majority of CIAT’s germplasm originated. With such an extensive range of beans available, the seed bank contains many options for farmers; a variety of colours, nutritional content, and production requirements can be found within these different strains (CIAT, 2015).</p>
<p>The optimal temperatures for peanut growth ranges between 25-30 degrees Celsius and due to their genetic variability, peanuts have the ability to adapt to tropical and semiarid climates (Dutra et al., 2018). Studies indicate that peanut pod growth at 34 degrees Celsius was restricted at these temperatures and the pods grown at these temperatures weighed 1.5 g, compared to pods grown at 26 degrees Celsius which weighed 2.7 g (Cox, 1979). Based on this, the temperature that peanuts should be grown at should not exceed 30 degrees Celsius during the growing season in order to ensure proper growth (Cox, 1979).  The peanut plant is drought resistant and requires only 38.1-50.8 mm of water per week to grow; in total over the growing season, peanut crops require an average rainfall of >400 mm to produce a reasonable crop (GRDC, 2017). As a result, significant peanut farming takes place in areas with water shortages (Akram et al., 2018). An especially drought-tolerant peanut variety was introduced in Asia through farmer varietal selection and is now being grown on 25,000 ha of the 800,000 ha growing area in India (ICRISAT, n.d.).</p>
<p>Peanut roots associate with rhizobia bacteria that convert atmospheric nitrogen gas into nitrogen fertilizer which improves both itself and the soil around it (Akram et al., 2018). Accordingly, peanut is often intercropped with other crops (e.g. cereals, root crops) to maximize the yield of those crops. Intercropping is a system where multiple crops are grown at the same time in one area (Zhang, 2020). For example, the intercropping of maize and peanuts has been extensively used in semi-arid regions of China, with similar growing conditions to African climates (Zhang, 2020). The natural nitrogen fixation of peanuts contributes to the soil health for maize (Akram et al., 2018). Though peanut is not typically fertilized with nitrogen, phosphate and other macro and micronutrients, such as zinc, iron, manganese, copper, boron, and molybdenum, are necessary for peanut growth, with the molybdenum essential for rhizobia bacteria (Peanut Production Guide, n.d.). As a result, deficiencies molybdenum have been shown to reduce yields and/or the protein content of the seeds. The plant prefers to grow in light-coloured, light textured soils with good drainage and moderate amounts of organic matter with a pH range of 6.0-6.5 due to the fact that the peanut grows best in slightly acidic soils (Putnam et al., 1991).</p>  
<p>Within the previous 15 years, researchers at the Consortium of International Agricultural Research Centres (CGIAR), CIAT’s umbrella organization, have created incredible advances towards solving issues surrounding drought, and increasing the heat-tolerance and nutritional content levels within common bean varieties (CIAT, 2015). CIAT researchers have been able to identify lines that display a tolerance to a 3˚C increase in temperature. These lines derive from a variety of crosses between common and tepary bean species (Phaseolus acutifolius). Currently cultivated traditional bean varieties have been projected to suffer a 20-50% loss by 2050, whereas heat-tolerant bred beans are projected to suffer minimal losses within that same time period (CIAT, 2015).</p>  
<p>Peanut plants have aerial flowers, and after pollination, the fertilized ovaries develop into stalk-like structures that contain embryos called pegs (Akram et al., 2018). The basal cells of the fertilized ovary elongate in the pegs and pro-embryo development causes these pegs to elongate, resulting in penetration of the soil layer, a process referred to as “pegging” (Akram et al., 2018). Countries with drought occurring often have an increased hardness of the top-soil layer, which can restrict pegging of peanut plants, however if the drought affected pegs are re-watered, pegging can resume (Akram et al., 2018). The ability of the peanut pegs to continue growth and pegging after being re-watered is an adaptive trait that maximizes the survival of the fertilized embryo, unlike crops such as maize or other grains where embryos are often lost without a chance for revival (Akram et al., 2018).</p>  
 
<p>In order for the new bean varieties to have drought resistant qualities, different traits from different genetic groups were required (Beebe, 2014). Many of the traits which are linked to drought resistance were found within both bean roots and shoots. In order to guarantee a higher success rate of the bean plant, a lengthy root system was required. Additionally, early maturation of the bean crops was a common tactic to combat drought tolerance. A total of 36 genotypes were tested in 2009 during a growing season with significant drought stress. Table 1 shows the field trial results of 5 genotypes grown under different field conditions (Beebe, 2014).</P>
 
<p>Table 1. Drought associated traits associated with improved bean genotypes </p>
[[File:Capture 672.JPG]]
<p>The crops were managed by the irrigation systems for up to 25 days following planting. In order to induce drought stress, the crops were fed a total of 105 mm of water initially followed by an allotted amount of 59 mm of rainwater. An analysis of these trials recommended that the most elite drought tolerant lines expressed heightened stomatal control of transpiration and contained Mexican genetics (Beebe, 2014).</p>
 
