Chapters 5.38: Difference between revisions

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(Created page with "<div> <div class="title"><h3>5.38 -Drought Tolerant Bean Varieties (Phaseolus vulgaris) Utilized to Overcome the Negative Effects of Climate Change </h3><br><h3 class="ch-owner">Jordan Candido, University of Guelph, Canada </h3></div> <div class="hero-img-2"> 300px <p>Suggested citation for this chapter.</p> <p>Candido,J. (2022) Drought Tolerant Bean Varieties (Phaseolus vulgaris) Utilized to Overcome the Negative Effects of Climate Change, In Farmpedia,...")
 
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  <div class="title"><h3>5.38 -Drought Tolerant Bean Varieties (Phaseolus vulgaris) Utilized to Overcome the Negative Effects of Climate Change </h3><br><h3 class="ch-owner">Jordan Candido, University of Guelph, Canada </h3></div>
  <div class="title"><h3>5.38 -Adopting Watermelon to Combat Drought </h3><br><h3 class="ch-owner">Devon Dempster, University of Guelph, Canada </h3></div>
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<p>Suggested citation for this chapter.</p>
<p>Suggested citation for this chapter.</p>
<p>Candido,J. (2022) Drought Tolerant Bean Varieties (Phaseolus vulgaris) Utilized to Overcome the Negative Effects of Climate Change, In Farmpedia, The Encyclopedia for Small Scale Farmers. Editor, M.N. Raizada, University of Guelph, Canada. http://www.farmpedia.org</p>
<p>Dempster,D. (2022) Adopting Watermelon to Combat Drought, In Farmpedia, The Encyclopedia for Small Scale Farmers. Editor, M.N. Raizada, University of Guelph, Canada. http://www.farmpedia.org</p>
       <h3 class="title-bg">Background</h3>
       <h3 class="title-bg">Background</h3>
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           <p>During the formation of the International Centre for Tropical Agriculture, or CIAT, in 1967, headquartered in Colombia, the vast majority of starving and malnourished people residing in tropical and sub-tropical regions were smallholder farmers (CIAT, 2017). Thus, the goal of increasing yield potential became a primary priority for CIAT (CIAT, 2017). The current areas of concern are in regard to common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) production systems, the landscapes where its production occurs, and its yield potential (CIAT, 2015). Millions of farmers within Africa and Latin America depend on high yield outcomes from their bean crops not only to provide food but also to provide an income for themselves and their families. However, due to the high demand of the crop and the drastic effects of climate change, farmers continue to struggle to meet the needs of consumers (CIAT, 2015).</p>  
           <p>Drought throughout Africa and the subtropics is a common problem and is worsening due to the effects of climate change (Verschuren, 2000). Watermelon (Citrullus lanatus) originates in Africa (Paris, 2015) and its wider adoption is a possible solution for smallholder farmers, as watermelon plants have deep root systems that can exploit soil moisture, making them ideal for drought conditions (Mtumtum, 2012). The crop has both nutritional and income benefits</p>
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<p>Throughout the previous several decades, the impacts of climate change have been worsening (IFPRI, 2009). Climate change projections state that regions in Sub-Saharan Africa, Latin America, and the Caribbean will be greatly affected by an increase of drought conditions and a rise in average annual temperatures. Due to these conditions, the threats to agricultural production within these land areas are escalating (IFPRI, 2009). Within these regions, the common bean is a staple crop; beans are often referred to as “the meat of the poor” (CIAT, 2016). They contain high levels of protein, fibre, vitamins and micronutrients. An estimated 400 million people residing in the tropics consume beans in their daily diet due to their high nutritional content (CIAT, 2016).</p>
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      <h3 class="title-bg">Cultivation requirements </h3>
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<p><i>Target crops and country</i></p>
<p>China is the world's largest producer of watermelon; producing as much as two-thirds of the world’s watermelon (National Research Council, 2008). Despite this, watermelon has been concluded to originate from northeastern Africa (Paris, 2015) (National Research Council, 2008).When considering genetics, cultivated watermelon are most similar to crops from West Africa (Chomicki, 2015). African Citrullus is genetically diverse, with plenty of potential to improve crop yield and tolerance (National Research Council, 2008).</p>
<p><i>Steps to cultivate watermelon from its seed</i></p>
<p>When planting on dry sites, sowing of seeds is executed when rainfall begins; the opposite is done for moist crop sites, in which planting is executed when rainfall ends (National Research Council, 2008). Ideally, planting is done when the soil temperature has reached at least 20°C (National Research Council, 2008). Seeds are sown in 2-4 cm deep soil, in groups of 1-3 at a time (National Research Council, 2008). Later on, seedlings are thinned to 1 per site; in the meantime, transplants may be planted during the appearance of leaves (Mtumtum, 2012). The World Vegetable Center in Taiwan, a CGIAR Institute, has a seedbank of the world’s watermelon seeds and makes available seeds of different watermelon varieties to the public sector (see link below).</p>
