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(Created page with "<div> <div class="title"><h3>5.35 -Drought Tolerant Bean Varieties (Phaseolus vulgaris) Utilized to Overcome the Negative Effects of Climate Change </h3><br><h3 class="ch-owner">Jordan Candido, University of Guelph, Canada </h3></div> <div class="hero-img-2"> 300px <p>Suggested citation for this chapter.</p> <p>Candido,J. (2022) Drought Tolerant Bean Varieties (Phaseolus vulgaris) Utilized to Overcome the Negative Effects of Climate Change, In Farmpedia,...")
 
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  <div class="title"><h3>5.35 -Drought Tolerant Bean Varieties (Phaseolus vulgaris) Utilized to Overcome the Negative Effects of Climate Change </h3><br><h3 class="ch-owner">Jordan Candido, University of Guelph, Canada </h3></div>
  <div class="title"><h3>5.35 -A Sustainable Innovation to Preserve Cowpea Crops </h3><br><h3 class="ch-owner">Jacob Koole , University of Guelph, Canada </h3></div>
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<p>Suggested citation for this chapter.</p>
<p>Suggested citation for this chapter.</p>
<p>Candido,J. (2022) Drought Tolerant Bean Varieties (Phaseolus vulgaris) Utilized to Overcome the Negative Effects of Climate Change, In Farmpedia, The Encyclopedia for Small Scale Farmers. Editor, M.N. Raizada, University of Guelph, Canada. http://www.farmpedia.org</p>
<p> Koole,J. (2022) A Sustainable Innovation to Preserve Cowpea Crops, In Farmpedia, The Encyclopedia for Small Scale Farmers. Editor, M.N. Raizada, University of Guelph, Canada. http://www.farmpedia.org</p>
       <h3 class="title-bg">Background</h3>
       <h3 class="title-bg">Origin of the Cowpea</h3>
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           <p>During the formation of the International Centre for Tropical Agriculture, or CIAT, in 1967, headquartered in Colombia, the vast majority of starving and malnourished people residing in tropical and sub-tropical regions were smallholder farmers (CIAT, 2017). Thus, the goal of increasing yield potential became a primary priority for CIAT (CIAT, 2017). The current areas of concern are in regard to common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) production systems, the landscapes where its production occurs, and its yield potential (CIAT, 2015). Millions of farmers within Africa and Latin America depend on high yield outcomes from their bean crops not only to provide food but also to provide an income for themselves and their families. However, due to the high demand of the crop and the drastic effects of climate change, farmers continue to struggle to meet the needs of consumers (CIAT, 2015).</p>
           <p>Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) is an antique legume that originated in western Africa roughly around 3000 B.C.E (Smith, 2005). Though widely produced in Ethiopia, cowpea is grown worldwide in countries such as Brazil, the United States, and the majority of Asia (Gómez, 2004). Cowpea demonstrates remarkable drought tolerance because of its tendency to form a deep taproot that can comfortably grow in dry soils (Gómez, 2004). The deep taproot creates potential to mitigate drought tolerance associated with various climates. The cowpea plant itself spreads, covering much of the ground (Gómez, 2004), resulting in weed suppression. The plant varies by variety but typically has climbing vines and sporadic leaves (Gómez, 2004). An interesting element about the cowpea is the self pollinating flowers that sprout in clusters during blooming season (Gómez, 2004). These flowers can be a variety of colours such as purple, white, dirty yellow, blue or pink. This plant is beneficial not only to people and animals that consume it but to pollinating insects as well (Gómez, 2004).</p>  
<p>Throughout the previous several decades, the impacts of climate change have been worsening (IFPRI, 2009). Climate change projections state that regions in Sub-Saharan Africa, Latin America, and the Caribbean will be greatly affected by an increase of drought conditions and a rise in average annual temperatures. Due to these conditions, the threats to agricultural production within these land areas are escalating (IFPRI, 2009). Within these regions, the common bean is a staple crop; beans are often referred to as “the meat of the poor” (CIAT, 2016). They contain high levels of protein, fibre, vitamins and micronutrients. An estimated 400 million people residing in the tropics consume beans in their daily diet due to their high nutritional content (CIAT, 2016).</p>
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       <h3 class="title-bg">Benefits of Drought Tolerant Bean Varieties to Small Scale Farmers </h3>
       <h3 class="title-bg">Cowpea Sub-Species and Seedbanks </h3>
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<p>As mentioned earlier, there are many landraces and varieties of cowpea. These seeds differ as a result of habitat, growth, disease resistance, colour, and the size of seed (Gómez, 2004). Cowpeas are adaptable to local environments and needs, resulting in many diverse seeds sold in the marketplace. Subspecies such as the black eyed peas, catjang, and yardlong beans are all high quality legumes that contribute nutritional benefits to different regions of the world (Gómez, 2004). These particular seeds can be accessed by local seed banks at affordable prices for large and small scale farmers where available. Three major international CGIAR institutes breed cowpea and possess seed banks. The World Vegetable Center (AVRDC), International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), and International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT) all breed cowpea and posses seed banks. All organizations provide helpful information for farmers to either acquire cowpea and distribute. Methods of preparation, harvesting, and marketing are all contributions these organizations share with farmers. Seeds of cowpea can be requested online using the links at the bottom of this chapter.</p>
