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       <h3 class="title-bg">Background</h3>
       <h3 class="title-bg">Background</h3>
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           <p>The world’s 1 billion women and girls participating in subsistence farming pull weeds by hand to improve their crops and also collect firewood for cooking, resulting in their hands becoming rough and sore (Figure 1). This can be caused by wood splinters being lodged into their skin (Schaffner, 2013). Pulling weeds for hours on end can peel away layers of skin (Food and Agriculture Organization, 2016). The hands of those farmers can also become dirty and smelly from planting seeds in the soil or spreading manure by hand. To avoid the common aforementioned problems as well as hand injuries, such as cuts and scrapes, they could wear gloves on their hands, see the second picture, (Schaffner, 2013). Gloves are very common in the modern world and can be used for construction, farming, and medical practices. Gloves provide a durable layer between the skin on your hands and whatever you are working with (Espasandín-Arias & Goossens, 2014). There are a few different materials used to make gloves, along with different sizes and grips. With over one billion women and girls working on farms around the world, this grueling work can be made safer and more efficient when wearing gloves.</p>
           <p>Plants need 13 different nutrients to grow which can be purchased as commercial fertilizers, of which the macronutrients include Nitrogen (N), Phosphorus (P), and Potassium (K) (Gach, 2012). Typically, commercial fertilizer is added as a single dose before planting or at the seedling stage, when the plant does not have the demand or root capacity to absorb the fertilizer – as a result, it is leached, especially on sandier soils during rainfall (Soil Texture and Soil Structure, n.d). In general, the demand for fertilizer increases as the crop ages, becomes larger and produces seeds (Butzen, n.d.). For example in corn (maize), 50% of the nitrogen fertilizer demand occurs when the seeds (kernels) form (Butzen, n.d.). Another important factor affecting leaching is whether the nutrients are mobile or immobile. Mobile nutrients are more likely to leach like a nitrite, but phosphorus on the other hand is less likely to leach because it is very immobile (Dr. Al Ludwick, 1998). This is because of the charge of the nutrients, since soil is negatively charged positively charged nutrients tend to stay put and negative charged nutrients like nitrate, boron and sulphur tend to leach more (Nutrient Management, n.d.). Leaching reduces farmer profits and pollutes the environment.  Subsistence farmers in particular, many of whom cannot afford commercial fertilizers, apply small amounts, and are vulnerable to the effects of leaching . A way to prevent the negatives of fertilizer is to split the application across different times during the growing season.</p>


           <p>Rubber and cloth are the two main kinds of gloves produced (Melco, 2016). They both have their own benefits and drawbacks respectively. A benefit from rubber gloves is their ability to resist water from coming in contact with a farmer's skin, see part two, (Espasandín-Arias & Goossens, 2014). While cloth gloves can be beneficial because they can draw moisture away from their hands and can be easily washed to be cleaned. Because rubber gloves are usually meant to be disposed of after single use they tend to be cheaper to make and thus cheaper to buy. Yet some rubber gloves can be made thicker to reuse and are slightly more durable (Melco, 2016). Cloth gloves are designed to be washed after being used and last a long time under normal working conditions.</p>
           <p>Rubber and cloth are the two main kinds of gloves produced (Melco, 2016). They both have their own benefits and drawbacks respectively. A benefit from rubber gloves is their ability to resist water from coming in contact with a farmer's skin, see part two, (Espasandín-Arias & Goossens, 2014). While cloth gloves can be beneficial because they can draw moisture away from their hands and can be easily washed to be cleaned. Because rubber gloves are usually meant to be disposed of after single use they tend to be cheaper to make and thus cheaper to buy. Yet some rubber gloves can be made thicker to reuse and are slightly more durable (Melco, 2016). Cloth gloves are designed to be washed after being used and last a long time under normal working conditions.</p>
 