<p><i>Environmental/external factors</i></p>
<p>Dry and upland areas are good prospects for watermelon crops. Dry areas are ideal for wild watermelons deep root systems, in which they exploit moisture from the soil. Upland areas are also ideal (depending on latitude and elevation) as watermelon crops call for extended growing periods and high temperatures (National Research Council, 2008). Humid areas are less ideal as they increase the risk of a variety of diseases, though many are bred to resist them (National Research Council, 2008). An annual rainfall of 600 mm-1200 mm is needed for wild watermelon (Mtumtum, 2012). However, watermelon can survive on as little as 250-500 mm of rainfall (National Research Council, 2008). Watermelon can generally grow on any soil type, but it does best on sandy or well drained soils, soils with good moisture retention capacity, and plenty of organic matter (National Research Council, 2008). The depth of soil should be approximately 10 cm, with a pH of 5.0 - 8.0 (ideally pH 5.5 - 7.0) (National Research Council, 2008). The ideal temperature range for watermelon is 23-27°C (growth stops below 18°C), however some grow where the temperature is 36°C (southern regions) (National Research Council, 2008). Control of weeds can be done through the use of herbicides (if affordable), or through manual labour (Ayinde, 2013). Weeding performed manually demands 2-3 weeding prior to harvesting; weeding is most affected by factors such as damage of flowersunintentional cutting of vines, as well as stepping on immature fruits as they are still developing (Ayinde, 2013). Watermelon flowers are staminate, and they normally begin to develop 4-8 weeks following seeding (Wehner, 2008). The growing season for watermelon crops typically spans approximately four months and reaches maturity about 45 days after blooming (National Research Council, 2008).</p>
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       <h3 class="title-bg">Benefits of Drought Tolerant Bean Varieties to Small Scale Farmers </h3>
       <h3 class="title-bg">Constraints to Adopting Watermelon</h3>
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<p><i>Watermelon market economic relationships</i></p>
<p>The world’s largest and most diverse collection of beans is preserved by CIAT (CIAT, 2015). Beans were domesticated within the neo-tropics thousands of years ago, which is where the majority of CIAT’s germplasm originated. With such an extensive range of beans available, the seed bank contains many options for farmers; a variety of colours, nutritional content, and production requirements can be found within these different strains (CIAT, 2015).</p>
<p>In Africa, there is a high demand for watermelon (Balogun, 2019). Some marketers are motivated by the profitability, while others are interested in its livelihood benefits (Balogun 2019). Ninety percent of marketers are constrained by credit accessibility (Balogun, 2019). Cost of marketing counts for nearly 50% of marketing expenditure: cost of transportation, cost of handling, market fees, and cost of storage (Balogun, 2019). When stored in direct sunlight/high temperatures, the physiological damage to the watermelon accelerates and decreases shelf life, making them less profitable (Balogun, 2019). However, watermelon seed has economic value for marketers, as they are high in good properties such as fats and protein, and have a variety of uses (Mtumtum, 2012). In West Africa, melon seed, called Egusi, is a staple food crop.</p>
<p><i>Economic value for local markets</i></p>
<p>Within the previous 15 years, researchers at the Consortium of International Agricultural Research Centres (CGIAR), CIAT’s umbrella organization, have created incredible advances towards solving issues surrounding drought, and increasing the heat-tolerance and nutritional content levels within common bean varieties (CIAT, 2015). CIAT researchers have been able to identify lines that display a tolerance to a 3˚C increase in temperature. These lines derive from a variety of crosses between common and tepary bean species (Phaseolus acutifolius). Currently cultivated traditional bean varieties have been projected to suffer a 20-50% loss by 2050, whereas heat-tolerant bred beans are projected to suffer minimal losses within that same time period (CIAT, 2015).</p>  
<p>Watermelon offers the prospect for development of rural areas as it is easy to grow, store, and eat (National Research Council, 2008). The majority of marketers are married and have a moderate sized family, meaning they have labour available to them (Balogun, 2019). As well, the majority of marketers have an education beyond primary school, thus indicating literacy to a degree (Balogun, 2019). This may in turn translate to profit and ability to innovate, adopt new technologies and skills that could improve their overall profit (Balogun, 2019). However, the low cost of watermelon and general unstable market prices develop challenges within local markets (Ayinde 2013). These problems arise as an aftermath of inadequate transportation and pricing systems (Balogun, 2019). Up to 30% loss of product occurs during the transportation process (Balogun, 2019). Furthermore, prices may double during off season, making it difficult to benefit from price increases (Balogun, 2019).</p>
 