<p>The world’s largest and most diverse collection of beans is preserved by CIAT (CIAT, 2015). Beans were domesticated within the neo-tropics thousands of years ago, which is where the majority of CIAT’s germplasm originated. With such an extensive range of beans available, the seed bank contains many options for farmers; a variety of colours, nutritional content, and production requirements can be found within these different strains (CIAT, 2015).</p>
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<p>Within the previous 15 years, researchers at the Consortium of International Agricultural Research Centres (CGIAR), CIAT’s umbrella organization, have created incredible advances towards solving issues surrounding drought, and increasing the heat-tolerance and nutritional content levels within common bean varieties (CIAT, 2015). CIAT researchers have been able to identify lines that display a tolerance to a 3˚C increase in temperature. These lines derive from a variety of crosses between common and tepary bean species (Phaseolus acutifolius). Currently cultivated traditional bean varieties have been projected to suffer a 20-50% loss by 2050, whereas heat-tolerant bred beans are projected to suffer minimal losses within that same time period (CIAT, 2015).</p>
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      <h3 class="title-bg">Cowpea Cultivation </h3>
<p>In order for the new bean varieties to have drought resistant qualities, different traits from different genetic groups were required (Beebe, 2014). Many of the traits which are linked to drought resistance were found within both bean roots and shoots. In order to guarantee a higher success rate of the bean plant, a lengthy root system was required. Additionally, early maturation of the bean crops was a common tactic to combat drought tolerance. A total of 36 genotypes were tested in 2009 during a growing season with significant drought stress. Table 1 shows the field trial results of 5 genotypes grown under different field conditions (Beebe, 2014).</P>
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<p>Grown worldwide, the cowpea is adaptable to different growing conditions including semi-arid regions and dry savannas (USDA, 2012) and can grow in as little as 300 mm of rainfall (Gómez, 2004). The growing season is typically between 100 to 120 days depending on irrigation/rainfall (Gómez, 2004). It is best to plant the seed 1 to 2 inches below the soil in early summer at 50 lbs per acre, or minimally 30 lbs per acre (USDA, 2012). Soils in the Western Africa regions are low in nitrogen and phosphorus, so it is critical that fertilizer/manure management is followed to obtain high yielding crops (Bationo, 2003). The most effective way to prepare the soil is to plow after the first rain; the deep taproot needs loose soil (Ishikawa, 2013). The best fertilizer to incorporate into the soil is either ripened organic manure or chemical fertilizer, both of which must be spread evenly through the soil (Ishikawa, 2013). Cowpea is heavily reliant on phosphate,  and a healthy crop typically requires a pH range of 3.95-7.6 (Bationo, 2003). Symbiotic bacteria living inside cowpea root nodules produce fixed nitrogen, reducing its nitrogen fertilizer requirement though other nutrients are required (USDA, 2012). Though inoculation with nitrogen-fixing rhizobia bacteria has been shown to be effective, the cowpea can nodulate in an array of soils (USDA, 2012). In nutrient-deficient soils, cowpea requires starter nitrogen to develop the nodules before nitrogen fixation can begin (Ishikawa, 2013). Farmers must find a way to incorporate nitrogen into the dry soil in order for the cowpea to grow. A fairly inexpensive solution to this challenge is the use of compost if one owns livestock (Ishikawa, 2013). Covering the collected compost with black vinyl will preserve the nutrients stored inside (Ishikawa, 2013). Synthetic manure can also be purchased but can be more costly. Cowpea can be interseeded with sorghum and wheat, providing nitrogen benefits to those crops (USDA, 2012). After roughly 8 weeks the deep taproot is formed and flowering follows (USDA, 2012).</p>
<p>Table 1. Drought associated traits associated with improved bean genotypes </p>
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<p>The crops were managed by the irrigation systems for up to 25 days following planting. In order to induce drought stress, the crops were fed a total of 105 mm of water initially followed by an allotted amount of 59 mm of rainwater. An analysis of these trials recommended that the most elite drought tolerant lines expressed heightened stomatal control of transpiration and contained Mexican genetics (Beebe, 2014).</p>
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      <h3 class="title-bg">Harvesting and Storage</h3>
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<p>Harvesting generally takes place 16 to 17 days after bloom (Gómez, 2004). Farmers know when it is time to harvest when the seed pods have matured and flowers are blooming (USDA, 2012). The three main ways to harvest is by hand, mechanized, and direct harvesting (Gómez, 2004). The most efficient method when harvesting by hand is threshing (Gómez, 2004). Threshing is separating the seeds from the plant by beating it on the ground, many rural farmers use this method (Ishikawa, 2013). A mechanized threshing machine exists where this complex machine is designed to cut the plant out of the ground using horizontal blades to be threshed later (Gómez, 2004).</p>  