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           <p>Along with the different materials gloves are made of, there are also different arm lengths. Some gloves are cut off just in front or around the wrist. While others can be up to and over the elbow and everywhere in between (Melco, 2016). The benefits of the shorter gloves is comfort, no bunching around wrist or elbow, and they can be quickly put on or removed. The benefits of the long gloves are more protection, the entire forearm will be covered. All the while there is less of a chance of getting debris in their gloves because the opening is farther away from what you are working with. Farmers can also work in deeper water or mud with the long rubber gloves without getting your hands wet.</p>
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      <h3 class="title-bg">Typical Fertilizer Application Practices</h3>
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           <p>Application of fertilizers can be performed in many ways, of which most common is spreading or broadcasting fertilizer over the top of the soil early in the growing season, but can result in leaching (Microdosing , n.d.). After spreading it is common to incorporate the fertilizer into the soil to help prevent loss and to make it closer to the crop roots. Also, other applications can consist of applying the fertilizer beside or in the row of the seeds, a method called fertilizer banding (Rehm, 2002). This method works well for fertilizers that are less mobile and it brings the nutrients to the developing roots. Another method used by wealthier farmers is in season side dress or y-drop. Side dressing places the fertilizer right in with the plants at the roots using a disk that runs beside the plant (The Agronomy Guide, 2015). Y-dropping uses liquid fertilizer and involves running hoses from a high clearance sprayer in between the rows, dripping nitrogen right beside the plant (The Agronomy Guide, 2015). These methods are very good for splitting up fertilizer applications but are very expensive. For small scale farmers, they could try microdosing wherein a small dose of fertilizer is added at the base of each seedling using a bottle cap, which makes it very labor extensive (Microdosing , n.d.).</p>
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      <h3 class="title-bg">Typical Fertilizer Application Practices</h3>
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           <p>When working with smooth items such as hoes and some fruits and vegetables they can be slippery (Food and Agriculture Organization, 2016). A way to help farmer's hold on to the tools is to get gloves with grips (Melco, 2016). Both rubber and cloth gloves can have grips. Rubber gloves will have ridges in the molds to form grips and granular materials can be added to the outside before drying (Melco, 2016). Another option is to make the rubber gloves out of a non-slip rubber (Melco, 2016). Because cloth alone does not provide grip, cloth gloves must be dipped in liquid rubber to be able to grip smooth objects. The rubber used for grips on cloth gloves can either be non-slip smooth rubber or be rigid (Melco, 2016). </p>
           <p>When working with smooth items such as hoes and some fruits and vegetables they can be slippery (Food and Agriculture Organization, 2016). A way to help farmer's hold on to the tools is to get gloves with grips (Melco, 2016). Both rubber and cloth gloves can have grips. Rubber gloves will have ridges in the molds to form grips and granular materials can be added to the outside before drying (Melco, 2016). Another option is to make the rubber gloves out of a non-slip rubber (Melco, 2016). Because cloth alone does not provide grip, cloth gloves must be dipped in liquid rubber to be able to grip smooth objects. The rubber used for grips on cloth gloves can either be non-slip smooth rubber or be rigid (Melco, 2016). </p>
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       <h3 class="title-bg">Split application</h3>
       <h3 class="title-bg">Physical Protection</h3>
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           <p>Protection is the main benefit from using gloves. Repetitive motions, such as when pounding grain, can cause irritation to the skin. When collecting firewood the sticks and logs can scratch or cut the skin (Food and Agriculture Organization, 2016). Weeds can be rough and by scratching their hands many times they can become cut and sore (Espasandín-Arias & Goossens, 2014). By lifting and pulling heavy items the top layer of your skin will separate from the next, causing a blister, by wearing gloves they now will prevent blistering because the glove will act as the top layer of skin and prevent the actual skin from separating (Schaffner, 2013). Manure has a lot of bacteria in it which are harmful if they are swallow, so keeping them away from the hands used to eat with is very beneficial (Furlong, et al., 2015). If farmers are working with firewood or in construction the cloth gloves will work better because they are more durable (Food and Agriculture Organization, 2016). The disposable rubber gloves would be the worst to use in this scenario because they are so thin, stick to jobs were the main goals are to keep hands dry and dirt free when using disposable rubber gloves.</p>