<p><i>Nutritional value and other uses</i></p>
<p>In order for the new bean varieties to have drought resistant qualities, different traits from different genetic groups were required (Beebe, 2014). Many of the traits which are linked to drought resistance were found within both bean roots and shoots. In order to guarantee a higher success rate of the bean plant, a lengthy root system was required. Additionally, early maturation of the bean crops was a common tactic to combat drought tolerance. A total of 36 genotypes were tested in 2009 during a growing season with significant drought stress. Table 1 shows the field trial results of 5 genotypes grown under different field conditions (Beebe, 2014).</P>
<p>Watermelon provide a fair amount of nutrition. It is a source of provitamin A (300 RE/100 g for some red types) and vitamin C (100 mg/100 g) (National Research Council, 2008). Its vitamins help lesson night blindness, prevent eye problems, dry skin conditions, and psoriasis (Ayinde, 2013). Watermelon also contains potassium, about 4% of daily nutritional value per 1 cup (USDA, n.d.), which can aid in controlling blood pressure and perhaps prevent stroke (Ayinde, 2013). It is also high in fibre, providing 2% of daily nutritional value per 1 cup (USDA, n.d.). Watermelon seeds contain between 20-40% protein, and fair amounts of minerals and B vitamins (National Research Council, 2008, p. 174). Watermelon has a wide variety of uses as well, predominantly for food consumption. It can be cooked as vegetables (vegetable watermelons), seeded (for income or consumption), pickled, emergency food security, eaten fresh, used for rinds, oil, leaves, and flowers (National Research Council, 2008). In some cases, seed cake can be used as animal feed, and watermelon may be used to provide water for animals (National Research Council, 2008).</p>  
 