<p>Since 1996, The Pan-Africa Bean Research Alliance (PABRA) has released over 550 new drought resistant bean varieties to many of the countries within Africa in co-ordination with assistance from CIAT (CIAT, 2016). Utilizing germplasm available, the new varieties of beans (known as BIO101 and BIO107) contain 60% more iron and 50% more zinc than those of traditional bean crops. Following the creation of these specially bred beans, a trial with pregnant and young women in Rwanda discovered that the new varieties of beans reduced iron-deficiency and increased immune system strength in each of the women (CIAT, 2016). With these new advances, PABRA will assist future production by making the crops more resilient to climate change threats while simultaneously targeting direct effects on the human population (CIAT, 2015).</p>
<p>Direct harvesting, which is common in wealthy nations, and uses combines and other heavy agricultural machinery (Gómez, 2004), is not available for cowpea smallholder farmers as machines are very expensive. Cowpeas are fragile, so harvesting must be done cautiously as a broken seed can result in stunted growth and loss in market value (Gómez, 2004). In order to successfully maintain seed viability, the grain must be dried to around 12% moisture or less (Gómez, 2004). Producers will modify their storage methods to meet certain market specifications.</p>
 
<p>The regions within Latin America, Oceania and Sub-Saharan Africa contain the highest percentage of women participating in the agricultural sector. It is within these regions that 60% of the total agricultural production is completed by women (Huyer, 2016). In the world’s least developed regions, 79% of the women contributing to their national economy report that they work in the agriculture sector (Huyer, 2016). When women engage in the agricultural production (with new technologies such as heat-tolerant bean varieties) it creates a sense of empowerment and thus builds essential assets, which the women are then able to use in all other aspects of their lives (Muriel, 2019). With the climate change innovations available within common bean variety crops, female farmers are considered to be important influences (Huyer, 2016). When the women’s knowledge of available innovative resources and access to information increases, it establishes an increase in food supply as well as a more resilient community. Likewise, an attempt is made to close the gender gap, thus providing a higher chance for equal opportunities between both men and women (Huyer, 2016), which would in turn help to positively shape the future of those regions affected.</p>  
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       <h3 class="title-bg">Gender Issues Associated with Production of Drought Tolerant Bean Varieties </h3>
       <h3 class="title-bg">Cowpea Nutrition</h3>
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<p>If the farmers, though especially female farmers, are not able to utilize and benefit from these new seed varieties, the food supply decreases and the gender gap increases, which diminishes the resiliency of the community (Huyer, 2016). Additionally, since very little information is available with regards to how poor regions with higher gender discrepancy respond to the threats and impacts of climate change within agricultural production, it is difficult to forecast results for future decades (Huyer, 2016).</p>
<p>The cowpea is of significant importance to the millions of people in West and Central Africa (Gómez, 2004). This crop is heavily relied on by people for food, feeding livestock, and income. This legume is high in protein. making it very sustainable for humans and animals (Gómez, 2004). Cowpea grain can be dried up and stored away giving consistent nutrition for families along with feeder for livestock (Gómez, 2004). The high protein content comes from the fact that cowpea is a nitrogen fixing legume. The crop’s decomposing roots/shoots, also rich in organic nitrogen, benefits soil fertility and helps future crops subsequently planted in rotation (Gómez, 2004). Raw cowpea seeds provide high nutritional value essential for a healthy diet. Many popular recipes use cowpea as a key ingredient to the dish. Collard and black eyed pea soup, Nigerian red beans, and balti lobia are all diverse meals that are enjoyed internationally (Baker Creek Heirloom Seeds, 2019). Exact in depth nutrition facts are provided at the end of the chapter as well as recipe tutorials.</p>