<p>Since 1996, The Pan-Africa Bean Research Alliance (PABRA) has released over 550 new drought resistant bean varieties to many of the countries within Africa in co-ordination with assistance from CIAT (CIAT, 2016). Utilizing germplasm available, the new varieties of beans (known as BIO101 and BIO107) contain 60% more iron and 50% more zinc than those of traditional bean crops. Following the creation of these specially bred beans, a trial with pregnant and young women in Rwanda discovered that the new varieties of beans reduced iron-deficiency and increased immune system strength in each of the women (CIAT, 2016). With these new advances, PABRA will assist future production by making the crops more resilient to climate change threats while simultaneously targeting direct effects on the human population (CIAT, 2015).</p>
 
<p>The regions within Latin America, Oceania and Sub-Saharan Africa contain the highest percentage of women participating in the agricultural sector. It is within these regions that 60% of the total agricultural production is completed by women (Huyer, 2016). In the world’s least developed regions, 79% of the women contributing to their national economy report that they work in the agriculture sector (Huyer, 2016). When women engage in the agricultural production (with new technologies such as heat-tolerant bean varieties) it creates a sense of empowerment and thus builds essential assets, which the women are then able to use in all other aspects of their lives (Muriel, 2019). With the climate change innovations available within common bean variety crops, female farmers are considered to be important influences (Huyer, 2016). When the women’s knowledge of available innovative resources and access to information increases, it establishes an increase in food supply as well as a more resilient community. Likewise, an attempt is made to close the gender gap, thus providing a higher chance for equal opportunities between both men and women (Huyer, 2016), which would in turn help to positively shape the future of those regions affected.</p>  
</div>
</div>
   </div>
   </div>
  <div style="margin-top: 30px;">
  <div style="margin-top: 30px;">
       <h3 class="title-bg">Gender Issues Associated with Production of Drought Tolerant Bean Varieties </h3>
       <h3 class="title-bg">Benefits of peanut and adoption by smallholder farmers </h3>
         <div class="cont-bg">
         <div class="cont-bg">
<p>If the farmers, though especially female farmers, are not able to utilize and benefit from these new seed varieties, the food supply decreases and the gender gap increases, which diminishes the resiliency of the community (Huyer, 2016). Additionally, since very little information is available with regards to how poor regions with higher gender discrepancy respond to the threats and impacts of climate change within agricultural production, it is difficult to forecast results for future decades (Huyer, 2016).</p>
<p>Peanut contains numerous nutritional benefits that could aid in combatting food shortages and malnourishment in the developing world (Akram et al., 2018) including vitamins and minerals, healthy proteins, fatty acids and carbohydrates. Peanuts provide a rich source of micronutrients that benefit human health. One ounce of peanuts contains 25% of the recommended dietary allowance (RDA) of Niacin, 10% of RDA of Folate, 20% of RDA of Vitamin E, 26% of RDA of Manganese, 10% RDA of Zinc, 12% of RDA of Magnesium, and many more (Peanut Institute, 2019).  Peanuts can be added to dishes including stews or eaten by themselves as a snack (AGMRC, 2018). Furthermore, peanut can additionally be made into oil to be used for cooking (AGMRC, 2018) which reduces cooking times and hence the need for fuelwood collected by women and children. Additionally, peanuts possess a rich source of medicinal compounds linked to improved health and a decreased risk of diseases (Akram et al., 2018). Another benefit of the peanut is the fact that it is a “zero-waste” plant, meaning that all parts of the plant including the roots and hulls can be utilized by farmers in part as a nitrogen biofertilizer for the soil (NPB, 2017).</p>
<p>Another benefit of peanut crops to smallholder farmers is the health benefits to livestock that can be attained through feeding peanut by-products to animals. Peanut hay is widely used to feed cows, and it is rich in nutrient content and is comparable to grass hays (Hill, 2002). Peanut skins can also be included in cattle feed and with the right quantities of around 10% of the cattle diet, the skins can provide energy and protein to the cows (Hill, 2002). Peanut hulls can be used as roughage in beef diets and are often lower in price than other products, making it a beneficial economic decision for smallholder farmers (Hill, 2002).</p> 
<p>Not only does this plant require an extremely low amount of water for growth, and offer an inexpensive feed option for livestock, peanuts have the smallest carbon footprint of any nut, making it a great sustainable crop that can directly combat climate change (NPB, 2017).</p>
<p>The potential adoption of a crop for a smallholder farmer is influenced by a number of factors. In a study on smallholder farmers in the Bawku West District of Upper Ghana, expected benefits of the crop, along with land size constraints, were the most significant factors that influenced whether farmers would adopt a new crop (Akundugu et al., 2012). A major benefit of peanut is the fact that it serves multiple food purposes (eaten on their own or added to other foods) and because it can also be processed into oil, a valuable commodity for local economies (Yuan et al., 2020). With a seed oil content of 50% by weight, leading to a yield of 3,000 pounds of seeds per acre, peanuts can produce 120-150 gallons of oil per acre under proper growing conditions (AGMRC, 2018).  Peanut oil has become a valuable export: in 2005 three-quarters of U.S. crude peanut oil imports were supplied by India, valued at $58 million USD (Boriss, 2006).</p> 