<p>Table 1. Drought associated traits associated with improved bean genotypes </p>
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<p>The crops were managed by the irrigation systems for up to 25 days following planting. In order to induce drought stress, the crops were fed a total of 105 mm of water initially followed by an allotted amount of 59 mm of rainwater. An analysis of these trials recommended that the most elite drought tolerant lines expressed heightened stomatal control of transpiration and contained Mexican genetics (Beebe, 2014).</p>
 
<p>Since 1996, The Pan-Africa Bean Research Alliance (PABRA) has released over 550 new drought resistant bean varieties to many of the countries within Africa in co-ordination with assistance from CIAT (CIAT, 2016). Utilizing germplasm available, the new varieties of beans (known as BIO101 and BIO107) contain 60% more iron and 50% more zinc than those of traditional bean crops. Following the creation of these specially bred beans, a trial with pregnant and young women in Rwanda discovered that the new varieties of beans reduced iron-deficiency and increased immune system strength in each of the women (CIAT, 2016). With these new advances, PABRA will assist future production by making the crops more resilient to climate change threats while simultaneously targeting direct effects on the human population (CIAT, 2015).</p>
 
<p>The regions within Latin America, Oceania and Sub-Saharan Africa contain the highest percentage of women participating in the agricultural sector. It is within these regions that 60% of the total agricultural production is completed by women (Huyer, 2016). In the world’s least developed regions, 79% of the women contributing to their national economy report that they work in the agriculture sector (Huyer, 2016). When women engage in the agricultural production (with new technologies such as heat-tolerant bean varieties) it creates a sense of empowerment and thus builds essential assets, which the women are then able to use in all other aspects of their lives (Muriel, 2019). With the climate change innovations available within common bean variety crops, female farmers are considered to be important influences (Huyer, 2016). When the women’s knowledge of available innovative resources and access to information increases, it establishes an increase in food supply as well as a more resilient community. Likewise, an attempt is made to close the gender gap, thus providing a higher chance for equal opportunities between both men and women (Huyer, 2016), which would in turn help to positively shape the future of those regions affected.</p>  
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       <h3 class="title-bg">Gender Issues Associated with Production of Drought Tolerant Bean Varieties </h3>
       <h3 class="title-bg">Achievability of Wider Adoption</h3>
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<p>If the farmers, though especially female farmers, are not able to utilize and benefit from these new seed varieties, the food supply decreases and the gender gap increases, which diminishes the resiliency of the community (Huyer, 2016). Additionally, since very little information is available with regards to how poor regions with higher gender discrepancy respond to the threats and impacts of climate change within agricultural production, it is difficult to forecast results for future decades (Huyer, 2016).</p>
<p><i>Steps that farmers can take to adopt new crops</i></p>
<p>Intercropping is a powerful tool that farmers can use to produce higher yields. Intercropping is characterized as concurrent growing of more than one crop on the same area of land (Mtumtum, 2012). As an example, pumpkin and melon can often be intercropped with maize (corn) as they complement one another (Mtumtum, 2012). Additionally, intercropping functions as live mulch as it represses weeds without the need to apply an organic or inorganic component (Mtumtum 2012). Mulching in itself can be used as a crop production technique to provide a better environment for crop growth (Mtumtum, 2012). In addition to suppressing weeds, it aids the soil in retaining moisture and temperature regulation (Mtumtum, 2012).</p>
<p><i>Retail and labour cost</i></p>
<p>In one study in Nigeria, the gross return per 1 hectare for melon was ₦12, 638.61 ($34.82 USD) in 2008; on average the total cost was ₦8, 838.74 ($24.35 USD) providing a net income of ₦3, 799.87/Ha ($10.47 USD) for a farm (Ayinde, 2013). In Kwara State, the contrast between the sum of the return and total cost of crop production provided a total margin of ₦1, 263.81/Ha ($3.48) (Ayinde, 2013). Most farmers could not sell their product as a result of this (Ayinde, 2013). Therefore, before promoting adoption of watermelon as a cash crop, the local market potential of the crop versus input costs, needs to be carefully assessed. In other parts of the world, watermelon is considered a good source of income for women farmers.</p>
<p><i>Required labour/technologies for improved crop yield</i></p> 
<p>Cultivation of watermelon is highly labour intensive (especially due to its weight) (Ayinde, 2013). The process of cultivation includes many steps including splitting the pod, fermentation, collecting seeds from these pods, and washing and drying them by sun (Ayinde, 2013). Storage of watermelon is dependent on the overall size of the harvest, and the available labour. In some cases, watermelon is left in the fields, or they are assembled in a pile at the homesteads (Mtumtum, 2012). Piling the cultivated fruit acts as a suitable storage for food/water for up to a year’s duration without the watermelon going bad or decreasing in quality (Mtumtum, 2012). Thus, the fruit has remarkable post-harvest stability.</p>
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       <h3 class="title-bg">Production of Drought Tolerant Beans (Phaseolus Vulgaris) in Arid Regions </h3>
       <h3 class="title-bg">Critical Analysis </h3>
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<p>It is necessary that farmers are equipped with all of the relevant information required to achieve the highest quality results from their newly adapted bean varieties (PABRA, 2016). Becoming knowledgeable about land preparation, crop management and harvesting is vital to ensuring success within production systems. Integrated crop management (ICM) is a holistic approach utilized by PABRA that assists farmers throughout their cultivation. The desired outcome from ICM is to give smallholder farmers access to cost-effective, climate change resistant crops. This is achieved by working with many international partners. Multiple techniques exist within ICM such as pest management, soil quality, planting and intercropping. With such techniques, approximately six million farmers have been able to improve their bean yields. The ICM research encompasses a variety of areas:</p>
<p><i>Pests that target watermelon plants</i></p>
<p>-    Cropping systems: Assessing the different varieties of beans while comparing the benefits of intercropping and rotation.</p>
<p>The most significant watermelon pest in Africa is the Melon Fly (Bactrocera Cucurbitae) (National Research Council, 2008). Less significant are root knot nematodes (National Research Council, 2008). Wild collections of watermelon are well known to resist pests, and usually remain unaffected (Mtumtum, 2012). Pests (and diseases) can be exterminated through use of pesticides (chemically), or with non-chemical methods. To lessen risks, farmers can use disease free fruit (seeds), plant earlier in the crop season, and/or rotate crops annually (Mtumtum, 2012).</p>
<p>-    Inputs: Evaluating the varieties of fertilisers available which are best suitable for the farmer’s chosen bean variety.</p>  
<p><i>Various diseases</i></p>
<p>-    Water Management: In order to combat the negative effects of climate change and drought, improved practices regarding irrigation and water conservation are fundamental. </p>
<p>There are a number of diseases that watermelon crops are susceptible to. These include bacterial fruit blotch, damping off, anthracnose, powdery mildew and downy mildew, Fusarium wilt, gummy stem blight, and an assortment of viruses such as Watermelon Mosaic Virus (National Research Council, 2008). Downy mildew is caused by Pseudoperonospora cubensis; and damping off, caused by Macrophomina phaseolina, is most frequent during the seedling stage (Mtumtum, 2012). Humidity and excess rainfall encourage the occurrences of these diseases (Mtumtum, 2012). Viruses, on the other hand, are transmitted to crops through aphids and cucumber beetles (though some may occur through humidity/soil health) (National Research Council, 2008). Further, this is why dry conditions are most ideal for watermelon crops (Mtumtum, 2012). Chemical control of these issues is most needed, preferably on a weekly basis (Ayinde, 2013). However, this is rarely the case as it is expensive for small scale farmers to afford such chemicals.</p>  
<p>-    Soil Fertility: By working with the technologies available within the private sector, this promotes biological nitrogen fixation capabilities which increases yield potential.</p> 
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<p>-    Pest and Disease Management: Bean varieties are frequently affected by an array of pests and diseases which have very negative effects on crop yields. PABRA analyses integrated pest management systems with utilization of both biological and chemical methods (PABRA, 2016).</p>  
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       <h3 class="title-bg">Helpful Links to Get Started </h3>
       <h3 class="title-bg">Helpful online resources to get started </h3>
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<p>Resource for Requesting Seeds:</p>
 
<p>https://genebank.ciat.cgiar.org/genebank/inforequestmaterial.do</p>
<p>Obtaining Seeds: AVRDC - World Vegetable Center, Taiwan:  Search using the Latin name Citrullus lanatus: http://seed.worldveg.org/search/passport
<p>CIAT innovations on heat-tolerant beans:</p>
https://avrdc.org/seed/seeds/</p>
<p>https://blog.ciat.cgiar.org/heat-tolerant-wild-beans-tapped-to-breed-commercial-beans-for-hotter-climates/</p>
 
<p>What is ‘Seed Security’?</p>
<p>https://www.seedsavers.org/grow-watermelon
<p>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xvqSaw49wnE</p>
Purchasing seeds from Seed Savers</p>
<p>Agricultural Business Skills for seed-producers:</p>
<p>https://cgspace.cgiar.org/bitstream/handle/10568/54569/handbook_3_english.pdf</p>
<p>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-NKyehOeaJQ
<p>Crop Management:</p>
Market for watermelon in Uganda </p>
<p>https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/detail/national/newsroom/features/?&cid=nrcs143_023350</p>
 