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       <h3 class="title-bg">Production of Drought Tolerant Beans (Phaseolus Vulgaris) in Arid Regions </h3>
       <h3 class="title-bg">Post Harvest Cowpea Pest Challenges and Solutions</h3>
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<p>It is necessary that farmers are equipped with all of the relevant information required to achieve the highest quality results from their newly adapted bean varieties (PABRA, 2016). Becoming knowledgeable about land preparation, crop management and harvesting is vital to ensuring success within production systems. Integrated crop management (ICM) is a holistic approach utilized by PABRA that assists farmers throughout their cultivation. The desired outcome from ICM is to give smallholder farmers access to cost-effective, climate change resistant crops. This is achieved by working with many international partners. Multiple techniques exist within ICM such as pest management, soil quality, planting and intercropping. With such techniques, approximately six million farmers have been able to improve their bean yields. The ICM research encompasses a variety of areas:</p>
<p>and diseases can diminish an entire yield of cowpea even after harvest (Gómez, 2004). In Africa, cowpea crop yields are far below yield potential (yield which occurs at optimal research farms) despite millions of dollars invested in insecticide research (Gómez, 2004). However insecticides can be harmful to the environment and potential users (Gómez, 2004). Despite the side effects, insecticides still improve crop yields. Large scale farmers use insecticides to maximize production to their crops (Gómez, 2004). However, insecticides are costly for a poor farmer (Gómez, 2004). Africa suffers the worst cowpea field losses because of the lack of insecticide resources and lack of funds for farmers to purchase them (Gómez, 2004).
<p>-    Cropping systems: Assessing the different varieties of beans while comparing the benefits of intercropping and rotation.</p> 
In an attempt to reduce pests during grain storage of cowpea, farmers have been provided access to hermetic grain storage bags. These bags create a low oxygen environment in which fungal pathogens and insect pests die (Silva, 2018). The Purdue Improved Cowpea Storage (PICS) has proven to be a reliable source for eliminating pests over the duration of multiple seasons (Purdue University, 2019). At a low cost of $3 USD, this can be an effective investment for small and large scale farmers (Ndegwa, 2016). This innovation however was not a complete success. The bags did not completely isolate the crops from all pesticides and insects (Silva, 2018). The collection of moisture in the bag caused the growth of fungi which was damaging to the grain (Silva, 2018). Some bags would slowly deteriorate as well (Baribusta, 2014). Though there's some concerns, the bags offer significant pest and disease reduction at an affordable price for smallholder farmers.</p>
<p>-    Inputs: Evaluating the varieties of fertilisers available which are best suitable for the farmer’s chosen bean variety.</p>
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<p>-    Water Management: In order to combat the negative effects of climate change and drought, improved practices regarding irrigation and water conservation are fundamental. </p>
<p>-    Soil Fertility: By working with the technologies available within the private sector, this promotes biological nitrogen fixation capabilities which increases yield potential.</p> 
<p>-    Pest and Disease Management: Bean varieties are frequently affected by an array of pests and diseases which have very negative effects on crop yields. PABRA analyses integrated pest management systems with utilization of both biological and chemical methods (PABRA, 2016).</p>  
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       <h3 class="title-bg">Helpful Links to Get Started </h3>
       <h3 class="title-bg">Additional Cowpea Information</h3>
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<p>Resource for Requesting Seeds:</p>
<p>Three Major CGIAR Institutes that breed cowpea and have seedbanks to request seed:
<p>https://genebank.ciat.cgiar.org/genebank/inforequestmaterial.do</p>
https://www.iita.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/Cowpea_field_guide_for_Burkina_Faso.pdf
<p>CIAT innovations on heat-tolerant beans:</p>
https://avrdc.org
<p>https://blog.ciat.cgiar.org/heat-tolerant-wild-beans-tapped-to-breed-commercial-beans-for-hotter-climates/</p>
https://www.icrisat.org</p>
<p>What is ‘Seed Security’?</p>
 