<p>Aside from the above products, peanut offers a number of additional post-harvest value-addition properties. Rather than selling raw seed, peanut can be roasted and salted and sold as a snack, processed into peanut butter, ground into flour, made into peanut-based beverages, and many more uses. These products all create potential opportunities for smallholder women farmers. Peanuts are considered to be a women’s crop, as women are involved at all stages of production, from selecting the crop variety all the way to processing and food production (FAO, 1998). In order to aid women in peanut production, resources such as tools and equipment, knowledge and access to markets, and land extension should be provided to female farmers (FAO, 1998). Additionally, women should be involved in all stages of development of technology and should be given technical skills training in order to improve the harvest (FAO, 1998). Examples of equipment for peanut processing include peanut shellers, aspirators to separate shells from in-shell material, and drying. Shellers range in price from $1,010-$2,800 USD, and peanut butter and roasting machines range from $150-2,300 USD according to Alibaba.com. The equipment is designed to maximize effectiveness and processing speed and will consequently maximize profits. As of June 2020, the value of raw peanut crops was $2050 USD per metric ton (Commodity Prices, 2020). With the proper equipment and women being provided with adequate resources, peanut crops can provide prosperity to smallholder farmers.</p>  
</div>
</div>
   </div>
   </div>
  <div style="margin-top: 30px;">
  <div style="margin-top: 30px;">
       <h3 class="title-bg">Production of Drought Tolerant Beans (Phaseolus Vulgaris) in Arid Regions </h3>
       <h3 class="title-bg">Critical Analysis</h3>
         <div class="cont-bg">
         <div class="cont-bg">
<p>It is necessary that farmers are equipped with all of the relevant information required to achieve the highest quality results from their newly adapted bean varieties (PABRA, 2016). Becoming knowledgeable about land preparation, crop management and harvesting is vital to ensuring success within production systems. Integrated crop management (ICM) is a holistic approach utilized by PABRA that assists farmers throughout their cultivation. The desired outcome from ICM is to give smallholder farmers access to cost-effective, climate change resistant crops. This is achieved by working with many international partners. Multiple techniques exist within ICM such as pest management, soil quality, planting and intercropping. With such techniques, approximately six million farmers have been able to improve their bean yields. The ICM research encompasses a variety of areas:</p>
<p>Some of the barriers to peanut growth include drought and iron unavailability in soil, both of which can interfere with the nitrogen fixation abilities of the peanut plant (Akram et al., 2018). Another possible challenge is that the seeds must be dried to a 10% moisture content before storage (NPB, 2017) which can be difficult for smallholder farmers, particularly in high-humidity environments. When peanuts are harvested, the moisture content ranges from 35-50%, (Grant, 2018). To dry the nuts naturally, plants can be stored in sheds, or indoors for one to two weeks under warm, low humidity conditions (Grant, 2018). An issue that can arise in peanut crops is a fungal disease caused by Aspergillus flavus. This fungus can cause aflatoxin in peanut crops, which is an extremely hazardous mycotoxin that can be detrimental to the development of children and can potentially lead to hepatitis, deterioration of the immune system, and even liver cancer (ICRISAT, n.d.). Due to this threat to human health, countries have established strict standards in order to ensure the quality of the peanuts they are receiving, and as a result, farmers in developing countries have lost opportunities to export peanut crops (ICRISAT, n.d.). To combat this, researchers have developed an aflatoxin testing kit that is inexpensive and can be used to detect aflatoxin in crops (ICRISAT, n.d.). These kits are currently being used in Kenya, Malawi, Mali and Mozambique to try and ease their way back into industrialized markets and get past the regulations (ICRISAT, n.d.). Smallholder farmers can purchase the inexpensive aflatoxin detecting kits in order to ensure the safety of their crops, and to provide themselves with better economic opportunities with safe selling of their products.</p>  
<p>-    Cropping systems: Assessing the different varieties of beans while comparing the benefits of intercropping and rotation.</p> 
</div>
<p>-    Inputs: Evaluating the varieties of fertilisers available which are best suitable for the farmer’s chosen bean variety.</p>
<p>-    Water Management: In order to combat the negative effects of climate change and drought, improved practices regarding irrigation and water conservation are fundamental. </p>
<p>-    Soil Fertility: By working with the technologies available within the private sector, this promotes biological nitrogen fixation capabilities which increases yield potential.</p> 
<p>-    Pest and Disease Management: Bean varieties are frequently affected by an array of pests and diseases which have very negative effects on crop yields. PABRA analyses integrated pest management systems with utilization of both biological and chemical methods (PABRA, 2016).</p>  
</div>
   </div>
   </div>
  <div style="margin-top: 30px;">
  <div style="margin-top: 30px;">
       <h3 class="title-bg">Helpful Links to Get Started </h3>
       <h3 class="title-bg">Helpful Links on Growing and Harvesting Peanut Crops </h3>
         <div class="cont-bg">
         <div class="cont-bg">
<p>Resource for Requesting Seeds:</p>
<p>How Groundnut Oil is Made - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2GwQtQT3yAA </p>
<p>https://genebank.ciat.cgiar.org/genebank/inforequestmaterial.do</p>
 