<p>Smallholder Farmers Stories Who Have Adopted Drought Tolerant Bean Varieties:</p>
<p>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vZRYBtBXb2s
<p>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=O2UqFbnOc6U</p>
Watermelon growing</p>
<p>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=x3D3DiZ4I-8</p>
 
<p>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Qd4RS66FMJM&t=8s</p>
<p>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=apgo4I_RP0U
Video on how to plant, grow and harvest watermelon</p>
 
<p>file:///Users/devondempster/Downloads/ExtensionFolderNo-64-watermelon.pdf
Watermelon cultivation PDF</p>
 
<p>https://www.ecofog.gf/giec/doc_num.php?explnum_id=995
Watermelon cultivation and postharvest handling</p>
 
<p>https://www.agmrc.org/commodities-products/vegetables/watermelon
Watermeon marketing</p>
 
<p>https://shareok.org/handle/11244/6583
https://www-cabdirect-org.subzero.lib.uoguelph.ca/cabdirect/FullTextPDF/2016/20163395041.pdf
Both of the above links provide articles that touch on different methods of food preparation</p>
 
<p>ovidsp.dc2.ovid.com/
additional (overlooked) benefits of watermelon on human health, specifically on vascular function and exercise performance</p>  
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       <h3 class="title-bg">References </h3>
       <h3 class="title-bg">References </h3>
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<p>1. Ayinde, I., Lategan, F., Yusuf, S. (2013). Profitability and adoption of watermelon technologies by farmers in moro local government of Kwara State, Nigeria. Journal of Agricultural Science, 5, 91-99. http://www.ccsenet.org/journal/index.php/jas/article/view/22613</p>
<p>2. Balogun, O. L., Akinboro, O. S., Akinwole, O. T., & Osuji, E. E. (2019). An economic analysis of watermelon marketing. International Journal of Vegetable Science, 25(4), 355-361. https://journals-scholarsportal-info.subzero.lib.uoguelph.ca/details/19315260/v25i0004/355_aeaowm.xml</p>
<p>3. Chomicki, G. and Renner, S. S. (2015). Watermelon origin solved with molecular phylogenetics including Linnaean material: another example of museomics. New Phytologist, 205, 526-532. https://nph-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.subzero.lib.uoguelph.ca/doi/full/10.1111/nph.13163</p>
<p>4. Mtumtum, N. P. (2012). Performance of wild watermelon (citrullus lanatus L.) in response to population density and mulch. MSc Thesis, University of Kwazulu-Natal, South Africa.</p>
<p>5. https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Performance-of-wild-watermelon-(Citrullus-lanatus-Mtumtum/0711069736669f861c9f1f7c6ed53d4421286c8d</p>
<p>6. National Research Council. (2008). Lost Crops of Africa: Volume III: Fruits. The National Academies Press, 3, 165-182. https://www.nap.edu/read/11879/chapter/12#168</p> 
<p>7. Paris, H.S. (2015). Origin and emergence of the sweet dessert watermelon, Citrullus lanatus. Ann. Bot., 116(2), 133-148 https://apps.webofknowledge.com/full_record.do?product=WOS&search_mode=GeneralSearch&qid=1&SID=5DT33wjcYfMAyRNzaVV&page=2&doc=14</p>
<p>8. Spindell Berck, C., Berck, P., Di Falco, S. (2018). Agricultural Adaptation to Climate Change in Africa. London, UK: Taylor & Francis Group. https://www-taylorfrancis-com.subzero.lib.uoguelph.ca/books/e/9781315149776</p>
<p>9.Suits, D. (1955). An Econometric Model of the Watermelon Market. Journal of Farm Economics, 37(2), 237-251. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1233923</p>
<p>10. Verschuren, D., Laird, K. & Cumming, B. (2000). Rainfall and drought in equatorial east Africa during the past 1,100 years. Nature, 403, 410–414</p>
<p>11. Wehner, T.D. (2008). Watermelon. Handbook of Plant Breeding Vegetables, 1, 381-418. Springer, New York. https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-0-387-30443-4_12#citeas</p>