           <p>Split application is taking the total fertilizer intended for addition to a field and dividing it up into separate applications. The split application is important for mobile nutrients. Application of less mobile nutrients like phosphorus and potassium cannot be expected to have the same effect as application close to the seed row at seeding. Split application works best for nitrogen and sulfur mid-season. It is also very important that fertilizer is applied before it is expected to rain. The nitrogen will flow with the water into the soil towards the roots but one must be careful because a large rain event can wash away the nutrients away and cause leaching. Split application is preferred because of nutrient leaching if considerable rain or a warmer winter occurs. The best option would be applying some fertilizer at planting time and right beside the plant in the spring. Then later in the season, one could apply the remaining nutrients required. This can be done in several passes. For farmers with the use of equipment they could split nitrogen application by side dressing. This is a common practice in growing corn. Another option would be to attach y-drops on a sprayer to apply liquid nitrogen in corn just before tasseling which is just before the point that the crop needs it the most. The costs of using this equipment is very high but there is increased yield and there is much less leaching. For subsistence farmers, the practice of split application would be as simple as taking the time to walk through the field and apply fertilizer when the crop is growing. </p>
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       <h3 style="background: #FBB03B;padding: 15px;font-weight: 600;color: #000;font-size: 22px;margin:unset;text-align:center;">Pre-plant (single dose) vs. split application:</h3>
       <h3 style="background: #FBB03B;padding: 15px;font-weight: 600;color: #000;font-size: 22px;margin:unset;text-align:center;">Defense Against Moisture and Chemicals</h3>
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           <p>Moisture blocking is a way gloves can prevent your skin from drying out and from getting too wet and dehydrating farmer's hands. By keeping the moisture from the hands inside the gloves they will prevent the skin from cracking and becoming infected (Schaffner, 2013). As well when working in wet conditions your hands can shrivel and become dehydrated if they are constantly in contact with water.</p>
           <p>Experiments comparing spring pre-plant nitrogen with split Nitrogen application for corn were conducted at 32 sites in southern Minnesota from 1989 to 1992  (Schmit & Randall, 2007). The yield differences are shown in Table 1. In a total of 88% corn had a higher yield because of the application of nitrogen. Split application was better compared to pre-plant. In these cases, excessive rainfall in the growing season and sandy soils had negative impacts on yield. This result shows that split application works different in different soil types. In sandy soils, there are larger particle sizes allowing water to move through making it easier for nutrients to leach. Clay soils hold more nutrients and water preventing leaching (Soil Texture and Soil Structure, n.d.). For slopes and hills there would be a similar effect: nitrogen applied at the top of the hill would run off from the top of the hill to the bottom (Soil Texture and Soil Structure, n.d.).</p>  
          <p>Pesticides can be absorbed by your skin and become harmful to the body, gloves provide an extra barrier to block them from entering in a farmer's body (Furlong, et al., 2015). Fertilizers such as nitrogen can also be caustic, and these are usually spread through broadcasting by hand. Mud can get under your nails and into cracked or cut skin and can infect a farmer's hands. Gloves will keep the mud out and keep hands clean. Both liquid pesticides and dry fertilizers can irritate skin if they come into contact with it (Kim, et al., 2013). Wearing the proper gloves, rubber ones in this case, can save their hands from becoming itchy (Keeble et al., 1996). Human skin can also absorb the pesticides which are harmful to your body, wearing gloves would prevent the pesticides from ever touching your skin.</p>
<p>Therefore, it would be a good idea to split the applications so that nitrogen is not being lost at the top of the hill throughout the growing season. In another study done at Penn State University, researchers applied all the nitrogen in the first trial and then they split up the nitrogen application in the second trial. The results were that the plants all absorbed nitrogen the same rate no matter how much was available to them (see Table 3). Another study performed at Penn State showed that when incorporating and splitting the nitrogen, there were higher yields (See Table 4).
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       <h3 class="title-bg">Environmental impact</h3>
       <h3 class="title-bg">Wearable</h3>
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  <p>The environment is affected greatly by nitrogen application: NO3 is very soluble in water and has been linked to blue baby syndrome. The disorder has been reported to be caused by pregnant women and infants ingesting nitrogen preventing the blood in the baby to carry enough oxygen through the body. Splitting the nitrogen application help with groundwater contamination (Oram, 2014). </p>
          <p>Comfortable gloves help farmer's work longer because their hands will not hurt from completing your task. Sizing is very important when finding comfortable gloves (Melco, 2016). Make sure gloves are the proper length and width, as not to restrict movement. There will be less pain from pulling weeds and they will be able to pull more weeds because they would not have to wait a long for the pain to subside between pulling each weed, because there will be no pain if wearing gloves (Food and Agriculture Organization, 2016). If farmer's find they are working hard and their hands start to sweat the gloves should be removed , dry your hands, and put on a new pair. Cloth gloves are more breathable then rubber ones, using them is another way to prevent hands from getting sweaty. The cloth gloves can also be softer and easier to clean, but are more restricting to movement due to their durability and tougher material. Since children will also be farming, smaller glove sizes can be found. Gloves are designed to fit a farmer's hand snugly, so children should not wear adult sized gloves when working. </p>