<p>CIAT innovations on heat-tolerant beans:</p>
<p>Making groundnut oil and snacks - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_GaRyYZYY-g </p>
<p>https://blog.ciat.cgiar.org/heat-tolerant-wild-beans-tapped-to-breed-commercial-beans-for-hotter-climates/</p>
 
<p>What is ‘Seed Security’?</p>
<p>How to make peanut flour - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wZ7LOPGLrZs</p>  
<p>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xvqSaw49wnE</p>
 
<p>Agricultural Business Skills for seed-producers:</p>
<p>All Natural Home-Made Peanut Butter - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7khA9O4PXKA </p>
<p>https://cgspace.cgiar.org/bitstream/handle/10568/54569/handbook_3_english.pdf</p>
 
<p>Crop Management:</p>
<p>How to Harvest and Cure Peanuts - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=U6KI4ucBM-I</p>  
<p>https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/detail/national/newsroom/features/?&cid=nrcs143_023350</p>
 
<p>Smallholder Farmers Stories Who Have Adopted Drought Tolerant Bean Varieties:</p>
<p>Peanuts Grown in a Container from Planting to Harvest https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sEfil-ZeX8A </p>
<p>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=O2UqFbnOc6U</p>
 
<p>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=x3D3DiZ4I-8</p>
<p>Harvesting and Processing Peanuts in Northern Indiana - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8mSOYoY2FMA </p>
<p>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Qd4RS66FMJM&t=8s</p>
 
</div>
<p>Uganda Groundnut Crops - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=L5TmRsTDs0U </p>
 
<p>How to Grow Peanuts - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YDTkS_y0H6k</p>  
 
<p>Peanut Growing - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XlOOrij2uM4</p>  
  </div>
   </div>
   </div>
  <div style="margin-top: 30px;">
  <div style="margin-top: 30px;">
       <h3 class="title-bg">References </h3>
       <h3 class="title-bg">References </h3>
         <div class="cont-bg">
         <div class="cont-bg">
<p>1. Akram, N., Shafiq, F., & Ashraf, M. (2018). Peanut ( Arachis hypogaea L.): A Prospective Legume Crop to Offer Multiple Health Benefits Under Changing Climate. Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety, 17(5), 1325–1338. https://doi.org/10.1111/1541-4337.12383 </p>
<p>2. Akudugu, A. M., Guo, E., & Dadzie, K. S. (2012). Adoption of Modern Agricultural Production Technologies by Farm Households in Ghana: What Factors Influence their Decisions? Journal of Biology, Agriculture and Healthcare 2(3), 1-14. https://www.iiste.org/Journals/index.php/JBAH/article/view/1522</p>
<p>3. Boriss, H. (2006, February). Commodity Profile: Peanuts (Rep.). Retrieved https://aic.ucdavis.edu/wp-content/uploads/2019/01/agmr-profile-Peanuts-2006.pdf</p>
<p>4. Dutra, W. F., Guerra, Y. L., Ramos, J. P. C., Fernandes, P. D., Silva, C. R. C., Bertioli, D. J., Leal-Bertioli, S. C. M., & Santos, R. C. (2018). Introgression of wild alleles into the tetraploid peanut crop to improve water use efficiency, earliness and yield. PLoS ONE, 13(6), e0198776. https://link-gale-com.subzero.lib.uoguelph.ca/apps/doc/A542182698/AONE?u=guel77241&sid=AONE&xid=f04d2bcc </p>
<p>5. FAO. (n.d.). Gender Roles in Peanut Sector for Household Security (Rep.). Food and Agriculture Organization. Retrieved June, 1998, from http://www.fao.org/3/a-ac794e.pdf </p>
<p>6. Hill, G. M. (2002). Peanut by-products fed to cattle. Vet Clin North Am Food Anim Pract. 18(2):295-315. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12235662/</p>
<p>7. ICRISAT. (n.d.). Groundnut. ICRISAT, India. Retrieved from http://exploreit.icrisat.org/profile/Groundnut/250</p>
<p>8. Grant, A. (2018). Peanut Storing: Learn About Post Harvesting Peanut Curing. Retrieved from https://www.gardeningknowhow.com/edible/vegetables/peanuts/post-harvest-peanut-curing.htm </p>
<p>9. Groundnuts (peanuts) Monthly Price - US Dollars per Metric Ton. (2020, October). Retrieved from https://www.indexmundi.com/commodities/?commodity=peanuts&months=60 </p>
<p>10. Peanut Varieties. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.peanutbureau.ca/all-about-peanuts/peanut-varieties.html </p>
<p>11. Putnam, D., Oplinger, E., Teynor, T., Oelke, E., Kelling, K., & Doll, J. (1991, July). Peanut Field Crop Manual. University of Wisconsin, USA. Retrieved from http://corn.agronomy.wisc.edu/Crops/Peanut.aspx#:~:text=Organic%20matter%20should%20be%20maintained,5.5%20to%207.0%20is%20acceptable</p>
<p>12. Rao, M. S., Swathi, P., Rao, C. A., Rao, K. V., Raju, B. M., Srinivas, K., . . . Maheswari, M. (2015). Model and Scenario Variations in Predicted Number of Generations of Spodoptera litura Fab. on Peanut during Future Climate Change Scenario. Plos One, 10(2), e0116762.</p>
<p>13 https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0116762</p>
<p>14. How Peanuts Grow. (2017, August). National Peanut Board, USA. Retrieved from https://www.nationalpeanutboard.org/peanut-info/how-peanuts-grow.htm </p>
<p>15. Peanuts. (2018, October). Agricultural Marketing Resource Center, USA. Retrieved from https://www.agmrc.org/commodities-products/nuts/peanut-profile </p>
<p>16. Peanuts - Environmental Issues (Issue brief No. 14). (2017, October). Retrieved https://grdc.com.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0027/370557/GrowNote-Peanuts-North-14-Environment.pdf</p>
<p>17. Peanut Vitamins & Minerals: Micronutrients. (2019, March 27). Retrieved from https://peanut-institute.com/nutrition-research/peanut-nutrients/micronutrients/</p>
<p>18. Yuan, C., Li, C., Lu, X., Zhao, X., Yan, C., Wang, J., . . . Shan, S. (2020). Comprehensive genomic characterization of NAC transcription factor family and their response to salt and drought stress in peanut. BMC Plant Biology, 20(1), 454. doi:10.1186/s12870-020-02678-9
a. https://bmcplantbiol.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12870-020-02678-9</p>