<p>1. Beebe, S.E., et al. (2014) Common beans, biodiversity, and multiple stresses:
<p>12. USDA. (n.d.). Watermelon. United States Department of Agriculture. Retrieved from https://snaped.fns.usda.gov/seasonal-produce-guide/watermelon</p>
a. challenges of drought resistance in tropical soils. Crop and Pasture Science 65, 667-675. Retrieved from https://www.publish.csiro.au/cp/cp13303</p>
<p>2. Buruchara, R. (2011). Development and Delivery of Bean Varieties in Africa: The Pan-
a. African Bean Research Alliance (PABRA) Model, p.227-245. African Crop Science Journal. Retrieved from https://www.ajol.info/index.php/acsj/article/view/74168/64827</p>
<p>3. Huyer, S, et al. (2016). CCAFS Gender and Social Inclusion Strategy, p.8-11. The
a. Consortium of International Agricultural Research Centres. Retrieved from https://cgspace.cgiar.org/handle/10568/72900</p>
<p>4. International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI). (2009). Climate Change: Impact
a. on Agriculture and Costs of Adaptation. Retrieved from https://books.google.ca/books?hl=en&lr=&id=1Vpe0JvYTJYC&oi=fnd&pg=PR7&ots=Xmu2c8Swla&sig=GX4sDC1DiDa7I5408r0a3nz2sJo&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false</p>
<p>5. Muriel, J., et al. (2019). The Abbreviated Women’s Empowerment in Agriculture Index
a. (A-WEIA). Project Results for ‘His and Hers, Time and Income: How Intra Household Dynamics Impact Nutrition in Agricultural Households’. The International Centre for Tropical Agriculture. Retrieved from https://cgspace.cgiar.org/handle/10568/101141</p>
<p>6. The International Centre for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT). (2015). Developing Beans that
a. Can Beat the Heat. The Consortium of International Agricultural Research Centres. Retrieved from https://ciat-library.ciat.cgiar.org/articulos_ciat/biblioteca/DEVELOPING_BEANS_THAT_CAN_BEAT_THE_HEAT_lowres%20(2).pdf</p>
<p>7. The International Centre for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT). (2016). Beans. Retrieved from
a. https://ciat.cgiar.org/what-we-do/breeding-better-crops/beans/.</p>
<p>8. The International Centre for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT). (2017). Fifty Years and Fifty
a. Wins, p.4-18. The Consortium of International Agricultural Research Centres. Retrieved from https://cgspace.cgiar.org/bitstream/handle/10568/89145/50_WINS_WEB02.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y</p>

Revision as of 12:47, 2 July 2022

5.38 -Adopting Watermelon to Combat Drought


Devon Dempster, University of Guelph, Canada

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Suggested citation for this chapter.

Dempster,D. (2022) Adopting Watermelon to Combat Drought, In Farmpedia, The Encyclopedia for Small Scale Farmers. Editor, M.N. Raizada, University of Guelph, Canada. http://www.farmpedia.org

Background

Drought throughout Africa and the subtropics is a common problem and is worsening due to the effects of climate change (Verschuren, 2000). Watermelon (Citrullus lanatus) originates in Africa (Paris, 2015) and its wider adoption is a possible solution for smallholder farmers, as watermelon plants have deep root systems that can exploit soil moisture, making them ideal for drought conditions (Mtumtum, 2012). The crop has both nutritional and income benefits

Cultivation requirements

Target crops and country

China is the world's largest producer of watermelon; producing as much as two-thirds of the world’s watermelon (National Research Council, 2008). Despite this, watermelon has been concluded to originate from northeastern Africa (Paris, 2015) (National Research Council, 2008).When considering genetics, cultivated watermelon are most similar to crops from West Africa (Chomicki, 2015). African Citrullus is genetically diverse, with plenty of potential to improve crop yield and tolerance (National Research Council, 2008).

Steps to cultivate watermelon from its seed

When planting on dry sites, sowing of seeds is executed when rainfall begins; the opposite is done for moist crop sites, in which planting is executed when rainfall ends (National Research Council, 2008). Ideally, planting is done when the soil temperature has reached at least 20°C (National Research Council, 2008). Seeds are sown in 2-4 cm deep soil, in groups of 1-3 at a time (National Research Council, 2008). Later on, seedlings are thinned to 1 per site; in the meantime, transplants may be planted during the appearance of leaves (Mtumtum, 2012). The World Vegetable Center in Taiwan, a CGIAR Institute, has a seedbank of the world’s watermelon seeds and makes available seeds of different watermelon varieties to the public sector (see link below).

Environmental/external factors

Dry and upland areas are good prospects for watermelon crops. Dry areas are ideal for wild watermelons deep root systems, in which they exploit moisture from the soil. Upland areas are also ideal (depending on latitude and elevation) as watermelon crops call for extended growing periods and high temperatures (National Research Council, 2008). Humid areas are less ideal as they increase the risk of a variety of diseases, though many are bred to resist them (National Research Council, 2008). An annual rainfall of 600 mm-1200 mm is needed for wild watermelon (Mtumtum, 2012). However, watermelon can survive on as little as 250-500 mm of rainfall (National Research Council, 2008). Watermelon can generally grow on any soil type, but it does best on sandy or well drained soils, soils with good moisture retention capacity, and plenty of organic matter (National Research Council, 2008). The depth of soil should be approximately 10 cm, with a pH of 5.0 - 8.0 (ideally pH 5.5 - 7.0) (National Research Council, 2008). The ideal temperature range for watermelon is 23-27°C (growth stops below 18°C), however some grow where the temperature is 36°C (southern regions) (National Research Council, 2008). Control of weeds can be done through the use of herbicides (if affordable), or through manual labour (Ayinde, 2013). Weeding performed manually demands 2-3 weeding prior to harvesting; weeding is most affected by factors such as damage of flowersunintentional cutting of vines, as well as stepping on immature fruits as they are still developing (Ayinde, 2013). Watermelon flowers are staminate, and they normally begin to develop 4-8 weeks following seeding (Wehner, 2008). The growing season for watermelon crops typically spans approximately four months and reaches maturity about 45 days after blooming (National Research Council, 2008).