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       <h3 class="title-bg">Fertilizer Burn</h3>
       <h3 class="title-bg">Constraints To Adoption</h3>
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           <p>Gloves are very useful to farmers, but there can still be some drawbacks. Possible culturable taboos might vary from location to location. Gloves might seem feminine and not easily adopted by men in the community. Gloves act as a second, tougher skin, but they are not a farmer's skin and can slide around while working. This may feel odd and uncomfortable but farmers can get used to the new feeling over time. Gloves can come in many colours and thicknesses, which may make a farmer's hands look funny or larger. Human skin is very stretchy and flexible, while glove materials tend to be tougher than skin and will reduce movement, but not enough to hinder work. Rubber gloves can stretch well, but make hands sweat, while cloth gloves are breathable but reduce dexterity.</p>
           <p>Fertilizer burn is a problem with plants it causes the leaves to fade and turn brown. It is caused by nutrient excess and is from excusive fertilizer. It is important to make sure that the fertilizer does not get onto the leaves or the plant above the ground. (Fertilizer Burn). </p>
          <p>Farmers can find gloves to use and get started from local vendors (European Commission For The Control Of Foot-And-Mouth Disease, 2016). Once you have completed your work for the day you can clean them are reuse them, or dispose of them if they were ripped or torn (Kim, et al., 2013). You can get gloves made of rubber and like materials as well as ones made of durable cloths. The thin rubber gloves tend to be made for a single use only. A trick that the European Commission For The Control Foot-And-Mouth Disease mentions that you can wear two pairs of rubber gloves at the same time for extra protection (European Commission For The Control Of Foot-And-Mouth Disease, 2016).</p>
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       <h3 class="title-bg">Alternative </h3>
       <h3 class="title-bg">Helpful Links To Get Started </h3>
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           <p>Here are websites to find more information about how to obtain gloves:</p>
           <p>Controlled-release nitrogen or slow release nitrogen are alternatives for splitting application of nitrogen. This fertilizer is coated with compounds that makes it release slower than normal (Fertilizers – Quick-Release and Slow-Release Nitrogen, n.d.). Controlled-release N fertilizers can reduce these losses by delaying the initial release of N and providing it gradually to better match its availability with crop uptake needs. Controlled-release products may be most useful for high-value crops, environmentally sensitive areas, fields highly susceptible to N losses or with limited opportunities for repeat applications, contest plots, and foliar applications. (Fertilizers – Quick-Release and Slow-Release Nitrogen, n.d.). The slow release nitrogen is a good alternative however it is more expensive and less accessible.</p>
          <p>[https://www.alibaba.com/ Alibaba]</p>
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          <p>[https://www.indiamart.com/ Indiamart]</p>
          <p>[http://www.store.nzfarmsource.co.nz/ Store Nzfarmsource]</p>
          <p>[https://www.adenna.com Adenna]</p>
          <p>[https://www.farmcity.co.za/ Farmcity]</p>
          <p>[https://www.crazystore.co.za/ Crazystore]</p>
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       <h3 class="title-bg">Additional Resources </h3>
       <h3 class="title-bg">Usefull Images</h3>
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          <p>For a good resource on different crops fertilizer needs and how to go to https://content.ces.ncsu.edu/north-carolina-agricultural-chemicals-manual/fertilizer-use.</p>  
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<p>For agricultural fertilizers and equipment go to https://www.alibaba.com/trade/search?fsb=y&IndexArea=product_en&CatId=&SearchText=fertilizer
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       <h3 class="title-bg">References</h3>
       <h3 class="title-bg">References</h3>
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           <p>Espasandín-Arias, M., & Goossens, A. (2014). Natural rubber gloves might not protect against skin penetration of methylisothiazolinone. Contact Dermatitis, 70(4), 249-251. doi:10.1111/cod.12221</p>
           <p>1.Amarnath B.H., A. C. (2015). Effect of priming with botanicals and animal waste on germination and seedling vigour in sorghum (Sorghum bocolor L.) seeds. Pelagia Research Library , 73-77.</p>
          <p>European Commission For The Control Of Foot-And-Mouth Disease. Suggested FMD PPE guidelines - Food and Agriculture, (2016)  
<p>2.Battani, A. (n.d.). Controlled-Release Nitrogen Fertilizers. Retrieved from Pioneer: https://www.pioneer.com/home/site/us/agronomy/library/controlled-release-n-fertilizers/.</p>
          Food and Agriculture Organization. Rural women in household production: Increasing contributions and persisting drudgery. (2016).
<p>3.Butzen, S. (n.d.). Nitrogen Application Timing in Corn Production. Retrieved october 3, 2016, from Pioneer : https://www.pioneer.com/home/site/us/agronomy/library/nitrogen-application-timing/.</p>