<p>1. Beebe, S.E., et al. (2014) Common beans, biodiversity, and multiple stresses:
<p>19. Zhang, D., Sun, Z., Feng, L., Bai, W., Yang, N., Zhang, Z., . . . Zhang, L. (2020). Maize plant density affects yield, growth and source-sink relationship of crops in maize/peanut intercropping. Field Crops Research, 257, 107926. doi:10.1016/j.fcr.2020.107926</p>
a. challenges of drought resistance in tropical soils. Crop and Pasture Science 65, 667-675. Retrieved from https://www.publish.csiro.au/cp/cp13303</p>
<p>2. Buruchara, R. (2011). Development and Delivery of Bean Varieties in Africa: The Pan-
a. African Bean Research Alliance (PABRA) Model, p.227-245. African Crop Science Journal. Retrieved from https://www.ajol.info/index.php/acsj/article/view/74168/64827</p>
<p>3. Huyer, S, et al. (2016). CCAFS Gender and Social Inclusion Strategy, p.8-11. The
a. Consortium of International Agricultural Research Centres. Retrieved from https://cgspace.cgiar.org/handle/10568/72900</p>
<p>4. International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI). (2009). Climate Change: Impact
a. on Agriculture and Costs of Adaptation. Retrieved from https://books.google.ca/books?hl=en&lr=&id=1Vpe0JvYTJYC&oi=fnd&pg=PR7&ots=Xmu2c8Swla&sig=GX4sDC1DiDa7I5408r0a3nz2sJo&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false</p>
<p>5. Muriel, J., et al. (2019). The Abbreviated Women’s Empowerment in Agriculture Index
a. (A-WEIA). Project Results for ‘His and Hers, Time and Income: How Intra Household Dynamics Impact Nutrition in Agricultural Households’. The International Centre for Tropical Agriculture. Retrieved from https://cgspace.cgiar.org/handle/10568/101141</p>
<p>6. The International Centre for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT). (2015). Developing Beans that
a. Can Beat the Heat. The Consortium of International Agricultural Research Centres. Retrieved from https://ciat-library.ciat.cgiar.org/articulos_ciat/biblioteca/DEVELOPING_BEANS_THAT_CAN_BEAT_THE_HEAT_lowres%20(2).pdf</p>
<p>7. The International Centre for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT). (2016). Beans. Retrieved from
a. https://ciat.cgiar.org/what-we-do/breeding-better-crops/beans/.</p>
<p>8. The International Centre for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT). (2017). Fifty Years and Fifty
a. Wins, p.4-18. The Consortium of International Agricultural Research Centres. Retrieved from https://cgspace.cgiar.org/bitstream/handle/10568/89145/50_WINS_WEB02.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y</p>

Revision as of 11:21, 4 July 2022

5.48 -Use of Peanuts (Groundnuts) for Smallholder Farmers to Combat the Effects of Climate Change


Isabel Fuentes,University of Guelph, Canada

4.jpg

Suggested citation for this chapter.

Fuentes,I. (2022)Use of Peanuts (Groundnuts) for Smallholder Farmers to Combat the Effects of Climate Change, In Farmpedia, The Encyclopedia for Small Scale Farmers. Editor, M.N. Raizada, University of Guelph, Canada. http://www.farmpedia.org

Introduction

Peanut (Arachis hypogaea), called groundnut in Africa, is a drought tolerant legume crop that can help smallholder farmers cope with drought associated with climate change. Peanuts are believed to have originated in South America, and domestication of the crop has been traced to Bolivia and Argentina (Akram et al., 2018; FAO, 2011). The peanut is the world’s third more important source of vegetable protein and the fourth most important source of edible vegetable oil, with 46% of production concentrated in Africa (Rao et al., 2015). The target countries for peanut crops are subtropical and tropical areas of Africa, Asia and South America due to the fact that a large percentage of peanut cultivation occurs in low-income countries with food deficits and few resources (Akram et al., 2018).