Constraints to Adopting Watermelon

Watermelon market economic relationships

In Africa, there is a high demand for watermelon (Balogun, 2019). Some marketers are motivated by the profitability, while others are interested in its livelihood benefits (Balogun 2019). Ninety percent of marketers are constrained by credit accessibility (Balogun, 2019). Cost of marketing counts for nearly 50% of marketing expenditure: cost of transportation, cost of handling, market fees, and cost of storage (Balogun, 2019). When stored in direct sunlight/high temperatures, the physiological damage to the watermelon accelerates and decreases shelf life, making them less profitable (Balogun, 2019). However, watermelon seed has economic value for marketers, as they are high in good properties such as fats and protein, and have a variety of uses (Mtumtum, 2012). In West Africa, melon seed, called Egusi, is a staple food crop.

Economic value for local markets

Watermelon offers the prospect for development of rural areas as it is easy to grow, store, and eat (National Research Council, 2008). The majority of marketers are married and have a moderate sized family, meaning they have labour available to them (Balogun, 2019). As well, the majority of marketers have an education beyond primary school, thus indicating literacy to a degree (Balogun, 2019). This may in turn translate to profit and ability to innovate, adopt new technologies and skills that could improve their overall profit (Balogun, 2019). However, the low cost of watermelon and general unstable market prices develop challenges within local markets (Ayinde 2013). These problems arise as an aftermath of inadequate transportation and pricing systems (Balogun, 2019). Up to 30% loss of product occurs during the transportation process (Balogun, 2019). Furthermore, prices may double during off season, making it difficult to benefit from price increases (Balogun, 2019).

Nutritional value and other uses

Watermelon provide a fair amount of nutrition. It is a source of provitamin A (300 RE/100 g for some red types) and vitamin C (100 mg/100 g) (National Research Council, 2008). Its vitamins help lesson night blindness, prevent eye problems, dry skin conditions, and psoriasis (Ayinde, 2013). Watermelon also contains potassium, about 4% of daily nutritional value per 1 cup (USDA, n.d.), which can aid in controlling blood pressure and perhaps prevent stroke (Ayinde, 2013). It is also high in fibre, providing 2% of daily nutritional value per 1 cup (USDA, n.d.). Watermelon seeds contain between 20-40% protein, and fair amounts of minerals and B vitamins (National Research Council, 2008, p. 174). Watermelon has a wide variety of uses as well, predominantly for food consumption. It can be cooked as vegetables (vegetable watermelons), seeded (for income or consumption), pickled, emergency food security, eaten fresh, used for rinds, oil, leaves, and flowers (National Research Council, 2008). In some cases, seed cake can be used as animal feed, and watermelon may be used to provide water for animals (National Research Council, 2008).

Achievability of Wider Adoption

Steps that farmers can take to adopt new crops

Intercropping is a powerful tool that farmers can use to produce higher yields. Intercropping is characterized as concurrent growing of more than one crop on the same area of land (Mtumtum, 2012). As an example, pumpkin and melon can often be intercropped with maize (corn) as they complement one another (Mtumtum, 2012). Additionally, intercropping functions as live mulch as it represses weeds without the need to apply an organic or inorganic component (Mtumtum 2012). Mulching in itself can be used as a crop production technique to provide a better environment for crop growth (Mtumtum, 2012). In addition to suppressing weeds, it aids the soil in retaining moisture and temperature regulation (Mtumtum, 2012).

Retail and labour cost

In one study in Nigeria, the gross return per 1 hectare for melon was ₦12, 638.61 ($34.82 USD) in 2008; on average the total cost was ₦8, 838.74 ($24.35 USD) providing a net income of ₦3, 799.87/Ha ($10.47 USD) for a farm (Ayinde, 2013). In Kwara State, the contrast between the sum of the return and total cost of crop production provided a total margin of ₦1, 263.81/Ha ($3.48) (Ayinde, 2013). Most farmers could not sell their product as a result of this (Ayinde, 2013). Therefore, before promoting adoption of watermelon as a cash crop, the local market potential of the crop versus input costs, needs to be carefully assessed. In other parts of the world, watermelon is considered a good source of income for women farmers.

Required labour/technologies for improved crop yield

Cultivation of watermelon is highly labour intensive (especially due to its weight) (Ayinde, 2013). The process of cultivation includes many steps including splitting the pod, fermentation, collecting seeds from these pods, and washing and drying them by sun (Ayinde, 2013). Storage of watermelon is dependent on the overall size of the harvest, and the available labour. In some cases, watermelon is left in the fields, or they are assembled in a pile at the homesteads (Mtumtum, 2012). Piling the cultivated fruit acts as a suitable storage for food/water for up to a year’s duration without the watermelon going bad or decreasing in quality (Mtumtum, 2012). Thus, the fruit has remarkable post-harvest stability.

Critical Analysis

Pests that target watermelon plants

The most significant watermelon pest in Africa is the Melon Fly (Bactrocera Cucurbitae) (National Research Council, 2008). Less significant are root knot nematodes (National Research Council, 2008). Wild collections of watermelon are well known to resist pests, and usually remain unaffected (Mtumtum, 2012). Pests (and diseases) can be exterminated through use of pesticides (chemically), or with non-chemical methods. To lessen risks, farmers can use disease free fruit (seeds), plant earlier in the crop season, and/or rotate crops annually (Mtumtum, 2012).