<p>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xvqSaw49wnE</p>
<p>Nutritional Facts per 100 g and Recipe Tutorials
<p>Agricultural Business Skills for seed-producers:</p>
https://www.nutritionvalue.org/Cowpeas%2C_raw%2C_mature_seeds%2C_catjang_nutritional_value.html
<p>https://cgspace.cgiar.org/bitstream/handle/10568/54569/handbook_3_english.pdf</p>
https://www.nutritionvalue.org/Cowpeas%2C_raw%2C_young_pods_with_seeds_nutritional_value.html
<p>Crop Management:</p>
https://turkishstylecooking.com/cowpea-dish-recipe.html
<p>https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/detail/national/newsroom/features/?&cid=nrcs143_023350</p>
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9gFf4vIH4tg
<p>Smallholder Farmers Stories Who Have Adopted Drought Tolerant Bean Varieties:</p>
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0z4G71c0HEc</p>
<p>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=O2UqFbnOc6U</p>
 
<p>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=x3D3DiZ4I-8</p>
<p>IITA step by step field guide (from Burkina Faso):
<p>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Qd4RS66FMJM&t=8s</p>
https://www.iita.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/Cowpea_field_guide_for_Burkina_Faso.pdf</p>
 
<p>Cultivation and Storage Methods
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=f8lHkEW0pQY
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eQd9TE5EnhQ</p>
 
<p>Harvesting Methods
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_PGQAkZDIXk
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eIyMPe4Vsug</p>
 
<p>Purdue University Improved Crop Storage Bags
https://www.purdue.edu/postharvest/purdue-improved-crop-storage-pics/</p>
 
<p>Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
http://www.fao.org/home/en/</p>
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       <h3 class="title-bg">References </h3>
       <h3 class="title-bg">References </h3>
         <div class="cont-bg">
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<p>1. Gómez, Carlos. “COWPEA - Food and Agriculture Organization.” Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Accessed November 11, 2019. http://www.fao.org/3/a-au994e.pdf.</p>
<p>1. Beebe, S.E., et al. (2014) Common beans, biodiversity, and multiple stresses:
<p>2. ICRISAT. (2019, November 19). Retrieved November 20, 2019, from https://www.icrisat.org/.</p>
a. challenges of drought resistance in tropical soils. Crop and Pasture Science 65, 667-675. Retrieved from https://www.publish.csiro.au/cp/cp13303</p>
<p>3. Ishikawa, H. (2013). Cowpea field guide for Burkina Faso. Retrieved November 27, 2019, from https://www.iita.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/Cowpea_field_guide_for_Burkina_Faso.pdf.</p>
<p>2. Buruchara, R. (2011). Development and Delivery of Bean Varieties in Africa: The Pan-
<p>4. Ndegwa, D., Michael, D., Groote, D., Gitonga, D., Zachary, D., Bruce, D., & Anani, D. (1970, January 1). Effectiveness and Economics of Hermetic Bags for Maize Storage: Results of a Randomized Controlled Trial in Kenya. Retrieved from https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/212524/.</p>
a. African Bean Research Alliance (PABRA) Model, p.227-245. African Crop Science Journal. Retrieved from https://www.ajol.info/index.php/acsj/article/view/74168/64827</p>
<p>5. Purdue University. (2019). Purdue Improved Crop Storage (PICS). Retrieved November 21, 2019, from https://www.purdue.edu/postharvest/purdue-improved-crop-storage-pics/.</p>
<p>3. Huyer, S, et al. (2016). CCAFS Gender and Social Inclusion Strategy, p.8-11. The
<p>6. Sheahan , C. M. Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata). U.S. Department of Agriculture: USAGov. Retrieved June 2012, from https://www.usa.gov/federal-agencies/u-s-department-of-agriculture.</p>
a. Consortium of International Agricultural Research Centres. Retrieved from https://cgspace.cgiar.org/handle/10568/72900</p>
<p>7. Silva, M. G. C. (n.d.). Hermetic storage as an alternative for controlling Callosobruchus maculatus (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) and preserving the quality of cowpeas. Science Direct, 78, 27–31. Retrieved from https://www-sciencedirect-com.subzero.lib.uoguelph.ca/science/article/pii/S0022474X18300900</p>
<p>4. International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI). (2009). Climate Change: Impact
<p>8. World Vegetable Center. (2019, November 13). Retrieved from https://avrdc.org/.</p>
a. on Agriculture and Costs of Adaptation. Retrieved from https://books.google.ca/books?hl=en&lr=&id=1Vpe0JvYTJYC&oi=fnd&pg=PR7&ots=Xmu2c8Swla&sig=GX4sDC1DiDa7I5408r0a3nz2sJo&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false</p>
<p>5. Muriel, J., et al. (2019). The Abbreviated Women’s Empowerment in Agriculture Index
a. (A-WEIA). Project Results for ‘His and Hers, Time and Income: How Intra Household Dynamics Impact Nutrition in Agricultural Households’. The International Centre for Tropical Agriculture. Retrieved from https://cgspace.cgiar.org/handle/10568/101141</p>
<p>6. The International Centre for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT). (2015). Developing Beans that
a. Can Beat the Heat. The Consortium of International Agricultural Research Centres. Retrieved from https://ciat-library.ciat.cgiar.org/articulos_ciat/biblioteca/DEVELOPING_BEANS_THAT_CAN_BEAT_THE_HEAT_lowres%20(2).pdf</p>
<p>7. The International Centre for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT). (2016). Beans. Retrieved from  
a. https://ciat.cgiar.org/what-we-do/breeding-better-crops/beans/.</p>
<p>8. The International Centre for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT). (2017). Fifty Years and Fifty
a. Wins, p.4-18. The Consortium of International Agricultural Research Centres. Retrieved from https://cgspace.cgiar.org/bitstream/handle/10568/89145/50_WINS_WEB02.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y</p>