Growth and Cultivation of the Peanut

Peanut has multiple varieties including the Runner, Virginia, Spanish, and Valencia (APC, n.d.). These four varieties are the most commonly known, however there are additional varieties being released globally including in Africa (ICRISAT, n.d.). Peanut varieties continue to be improved and changed in order to adapt to environmental factors. In a survey conducted in Uganda, it was reported that more than 50% of the country’s peanut-producing area was occupied by improved and modified varieties that are resistant to factors such as drought (ICRISAT, n.d.). These varieties differ based on size, colour of skin, kernel to pod ratio, flavour, and stress resistance (APC, n.d.). Farmer organizations can obtain peanut varieties through ICRISAT as well as the USDA FSIS.

The optimal temperatures for peanut growth ranges between 25-30 degrees Celsius and due to their genetic variability, peanuts have the ability to adapt to tropical and semiarid climates (Dutra et al., 2018). Studies indicate that peanut pod growth at 34 degrees Celsius was restricted at these temperatures and the pods grown at these temperatures weighed 1.5 g, compared to pods grown at 26 degrees Celsius which weighed 2.7 g (Cox, 1979). Based on this, the temperature that peanuts should be grown at should not exceed 30 degrees Celsius during the growing season in order to ensure proper growth (Cox, 1979). The peanut plant is drought resistant and requires only 38.1-50.8 mm of water per week to grow; in total over the growing season, peanut crops require an average rainfall of >400 mm to produce a reasonable crop (GRDC, 2017). As a result, significant peanut farming takes place in areas with water shortages (Akram et al., 2018). An especially drought-tolerant peanut variety was introduced in Asia through farmer varietal selection and is now being grown on 25,000 ha of the 800,000 ha growing area in India (ICRISAT, n.d.).

Peanut roots associate with rhizobia bacteria that convert atmospheric nitrogen gas into nitrogen fertilizer which improves both itself and the soil around it (Akram et al., 2018). Accordingly, peanut is often intercropped with other crops (e.g. cereals, root crops) to maximize the yield of those crops. Intercropping is a system where multiple crops are grown at the same time in one area (Zhang, 2020). For example, the intercropping of maize and peanuts has been extensively used in semi-arid regions of China, with similar growing conditions to African climates (Zhang, 2020). The natural nitrogen fixation of peanuts contributes to the soil health for maize (Akram et al., 2018). Though peanut is not typically fertilized with nitrogen, phosphate and other macro and micronutrients, such as zinc, iron, manganese, copper, boron, and molybdenum, are necessary for peanut growth, with the molybdenum essential for rhizobia bacteria (Peanut Production Guide, n.d.). As a result, deficiencies molybdenum have been shown to reduce yields and/or the protein content of the seeds. The plant prefers to grow in light-coloured, light textured soils with good drainage and moderate amounts of organic matter with a pH range of 6.0-6.5 due to the fact that the peanut grows best in slightly acidic soils (Putnam et al., 1991).

Peanut plants have aerial flowers, and after pollination, the fertilized ovaries develop into stalk-like structures that contain embryos called pegs (Akram et al., 2018). The basal cells of the fertilized ovary elongate in the pegs and pro-embryo development causes these pegs to elongate, resulting in penetration of the soil layer, a process referred to as “pegging” (Akram et al., 2018). Countries with drought occurring often have an increased hardness of the top-soil layer, which can restrict pegging of peanut plants, however if the drought affected pegs are re-watered, pegging can resume (Akram et al., 2018). The ability of the peanut pegs to continue growth and pegging after being re-watered is an adaptive trait that maximizes the survival of the fertilized embryo, unlike crops such as maize or other grains where embryos are often lost without a chance for revival (Akram et al., 2018).

Benefits of peanut and adoption by smallholder farmers

Peanut contains numerous nutritional benefits that could aid in combatting food shortages and malnourishment in the developing world (Akram et al., 2018) including vitamins and minerals, healthy proteins, fatty acids and carbohydrates. Peanuts provide a rich source of micronutrients that benefit human health. One ounce of peanuts contains 25% of the recommended dietary allowance (RDA) of Niacin, 10% of RDA of Folate, 20% of RDA of Vitamin E, 26% of RDA of Manganese, 10% RDA of Zinc, 12% of RDA of Magnesium, and many more (Peanut Institute, 2019). Peanuts can be added to dishes including stews or eaten by themselves as a snack (AGMRC, 2018). Furthermore, peanut can additionally be made into oil to be used for cooking (AGMRC, 2018) which reduces cooking times and hence the need for fuelwood collected by women and children. Additionally, peanuts possess a rich source of medicinal compounds linked to improved health and a decreased risk of diseases (Akram et al., 2018). Another benefit of the peanut is the fact that it is a “zero-waste” plant, meaning that all parts of the plant including the roots and hulls can be utilized by farmers in part as a nitrogen biofertilizer for the soil (NPB, 2017).