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<p>4.Dr. Al Ludwick. (1998). Phosphorus Mobility in Perspective. Retrieved from Potash & Phosphate Institute : http://www.ipni.net/ppiweb/ppinews.nsf/0/FF5C6A5F8AC7431C8525691B0066A943/$FILE/98175-AEL%20P-mobility.pdf.</p>
          <p>Furlong, M., Tanner, C. M., Goldman, S. M., Bhudhikanok, G. S., Blair, A., Chade, A., . . . Kamel, F. (2015). Protective glove use and hygiene habits modify the associations of specific pesticides with Parkinson's disease. Environment International, 75, 144-150. doi:10.1016/j.envint.2014.11.002</p>
<p>5.Ecosan Waterless Toilet System. (n.d.). Retrieved from Waterless dry flush toilet system by Ecosan : http://www.ecosan.co.za/
          <p>Keeble, V. B., Correll, L., & Ehrich, M. (1996). Effect of Laundering on Ability of Glove Fabrics to Decrease the Penetration of Organophosphate Insecticides Through in vitro Epidermal Systems. J. Appl. Toxicol. Journal of Applied Toxicology, 16(5), 401-406. doi:10.1002/(sici)1099-1263(199609)16:53.3.co;2-6</p>
Environmental Benefits of Using Fertilizers. (n.d.). Retrieved from Agro Services International: http://www.agroservicesinternational.com/Environment/Benefits.html.</p>
          <p>Kim, J., Kim, J., Cha, E., Ko, Y., Kim, D., & Lee, W. (2013). Work-Related Risk Factors by Severity for Acute Pesticide Poisoning Among Male Farmers in South Korea. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 10(3), 1100-1112. doi:10.3390/ijerph10031100</p>
<p>6.Fernandez, F. (2015, 04 24). 3 Tips for sidedressing nitrogen on your corn crop. Retrieved 10 03, 2016, from Corn and Soybean Digest .</p>
          <p>Melco, M. (2016). Gardening Gloves. Retrieved from [http://garden.lovetoknow.com/wiki/Gardening_Gloves Garden Lovetoknow]</p>
<p>7.Fertilizer Burn. (n.d.). Retrieved from Orgaon State University: http://pubs.extension.oregonstate.edu/pnw659/damage/fertilizer-burn.</p>
          <p>Schaffner, A. D. (2013). Minimizing Surgical Skin Incision Scars with a Latex Surgical Glove. Aesthetic Plastic Surgery, 37(2), 463-463. doi:10.1007/s00266-013-0071-y</p>
<p>8.Fertilizers – Quick-Release and Slow-Release Nitrogen. (n.d.). Retrieved from The Lawn Institute: http://www.thelawninstitute.org/pages/education/lawn-maintenance/fertilizers-quickrelease-and-slowrelease-nitrogen-whats-the-difference/.</p>
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<p>9.Gach, J. (2012). Synthetic vs. Organic Fertilizers. Retrieved October 3, 2016, from enviro in genuity: http://www.enviroingenuity.com/articles/synthetic-vs-organic-fertilizers.html.</p>
<p>10.Javid Nawaz, M. H. (2013). Seed Priming A Technique. International Journal of Agriculture and Crop Sciences. , 1373-1381.</p>
<p>11.Karthikeyan C, D. V. (2006). Cow based Indigenous Technologies in dry farming. Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge , 47-50.</p>
<p>12.Kumar, M. (2014). Influence of Seed Priming with Urine, Phosphorus and Zinc on Maize (Zea. Indian Journal of Hill Farming , 132-137.</p>
<p>13.McMcKague, K., Reid, K., & Simpson, H. (05, 11). Environmental Impacts of Nitrogen Use in Agriculture. Retrieved october 3, 2016, from Ontario Ministry of Agriculture Food and Rural Affairs: http://www.omafra.gov.on.ca/english/engineer/facts/05-073.htm.</p>
<p>14.Microdosing . (n.d.). Retrieved from Agriculture for Impact: http://ag4impact.org/sid/ecological-intensification/precision-agriculture/microdosing/</p>
<p>16.Moldenhauer, W. C., Hudson, N. W., & Editors. (1988). Concervation Farming on Steep Lands . Ankeny, Iowa, USA: Soil and Water Concervation Society.</p>
<p>17.Morgan, P. (2004). An ecological approach to sanitation in Africa - compilation of experiences. Stockholm: EcoSanRes, Stockholm environment institute.</p>
<p>18.Nutrient Management. (n.d.). Retrieved from Cornell University: https://nrcca.cals.cornell.edu/soilFertilityCA/CA1/CA1_print.html</p>
<p>19.Oram, B. (2014). Nitrates and Nitrites in Drinking Water and Surfacewaters. Retrieved 10 03, 2016, from Water Reserch Center: http://www.water-research.net/index.php/nitrate</p>
<p>20.Peace Corps Mali. (2009). Urine Fertilizer Info Sheet. Michigan: Michigan Tech University.</p>
<p>21.Pimentel, D., Harvey, C., Resosudarmo, P., Sinclair, K., Kurz, D., McNair, M., et al. (1995). Environemental and Economic Costs of Soil Erosion and Concervation Benefits. Science, New Series , 267 (5201), 1117-1123.</p>
<p>22.PS Mehta, K. N. (2009). Indigenous methods of seed conservation and protection in Uttarakhand Himalaya. Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge , 279-282.</p>
<p>23.Rehm, G. (2002). Use of Banded Fertilizer for Corn Production. Retrieved from University of Minnesota: http://www.extension.umn.edu/agriculture/nutrient-management/fertilizer-management/use-of-banded-fertilizer-for-corn-production/.</p>
<p>24.Schmit, M., & Randall, G. (2007). Strategies For Split Nitrogen Applications. Retrieved from fluid fertilizer.: http://www.fluidfertilizer.com/pastart/pdf/56P20-23.pdf.</p>
<p>25.Soil Texture and Soil Structure. (n.d.). Retrieved from University of Hawai‘i: http://www.ctahr.hawaii.edu/mauisoil/a_factor_ts.aspx.</p>
<p>26.The Agronomy Guide. (2015). Retrieved from Pennstate University : http://extension.psu.edu/agronomy-guide/cm/sec4/sec44d.</p>
<p>27.World Bank. (2012, May 17). India: Issues and Priorities for Agriculture. Retrieved from World Bank: http://www.worldbank.org/en/news/feature/2012/05/17/india-agriculture-issues-priorities.</p>
<p>28.World Bank. (2016, February 10). West Africa Agricultural Productivity Program. Retrieved from World Bank: http://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/agriculture/brief/the-west-africa-agricultural-productivity-program.</p>
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Revision as of 00:06, 12 June 2022