Revision as of 10:43, 2 July 2022

5.35 -A Sustainable Innovation to Preserve Cowpea Crops


Jacob Koole , University of Guelph, Canada

4.jpg

Suggested citation for this chapter.

Koole,J. (2022) A Sustainable Innovation to Preserve Cowpea Crops, In Farmpedia, The Encyclopedia for Small Scale Farmers. Editor, M.N. Raizada, University of Guelph, Canada. http://www.farmpedia.org

Origin of the Cowpea

Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) is an antique legume that originated in western Africa roughly around 3000 B.C.E (Smith, 2005). Though widely produced in Ethiopia, cowpea is grown worldwide in countries such as Brazil, the United States, and the majority of Asia (Gómez, 2004). Cowpea demonstrates remarkable drought tolerance because of its tendency to form a deep taproot that can comfortably grow in dry soils (Gómez, 2004). The deep taproot creates potential to mitigate drought tolerance associated with various climates. The cowpea plant itself spreads, covering much of the ground (Gómez, 2004), resulting in weed suppression. The plant varies by variety but typically has climbing vines and sporadic leaves (Gómez, 2004). An interesting element about the cowpea is the self pollinating flowers that sprout in clusters during blooming season (Gómez, 2004). These flowers can be a variety of colours such as purple, white, dirty yellow, blue or pink. This plant is beneficial not only to people and animals that consume it but to pollinating insects as well (Gómez, 2004).

Cowpea Sub-Species and Seedbanks

As mentioned earlier, there are many landraces and varieties of cowpea. These seeds differ as a result of habitat, growth, disease resistance, colour, and the size of seed (Gómez, 2004). Cowpeas are adaptable to local environments and needs, resulting in many diverse seeds sold in the marketplace. Subspecies such as the black eyed peas, catjang, and yardlong beans are all high quality legumes that contribute nutritional benefits to different regions of the world (Gómez, 2004). These particular seeds can be accessed by local seed banks at affordable prices for large and small scale farmers where available. Three major international CGIAR institutes breed cowpea and possess seed banks. The World Vegetable Center (AVRDC), International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), and International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT) all breed cowpea and posses seed banks. All organizations provide helpful information for farmers to either acquire cowpea and distribute. Methods of preparation, harvesting, and marketing are all contributions these organizations share with farmers. Seeds of cowpea can be requested online using the links at the bottom of this chapter.