Another benefit of peanut crops to smallholder farmers is the health benefits to livestock that can be attained through feeding peanut by-products to animals. Peanut hay is widely used to feed cows, and it is rich in nutrient content and is comparable to grass hays (Hill, 2002). Peanut skins can also be included in cattle feed and with the right quantities of around 10% of the cattle diet, the skins can provide energy and protein to the cows (Hill, 2002). Peanut hulls can be used as roughage in beef diets and are often lower in price than other products, making it a beneficial economic decision for smallholder farmers (Hill, 2002).

Not only does this plant require an extremely low amount of water for growth, and offer an inexpensive feed option for livestock, peanuts have the smallest carbon footprint of any nut, making it a great sustainable crop that can directly combat climate change (NPB, 2017).

The potential adoption of a crop for a smallholder farmer is influenced by a number of factors. In a study on smallholder farmers in the Bawku West District of Upper Ghana, expected benefits of the crop, along with land size constraints, were the most significant factors that influenced whether farmers would adopt a new crop (Akundugu et al., 2012). A major benefit of peanut is the fact that it serves multiple food purposes (eaten on their own or added to other foods) and because it can also be processed into oil, a valuable commodity for local economies (Yuan et al., 2020). With a seed oil content of 50% by weight, leading to a yield of 3,000 pounds of seeds per acre, peanuts can produce 120-150 gallons of oil per acre under proper growing conditions (AGMRC, 2018). Peanut oil has become a valuable export: in 2005 three-quarters of U.S. crude peanut oil imports were supplied by India, valued at $58 million USD (Boriss, 2006).

Aside from the above products, peanut offers a number of additional post-harvest value-addition properties. Rather than selling raw seed, peanut can be roasted and salted and sold as a snack, processed into peanut butter, ground into flour, made into peanut-based beverages, and many more uses. These products all create potential opportunities for smallholder women farmers. Peanuts are considered to be a women’s crop, as women are involved at all stages of production, from selecting the crop variety all the way to processing and food production (FAO, 1998). In order to aid women in peanut production, resources such as tools and equipment, knowledge and access to markets, and land extension should be provided to female farmers (FAO, 1998). Additionally, women should be involved in all stages of development of technology and should be given technical skills training in order to improve the harvest (FAO, 1998). Examples of equipment for peanut processing include peanut shellers, aspirators to separate shells from in-shell material, and drying. Shellers range in price from $1,010-$2,800 USD, and peanut butter and roasting machines range from $150-2,300 USD according to Alibaba.com. The equipment is designed to maximize effectiveness and processing speed and will consequently maximize profits. As of June 2020, the value of raw peanut crops was $2050 USD per metric ton (Commodity Prices, 2020). With the proper equipment and women being provided with adequate resources, peanut crops can provide prosperity to smallholder farmers.

Critical Analysis

Some of the barriers to peanut growth include drought and iron unavailability in soil, both of which can interfere with the nitrogen fixation abilities of the peanut plant (Akram et al., 2018). Another possible challenge is that the seeds must be dried to a 10% moisture content before storage (NPB, 2017) which can be difficult for smallholder farmers, particularly in high-humidity environments. When peanuts are harvested, the moisture content ranges from 35-50%, (Grant, 2018). To dry the nuts naturally, plants can be stored in sheds, or indoors for one to two weeks under warm, low humidity conditions (Grant, 2018). An issue that can arise in peanut crops is a fungal disease caused by Aspergillus flavus. This fungus can cause aflatoxin in peanut crops, which is an extremely hazardous mycotoxin that can be detrimental to the development of children and can potentially lead to hepatitis, deterioration of the immune system, and even liver cancer (ICRISAT, n.d.). Due to this threat to human health, countries have established strict standards in order to ensure the quality of the peanuts they are receiving, and as a result, farmers in developing countries have lost opportunities to export peanut crops (ICRISAT, n.d.). To combat this, researchers have developed an aflatoxin testing kit that is inexpensive and can be used to detect aflatoxin in crops (ICRISAT, n.d.). These kits are currently being used in Kenya, Malawi, Mali and Mozambique to try and ease their way back into industrialized markets and get past the regulations (ICRISAT, n.d.). Smallholder farmers can purchase the inexpensive aflatoxin detecting kits in order to ensure the safety of their crops, and to provide themselves with better economic opportunities with safe selling of their products.