Various diseases

There are a number of diseases that watermelon crops are susceptible to. These include bacterial fruit blotch, damping off, anthracnose, powdery mildew and downy mildew, Fusarium wilt, gummy stem blight, and an assortment of viruses such as Watermelon Mosaic Virus (National Research Council, 2008). Downy mildew is caused by Pseudoperonospora cubensis; and damping off, caused by Macrophomina phaseolina, is most frequent during the seedling stage (Mtumtum, 2012). Humidity and excess rainfall encourage the occurrences of these diseases (Mtumtum, 2012). Viruses, on the other hand, are transmitted to crops through aphids and cucumber beetles (though some may occur through humidity/soil health) (National Research Council, 2008). Further, this is why dry conditions are most ideal for watermelon crops (Mtumtum, 2012). Chemical control of these issues is most needed, preferably on a weekly basis (Ayinde, 2013). However, this is rarely the case as it is expensive for small scale farmers to afford such chemicals.

Helpful online resources to get started

Obtaining Seeds: AVRDC - World Vegetable Center, Taiwan: Search using the Latin name Citrullus lanatus: http://seed.worldveg.org/search/passport https://avrdc.org/seed/seeds/

https://www.seedsavers.org/grow-watermelon Purchasing seeds from Seed Savers

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-NKyehOeaJQ Market for watermelon in Uganda

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vZRYBtBXb2s Watermelon growing

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=apgo4I_RP0U Video on how to plant, grow and harvest watermelon

file:///Users/devondempster/Downloads/ExtensionFolderNo-64-watermelon.pdf Watermelon cultivation PDF

https://www.ecofog.gf/giec/doc_num.php?explnum_id=995 Watermelon cultivation and postharvest handling

https://www.agmrc.org/commodities-products/vegetables/watermelon Watermeon marketing

https://shareok.org/handle/11244/6583 https://www-cabdirect-org.subzero.lib.uoguelph.ca/cabdirect/FullTextPDF/2016/20163395041.pdf Both of the above links provide articles that touch on different methods of food preparation

ovidsp.dc2.ovid.com/ additional (overlooked) benefits of watermelon on human health, specifically on vascular function and exercise performance

References

1. Ayinde, I., Lategan, F., Yusuf, S. (2013). Profitability and adoption of watermelon technologies by farmers in moro local government of Kwara State, Nigeria. Journal of Agricultural Science, 5, 91-99. http://www.ccsenet.org/journal/index.php/jas/article/view/22613

2. Balogun, O. L., Akinboro, O. S., Akinwole, O. T., & Osuji, E. E. (2019). An economic analysis of watermelon marketing. International Journal of Vegetable Science, 25(4), 355-361. https://journals-scholarsportal-info.subzero.lib.uoguelph.ca/details/19315260/v25i0004/355_aeaowm.xml

3. Chomicki, G. and Renner, S. S. (2015). Watermelon origin solved with molecular phylogenetics including Linnaean material: another example of museomics. New Phytologist, 205, 526-532. https://nph-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.subzero.lib.uoguelph.ca/doi/full/10.1111/nph.13163

4. Mtumtum, N. P. (2012). Performance of wild watermelon (citrullus lanatus L.) in response to population density and mulch. MSc Thesis, University of Kwazulu-Natal, South Africa.

5. https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Performance-of-wild-watermelon-(Citrullus-lanatus-Mtumtum/0711069736669f861c9f1f7c6ed53d4421286c8d

6. National Research Council. (2008). Lost Crops of Africa: Volume III: Fruits. The National Academies Press, 3, 165-182. https://www.nap.edu/read/11879/chapter/12#168

7. Paris, H.S. (2015). Origin and emergence of the sweet dessert watermelon, Citrullus lanatus. Ann. Bot., 116(2), 133-148 https://apps.webofknowledge.com/full_record.do?product=WOS&search_mode=GeneralSearch&qid=1&SID=5DT33wjcYfMAyRNzaVV&page=2&doc=14

8. Spindell Berck, C., Berck, P., Di Falco, S. (2018). Agricultural Adaptation to Climate Change in Africa. London, UK: Taylor & Francis Group. https://www-taylorfrancis-com.subzero.lib.uoguelph.ca/books/e/9781315149776

9.Suits, D. (1955). An Econometric Model of the Watermelon Market. Journal of Farm Economics, 37(2), 237-251. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1233923

10. Verschuren, D., Laird, K. & Cumming, B. (2000). Rainfall and drought in equatorial east Africa during the past 1,100 years. Nature, 403, 410–414

11. Wehner, T.D. (2008). Watermelon. Handbook of Plant Breeding Vegetables, 1, 381-418. Springer, New York. https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-0-387-30443-4_12#citeas

12. USDA. (n.d.). Watermelon. United States Department of Agriculture. Retrieved from https://snaped.fns.usda.gov/seasonal-produce-guide/watermelon

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