Cowpea Cultivation

Grown worldwide, the cowpea is adaptable to different growing conditions including semi-arid regions and dry savannas (USDA, 2012) and can grow in as little as 300 mm of rainfall (Gómez, 2004). The growing season is typically between 100 to 120 days depending on irrigation/rainfall (Gómez, 2004). It is best to plant the seed 1 to 2 inches below the soil in early summer at 50 lbs per acre, or minimally 30 lbs per acre (USDA, 2012). Soils in the Western Africa regions are low in nitrogen and phosphorus, so it is critical that fertilizer/manure management is followed to obtain high yielding crops (Bationo, 2003). The most effective way to prepare the soil is to plow after the first rain; the deep taproot needs loose soil (Ishikawa, 2013). The best fertilizer to incorporate into the soil is either ripened organic manure or chemical fertilizer, both of which must be spread evenly through the soil (Ishikawa, 2013). Cowpea is heavily reliant on phosphate, and a healthy crop typically requires a pH range of 3.95-7.6 (Bationo, 2003). Symbiotic bacteria living inside cowpea root nodules produce fixed nitrogen, reducing its nitrogen fertilizer requirement though other nutrients are required (USDA, 2012). Though inoculation with nitrogen-fixing rhizobia bacteria has been shown to be effective, the cowpea can nodulate in an array of soils (USDA, 2012). In nutrient-deficient soils, cowpea requires starter nitrogen to develop the nodules before nitrogen fixation can begin (Ishikawa, 2013). Farmers must find a way to incorporate nitrogen into the dry soil in order for the cowpea to grow. A fairly inexpensive solution to this challenge is the use of compost if one owns livestock (Ishikawa, 2013). Covering the collected compost with black vinyl will preserve the nutrients stored inside (Ishikawa, 2013). Synthetic manure can also be purchased but can be more costly. Cowpea can be interseeded with sorghum and wheat, providing nitrogen benefits to those crops (USDA, 2012). After roughly 8 weeks the deep taproot is formed and flowering follows (USDA, 2012).

Harvesting and Storage

Harvesting generally takes place 16 to 17 days after bloom (Gómez, 2004). Farmers know when it is time to harvest when the seed pods have matured and flowers are blooming (USDA, 2012). The three main ways to harvest is by hand, mechanized, and direct harvesting (Gómez, 2004). The most efficient method when harvesting by hand is threshing (Gómez, 2004). Threshing is separating the seeds from the plant by beating it on the ground, many rural farmers use this method (Ishikawa, 2013). A mechanized threshing machine exists where this complex machine is designed to cut the plant out of the ground using horizontal blades to be threshed later (Gómez, 2004).

Direct harvesting, which is common in wealthy nations, and uses combines and other heavy agricultural machinery (Gómez, 2004), is not available for cowpea smallholder farmers as machines are very expensive. Cowpeas are fragile, so harvesting must be done cautiously as a broken seed can result in stunted growth and loss in market value (Gómez, 2004). In order to successfully maintain seed viability, the grain must be dried to around 12% moisture or less (Gómez, 2004). Producers will modify their storage methods to meet certain market specifications.

Cowpea Nutrition

The cowpea is of significant importance to the millions of people in West and Central Africa (Gómez, 2004). This crop is heavily relied on by people for food, feeding livestock, and income. This legume is high in protein. making it very sustainable for humans and animals (Gómez, 2004). Cowpea grain can be dried up and stored away giving consistent nutrition for families along with feeder for livestock (Gómez, 2004). The high protein content comes from the fact that cowpea is a nitrogen fixing legume. The crop’s decomposing roots/shoots, also rich in organic nitrogen, benefits soil fertility and helps future crops subsequently planted in rotation (Gómez, 2004). Raw cowpea seeds provide high nutritional value essential for a healthy diet. Many popular recipes use cowpea as a key ingredient to the dish. Collard and black eyed pea soup, Nigerian red beans, and balti lobia are all diverse meals that are enjoyed internationally (Baker Creek Heirloom Seeds, 2019). Exact in depth nutrition facts are provided at the end of the chapter as well as recipe tutorials.