Helpful Links on Growing and Harvesting Peanut Crops

How Groundnut Oil is Made - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2GwQtQT3yAA

Making groundnut oil and snacks - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_GaRyYZYY-g

How to make peanut flour - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wZ7LOPGLrZs

All Natural Home-Made Peanut Butter - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7khA9O4PXKA

How to Harvest and Cure Peanuts - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=U6KI4ucBM-I

Peanuts Grown in a Container from Planting to Harvest https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sEfil-ZeX8A

Harvesting and Processing Peanuts in Northern Indiana - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8mSOYoY2FMA

Uganda Groundnut Crops - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=L5TmRsTDs0U

How to Grow Peanuts - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YDTkS_y0H6k

Peanut Growing - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XlOOrij2uM4

References

1. Akram, N., Shafiq, F., & Ashraf, M. (2018). Peanut ( Arachis hypogaea L.): A Prospective Legume Crop to Offer Multiple Health Benefits Under Changing Climate. Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety, 17(5), 1325–1338. https://doi.org/10.1111/1541-4337.12383

2. Akudugu, A. M., Guo, E., & Dadzie, K. S. (2012). Adoption of Modern Agricultural Production Technologies by Farm Households in Ghana: What Factors Influence their Decisions? Journal of Biology, Agriculture and Healthcare 2(3), 1-14. https://www.iiste.org/Journals/index.php/JBAH/article/view/1522

3. Boriss, H. (2006, February). Commodity Profile: Peanuts (Rep.). Retrieved https://aic.ucdavis.edu/wp-content/uploads/2019/01/agmr-profile-Peanuts-2006.pdf


4. Dutra, W. F., Guerra, Y. L., Ramos, J. P. C., Fernandes, P. D., Silva, C. R. C., Bertioli, D. J., Leal-Bertioli, S. C. M., & Santos, R. C. (2018). Introgression of wild alleles into the tetraploid peanut crop to improve water use efficiency, earliness and yield. PLoS ONE, 13(6), e0198776. https://link-gale-com.subzero.lib.uoguelph.ca/apps/doc/A542182698/AONE?u=guel77241&sid=AONE&xid=f04d2bcc

5. FAO. (n.d.). Gender Roles in Peanut Sector for Household Security (Rep.). Food and Agriculture Organization. Retrieved June, 1998, from http://www.fao.org/3/a-ac794e.pdf

6. Hill, G. M. (2002). Peanut by-products fed to cattle. Vet Clin North Am Food Anim Pract. 18(2):295-315. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12235662/

7. ICRISAT. (n.d.). Groundnut. ICRISAT, India. Retrieved from http://exploreit.icrisat.org/profile/Groundnut/250

8. Grant, A. (2018). Peanut Storing: Learn About Post Harvesting Peanut Curing. Retrieved from https://www.gardeningknowhow.com/edible/vegetables/peanuts/post-harvest-peanut-curing.htm

9. Groundnuts (peanuts) Monthly Price - US Dollars per Metric Ton. (2020, October). Retrieved from https://www.indexmundi.com/commodities/?commodity=peanuts&months=60

10. Peanut Varieties. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.peanutbureau.ca/all-about-peanuts/peanut-varieties.html

11. Putnam, D., Oplinger, E., Teynor, T., Oelke, E., Kelling, K., & Doll, J. (1991, July). Peanut Field Crop Manual. University of Wisconsin, USA. Retrieved from http://corn.agronomy.wisc.edu/Crops/Peanut.aspx#:~:text=Organic%20matter%20should%20be%20maintained,5.5%20to%207.0%20is%20acceptable

12. Rao, M. S., Swathi, P., Rao, C. A., Rao, K. V., Raju, B. M., Srinivas, K., . . . Maheswari, M. (2015). Model and Scenario Variations in Predicted Number of Generations of Spodoptera litura Fab. on Peanut during Future Climate Change Scenario. Plos One, 10(2), e0116762.

13 https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0116762

14. How Peanuts Grow. (2017, August). National Peanut Board, USA. Retrieved from https://www.nationalpeanutboard.org/peanut-info/how-peanuts-grow.htm

15. Peanuts. (2018, October). Agricultural Marketing Resource Center, USA. Retrieved from https://www.agmrc.org/commodities-products/nuts/peanut-profile

16. Peanuts - Environmental Issues (Issue brief No. 14). (2017, October). Retrieved https://grdc.com.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0027/370557/GrowNote-Peanuts-North-14-Environment.pdf

17. Peanut Vitamins & Minerals: Micronutrients. (2019, March 27). Retrieved from https://peanut-institute.com/nutrition-research/peanut-nutrients/micronutrients/


18. Yuan, C., Li, C., Lu, X., Zhao, X., Yan, C., Wang, J., . . . Shan, S. (2020). Comprehensive genomic characterization of NAC transcription factor family and their response to salt and drought stress in peanut. BMC Plant Biology, 20(1), 454. doi:10.1186/s12870-020-02678-9 a. https://bmcplantbiol.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12870-020-02678-9

19. Zhang, D., Sun, Z., Feng, L., Bai, W., Yang, N., Zhang, Z., . . . Zhang, L. (2020). Maize plant density affects yield, growth and source-sink relationship of crops in maize/peanut intercropping. Field Crops Research, 257, 107926. doi:10.1016/j.fcr.2020.107926

Retrieved from "https://farmpedia.org/index.php?title=Chapters_5.48&oldid=2002"