4.18 - Split application of synthetic fertilizer**


Jason Huitema, University of Guelph, Canada

Background

Plants need 13 different nutrients to grow which can be purchased as commercial fertilizers, of which the macronutrients include Nitrogen (N), Phosphorus (P), and Potassium (K) (Gach, 2012). Typically, commercial fertilizer is added as a single dose before planting or at the seedling stage, when the plant does not have the demand or root capacity to absorb the fertilizer – as a result, it is leached, especially on sandier soils during rainfall (Soil Texture and Soil Structure, n.d). In general, the demand for fertilizer increases as the crop ages, becomes larger and produces seeds (Butzen, n.d.). For example in corn (maize), 50% of the nitrogen fertilizer demand occurs when the seeds (kernels) form (Butzen, n.d.). Another important factor affecting leaching is whether the nutrients are mobile or immobile. Mobile nutrients are more likely to leach like a nitrite, but phosphorus on the other hand is less likely to leach because it is very immobile (Dr. Al Ludwick, 1998). This is because of the charge of the nutrients, since soil is negatively charged positively charged nutrients tend to stay put and negative charged nutrients like nitrate, boron and sulphur tend to leach more (Nutrient Management, n.d.). Leaching reduces farmer profits and pollutes the environment. Subsistence farmers in particular, many of whom cannot afford commercial fertilizers, apply small amounts, and are vulnerable to the effects of leaching . A way to prevent the negatives of fertilizer is to split the application across different times during the growing season.

Rubber and cloth are the two main kinds of gloves produced (Melco, 2016). They both have their own benefits and drawbacks respectively. A benefit from rubber gloves is their ability to resist water from coming in contact with a farmer's skin, see part two, (Espasandín-Arias & Goossens, 2014). While cloth gloves can be beneficial because they can draw moisture away from their hands and can be easily washed to be cleaned. Because rubber gloves are usually meant to be disposed of after single use they tend to be cheaper to make and thus cheaper to buy. Yet some rubber gloves can be made thicker to reuse and are slightly more durable (Melco, 2016). Cloth gloves are designed to be washed after being used and last a long time under normal working conditions.

Typical Fertilizer Application Practices

Application of fertilizers can be performed in many ways, of which most common is spreading or broadcasting fertilizer over the top of the soil early in the growing season, but can result in leaching (Microdosing , n.d.). After spreading it is common to incorporate the fertilizer into the soil to help prevent loss and to make it closer to the crop roots. Also, other applications can consist of applying the fertilizer beside or in the row of the seeds, a method called fertilizer banding (Rehm, 2002). This method works well for fertilizers that are less mobile and it brings the nutrients to the developing roots. Another method used by wealthier farmers is in season side dress or y-drop. Side dressing places the fertilizer right in with the plants at the roots using a disk that runs beside the plant (The Agronomy Guide, 2015). Y-dropping uses liquid fertilizer and involves running hoses from a high clearance sprayer in between the rows, dripping nitrogen right beside the plant (The Agronomy Guide, 2015). These methods are very good for splitting up fertilizer applications but are very expensive. For small scale farmers, they could try microdosing wherein a small dose of fertilizer is added at the base of each seedling using a bottle cap, which makes it very labor extensive (Microdosing , n.d.).

Typical Fertilizer Application Practices

When working with smooth items such as hoes and some fruits and vegetables they can be slippery (Food and Agriculture Organization, 2016). A way to help farmer's hold on to the tools is to get gloves with grips (Melco, 2016). Both rubber and cloth gloves can have grips. Rubber gloves will have ridges in the molds to form grips and granular materials can be added to the outside before drying (Melco, 2016). Another option is to make the rubber gloves out of a non-slip rubber (Melco, 2016). Because cloth alone does not provide grip, cloth gloves must be dipped in liquid rubber to be able to grip smooth objects. The rubber used for grips on cloth gloves can either be non-slip smooth rubber or be rigid (Melco, 2016).