Post Harvest Cowpea Pest Challenges and Solutions

and diseases can diminish an entire yield of cowpea even after harvest (Gómez, 2004). In Africa, cowpea crop yields are far below yield potential (yield which occurs at optimal research farms) despite millions of dollars invested in insecticide research (Gómez, 2004). However insecticides can be harmful to the environment and potential users (Gómez, 2004). Despite the side effects, insecticides still improve crop yields. Large scale farmers use insecticides to maximize production to their crops (Gómez, 2004). However, insecticides are costly for a poor farmer (Gómez, 2004). Africa suffers the worst cowpea field losses because of the lack of insecticide resources and lack of funds for farmers to purchase them (Gómez, 2004). In an attempt to reduce pests during grain storage of cowpea, farmers have been provided access to hermetic grain storage bags. These bags create a low oxygen environment in which fungal pathogens and insect pests die (Silva, 2018). The Purdue Improved Cowpea Storage (PICS) has proven to be a reliable source for eliminating pests over the duration of multiple seasons (Purdue University, 2019). At a low cost of $3 USD, this can be an effective investment for small and large scale farmers (Ndegwa, 2016). This innovation however was not a complete success. The bags did not completely isolate the crops from all pesticides and insects (Silva, 2018). The collection of moisture in the bag caused the growth of fungi which was damaging to the grain (Silva, 2018). Some bags would slowly deteriorate as well (Baribusta, 2014). Though there's some concerns, the bags offer significant pest and disease reduction at an affordable price for smallholder farmers.

Additional Cowpea Information

Three Major CGIAR Institutes that breed cowpea and have seedbanks to request seed: https://www.iita.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/Cowpea_field_guide_for_Burkina_Faso.pdf https://avrdc.org https://www.icrisat.org

Nutritional Facts per 100 g and Recipe Tutorials https://www.nutritionvalue.org/Cowpeas%2C_raw%2C_mature_seeds%2C_catjang_nutritional_value.html https://www.nutritionvalue.org/Cowpeas%2C_raw%2C_young_pods_with_seeds_nutritional_value.html https://turkishstylecooking.com/cowpea-dish-recipe.html https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9gFf4vIH4tg https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0z4G71c0HEc

IITA step by step field guide (from Burkina Faso): https://www.iita.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/Cowpea_field_guide_for_Burkina_Faso.pdf

Cultivation and Storage Methods https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=f8lHkEW0pQY https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eQd9TE5EnhQ

Harvesting Methods https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_PGQAkZDIXk https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eIyMPe4Vsug

Purdue University Improved Crop Storage Bags https://www.purdue.edu/postharvest/purdue-improved-crop-storage-pics/

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations http://www.fao.org/home/en/

References

1. Gómez, Carlos. “COWPEA - Food and Agriculture Organization.” Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Accessed November 11, 2019. http://www.fao.org/3/a-au994e.pdf.

2. ICRISAT. (2019, November 19). Retrieved November 20, 2019, from https://www.icrisat.org/.

3. Ishikawa, H. (2013). Cowpea field guide for Burkina Faso. Retrieved November 27, 2019, from https://www.iita.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/Cowpea_field_guide_for_Burkina_Faso.pdf.

4. Ndegwa, D., Michael, D., Groote, D., Gitonga, D., Zachary, D., Bruce, D., & Anani, D. (1970, January 1). Effectiveness and Economics of Hermetic Bags for Maize Storage: Results of a Randomized Controlled Trial in Kenya. Retrieved from https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/212524/.

5. Purdue University. (2019). Purdue Improved Crop Storage (PICS). Retrieved November 21, 2019, from https://www.purdue.edu/postharvest/purdue-improved-crop-storage-pics/.

6. Sheahan , C. M. Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata). U.S. Department of Agriculture: USAGov. Retrieved June 2012, from https://www.usa.gov/federal-agencies/u-s-department-of-agriculture.

7. Silva, M. G. C. (n.d.). Hermetic storage as an alternative for controlling Callosobruchus maculatus (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) and preserving the quality of cowpeas. Science Direct, 78, 27–31. Retrieved from https://www-sciencedirect-com.subzero.lib.uoguelph.ca/science/article/pii/S0022474X18300900

8. World Vegetable Center. (2019, November 13). Retrieved from https://avrdc.org/.

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