Split application

Split application is taking the total fertilizer intended for addition to a field and dividing it up into separate applications. The split application is important for mobile nutrients. Application of less mobile nutrients like phosphorus and potassium cannot be expected to have the same effect as application close to the seed row at seeding. Split application works best for nitrogen and sulfur mid-season. It is also very important that fertilizer is applied before it is expected to rain. The nitrogen will flow with the water into the soil towards the roots but one must be careful because a large rain event can wash away the nutrients away and cause leaching. Split application is preferred because of nutrient leaching if considerable rain or a warmer winter occurs. The best option would be applying some fertilizer at planting time and right beside the plant in the spring. Then later in the season, one could apply the remaining nutrients required. This can be done in several passes. For farmers with the use of equipment they could split nitrogen application by side dressing. This is a common practice in growing corn. Another option would be to attach y-drops on a sprayer to apply liquid nitrogen in corn just before tasseling which is just before the point that the crop needs it the most. The costs of using this equipment is very high but there is increased yield and there is much less leaching. For subsistence farmers, the practice of split application would be as simple as taking the time to walk through the field and apply fertilizer when the crop is growing.

Pre-plant (single dose) vs. split application:

Experiments comparing spring pre-plant nitrogen with split Nitrogen application for corn were conducted at 32 sites in southern Minnesota from 1989 to 1992 (Schmit & Randall, 2007). The yield differences are shown in Table 1. In a total of 88% corn had a higher yield because of the application of nitrogen. Split application was better compared to pre-plant. In these cases, excessive rainfall in the growing season and sandy soils had negative impacts on yield. This result shows that split application works different in different soil types. In sandy soils, there are larger particle sizes allowing water to move through making it easier for nutrients to leach. Clay soils hold more nutrients and water preventing leaching (Soil Texture and Soil Structure, n.d.). For slopes and hills there would be a similar effect: nitrogen applied at the top of the hill would run off from the top of the hill to the bottom (Soil Texture and Soil Structure, n.d.).

Therefore, it would be a good idea to split the applications so that nitrogen is not being lost at the top of the hill throughout the growing season. In another study done at Penn State University, researchers applied all the nitrogen in the first trial and then they split up the nitrogen application in the second trial. The results were that the plants all absorbed nitrogen the same rate no matter how much was available to them (see Table 3). Another study performed at Penn State showed that when incorporating and splitting the nitrogen, there were higher yields (See Table 4).

Environmental impact

The environment is affected greatly by nitrogen application: NO3 is very soluble in water and has been linked to blue baby syndrome. The disorder has been reported to be caused by pregnant women and infants ingesting nitrogen preventing the blood in the baby to carry enough oxygen through the body. Splitting the nitrogen application help with groundwater contamination (Oram, 2014).

Fertilizer Burn

Fertilizer burn is a problem with plants it causes the leaves to fade and turn brown. It is caused by nutrient excess and is from excusive fertilizer. It is important to make sure that the fertilizer does not get onto the leaves or the plant above the ground. (Fertilizer Burn).

Alternative

Controlled-release nitrogen or slow release nitrogen are alternatives for splitting application of nitrogen. This fertilizer is coated with compounds that makes it release slower than normal (Fertilizers – Quick-Release and Slow-Release Nitrogen, n.d.). Controlled-release N fertilizers can reduce these losses by delaying the initial release of N and providing it gradually to better match its availability with crop uptake needs. Controlled-release products may be most useful for high-value crops, environmentally sensitive areas, fields highly susceptible to N losses or with limited opportunities for repeat applications, contest plots, and foliar applications. (Fertilizers – Quick-Release and Slow-Release Nitrogen, n.d.). The slow release nitrogen is a good alternative however it is more expensive and less accessible.

Additional Resources

For a good resource on different crops fertilizer needs and how to go to https://content.ces.ncsu.edu/north-carolina-agricultural-chemicals-manual/fertilizer-use.

For agricultural fertilizers and equipment go to https://www.alibaba.com/trade/search?fsb=y&IndexArea=product_en&CatId=&SearchText=fertilizer

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References

1.Amarnath B.H., A. C. (2015). Effect of priming with botanicals and animal waste on germination and seedling vigour in sorghum (Sorghum bocolor L.) seeds. Pelagia Research Library , 73-77.

2.Battani, A. (n.d.). Controlled-Release Nitrogen Fertilizers. Retrieved from Pioneer: https://www.pioneer.com/home/site/us/agronomy/library/controlled-release-n-fertilizers/.

3.Butzen, S. (n.d.). Nitrogen Application Timing in Corn Production. Retrieved october 3, 2016, from Pioneer : https://www.pioneer.com/home/site/us/agronomy/library/nitrogen-application-timing/.

4.Dr. Al Ludwick. (1998). Phosphorus Mobility in Perspective. Retrieved from Potash & Phosphate Institute : http://www.ipni.net/ppiweb/ppinews.nsf/0/FF5C6A5F8AC7431C8525691B0066A943/$FILE/98175-AEL%20P-mobility.pdf.

5.Ecosan Waterless Toilet System. (n.d.). Retrieved from Waterless dry flush toilet system by Ecosan : http://www.ecosan.co.za/ Environmental Benefits of Using Fertilizers. (n.d.). Retrieved from Agro Services International: http://www.agroservicesinternational.com/Environment/Benefits.html.

6.Fernandez, F. (2015, 04 24). 3 Tips for sidedressing nitrogen on your corn crop. Retrieved 10 03, 2016, from Corn and Soybean Digest .

7.Fertilizer Burn. (n.d.). Retrieved from Orgaon State University: http://pubs.extension.oregonstate.edu/pnw659/damage/fertilizer-burn.

8.Fertilizers – Quick-Release and Slow-Release Nitrogen. (n.d.). Retrieved from The Lawn Institute: http://www.thelawninstitute.org/pages/education/lawn-maintenance/fertilizers-quickrelease-and-slowrelease-nitrogen-whats-the-difference/.

9.Gach, J. (2012). Synthetic vs. Organic Fertilizers. Retrieved October 3, 2016, from enviro in genuity: http://www.enviroingenuity.com/articles/synthetic-vs-organic-fertilizers.html.

10.Javid Nawaz, M. H. (2013). Seed Priming A Technique. International Journal of Agriculture and Crop Sciences. , 1373-1381.

11.Karthikeyan C, D. V. (2006). Cow based Indigenous Technologies in dry farming. Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge , 47-50.

12.Kumar, M. (2014). Influence of Seed Priming with Urine, Phosphorus and Zinc on Maize (Zea. Indian Journal of Hill Farming , 132-137.

13.McMcKague, K., Reid, K., & Simpson, H. (05, 11). Environmental Impacts of Nitrogen Use in Agriculture. Retrieved october 3, 2016, from Ontario Ministry of Agriculture Food and Rural Affairs: http://www.omafra.gov.on.ca/english/engineer/facts/05-073.htm.

14.Microdosing . (n.d.). Retrieved from Agriculture for Impact: http://ag4impact.org/sid/ecological-intensification/precision-agriculture/microdosing/

16.Moldenhauer, W. C., Hudson, N. W., & Editors. (1988). Concervation Farming on Steep Lands . Ankeny, Iowa, USA: Soil and Water Concervation Society.

17.Morgan, P. (2004). An ecological approach to sanitation in Africa - compilation of experiences. Stockholm: EcoSanRes, Stockholm environment institute.

18.Nutrient Management. (n.d.). Retrieved from Cornell University: https://nrcca.cals.cornell.edu/soilFertilityCA/CA1/CA1_print.html

19.Oram, B. (2014). Nitrates and Nitrites in Drinking Water and Surfacewaters. Retrieved 10 03, 2016, from Water Reserch Center: http://www.water-research.net/index.php/nitrate

20.Peace Corps Mali. (2009). Urine Fertilizer Info Sheet. Michigan: Michigan Tech University.

21.Pimentel, D., Harvey, C., Resosudarmo, P., Sinclair, K., Kurz, D., McNair, M., et al. (1995). Environemental and Economic Costs of Soil Erosion and Concervation Benefits. Science, New Series , 267 (5201), 1117-1123.

22.PS Mehta, K. N. (2009). Indigenous methods of seed conservation and protection in Uttarakhand Himalaya. Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge , 279-282.

23.Rehm, G. (2002). Use of Banded Fertilizer for Corn Production. Retrieved from University of Minnesota: http://www.extension.umn.edu/agriculture/nutrient-management/fertilizer-management/use-of-banded-fertilizer-for-corn-production/.

24.Schmit, M., & Randall, G. (2007). Strategies For Split Nitrogen Applications. Retrieved from fluid fertilizer.: http://www.fluidfertilizer.com/pastart/pdf/56P20-23.pdf.

25.Soil Texture and Soil Structure. (n.d.). Retrieved from University of Hawai‘i: http://www.ctahr.hawaii.edu/mauisoil/a_factor_ts.aspx.

26.The Agronomy Guide. (2015). Retrieved from Pennstate University : http://extension.psu.edu/agronomy-guide/cm/sec4/sec44d.

27.World Bank. (2012, May 17). India: Issues and Priorities for Agriculture. Retrieved from World Bank: http://www.worldbank.org/en/news/feature/2012/05/17/india-agriculture-issues-priorities.

28.World Bank. (2016, February 10). West Africa Agricultural Productivity Program. Retrieved from World Bank: http://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/agriculture/brief/the-west-africa-agricultural-productivity-program.

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