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  <div class="title"><h1>6.2 - Lost cost weeding tools for women</h1><br><h3 class="ch-owner">Mitchell van Schepen, University of Guelph, Canada</h3></div>
  <div class="title"><h3>6.2 - Lost cost weeding tools for women</h3><br><h3 class="ch-owner">Natalie Fear, University of Guelph, Canada</h3></div>
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       <h3 class="title-bg">Background</h3>
       <h3 class="title-bg">Background Information</h3>
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           <p>The world’s 1 billion women and girls participating in subsistence farming pull weeds by hand to improve their crops and also collect firewood for cooking, resulting in their hands becoming rough and sore (Figure 1). This can be caused by wood splinters being lodged into their skin (Schaffner, 2013). Pulling weeds for hours on end can peel away layers of skin (Food and Agriculture Organization, 2016). The hands of those farmers can also become dirty and smelly from planting seeds in the soil or spreading manure by hand. To avoid the common aforementioned problems as well as hand injuries, such as cuts and scrapes, they could wear gloves on their hands, see the second picture, (Schaffner, 2013). Gloves are very common in the modern world and can be used for construction, farming, and medical practices. Gloves provide a durable layer between the skin on your hands and whatever you are working with (Espasandín-Arias & Goossens, 2014). There are a few different materials used to make gloves, along with different sizes and grips. With over one billion women and girls working on farms around the world, this grueling work can be made safer and more efficient when wearing gloves.</p>
           <p>Women represent about 43% of the agricultural labour force in developing countries as well as globally (FAO, 2011). Today, women account for one third of the total agricultural input in most parts of Asia and Africa (Aggarwal et al., 2003). Furthermore, women carry a disproportionate work burden compared to men (Grassi et al., 2015). For example, in India women work 10 hours more per week compared to their male counterparts on agricultural tasks (Aggarwal et al., 2003).  Time surveys show that predominant female activates include weeding and harvesting (FAO, 2011). These two tasks are likely the most time consuming and the most difficult in terms of physical labour compared to all other agricultural tasks. These tasks are very physically straining for women because of their limited access to labour saving technologies (Grassi et al., 2015). In particular, it is estimated that hand weeding consumes 400-600 work hours per hectare per growing season (Raut et al., 2013).</p>
 
<p>A low cost solution to this problem is to introduce improved weeding tools to women. These tools will allow the task of weeding to be less physically demanding and time consuming compared to the pre-existing indigenous tools that have been used for generations (Langill and Landon, 1998). For many tools available today, women were not involved in the design process even though they are the primary users and have special needs (e.g. low weight and height specific). These improved tools will be specific to the women’s desired designs, for increased productivity. The purpose of this chapter is to provide detailed options and information about how this intervention may reach women in developing countries and how they can then use this specialized product and practice to benefit their daily lives.</p>
          <p>Rubber and cloth are the two main kinds of gloves produced (Melco, 2016). They both have their own benefits and drawbacks respectively. A benefit from rubber gloves is their ability to resist water from coming in contact with a farmer's skin, see part two, (Espasandín-Arias & Goossens, 2014). While cloth gloves can be beneficial because they can draw moisture away from their hands and can be easily washed to be cleaned. Because rubber gloves are usually meant to be disposed of after single use they tend to be cheaper to make and thus cheaper to buy. Yet some rubber gloves can be made thicker to reuse and are slightly more durable (Melco, 2016). Cloth gloves are designed to be washed after being used and last a long time under normal working conditions.</p>
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      <h3 class="title-bg">Description of Practice and Product</h3>
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<p>The obscure task of weeding is usually performed manually by bending over and pulling the weed and its roots above the ground (Raut et al., 2013). The posture used while weeding leads to induced back pain for the women involved (Raut et al., 2013). Improved weeding tools are helpful because they allow the women to remain in an upright body position and can be used to remove the weed without the women having to touch the weed or put difficult labour into pulling it out (IFAD, 1998). There are several types of tools that are available for different purposes and preferences. Please refer to Table 1 to assess the types of weeders available and what they are best used for.</p>
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          <p>Along with the different materials gloves are made of, there are also different arm lengths. Some gloves are cut off just in front or around the wrist. While others can be up to and over the elbow and everywhere in between (Melco, 2016). The benefits of the shorter gloves is comfort, no bunching around wrist or elbow, and they can be quickly put on or removed. The benefits of the long gloves are more protection, the entire forearm will be covered. All the while there is less of a chance of getting debris in their gloves because the opening is farther away from what you are working with. Farmers can also work in deeper water or mud with the long rubber gloves without getting your hands wet.</p>


           <p>When working with smooth items such as hoes and some fruits and vegetables they can be slippery (Food and Agriculture Organization, 2016). A way to help farmer's hold on to the tools is to get gloves with grips (Melco, 2016). Both rubber and cloth gloves can have grips. Rubber gloves will have ridges in the molds to form grips and granular materials can be added to the outside before drying (Melco, 2016). Another option is to make the rubber gloves out of a non-slip rubber (Melco, 2016). Because cloth alone does not provide grip, cloth gloves must be dipped in liquid rubber to be able to grip smooth objects. The rubber used for grips on cloth gloves can either be non-slip smooth rubber or be rigid (Melco, 2016). </p>
           <p>The farmer may choose their type of weeding tool according to price, availability, preference and weed type. It is important to realize that the motorized weeder would be the most costly option and may not be of financial reach to all farmers. However the other tools, which are less expensive, will still be of great assistance to women farmers while weed picking. These weeding tools can be purchased from a local vendor or can be made by a local blacksmith. </p>
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       <h3 class="title-bg">Weeding Tool Criteria</h3>
       <h3 class="title-bg">Physical Protection</h3>
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           <p>Protection is the main benefit from using gloves. Repetitive motions, such as when pounding grain, can cause irritation to the skin. When collecting firewood the sticks and logs can scratch or cut the skin (Food and Agriculture Organization, 2016). Weeds can be rough and by scratching their hands many times they can become cut and sore (Espasandín-Arias & Goossens, 2014). By lifting and pulling heavy items the top layer of your skin will separate from the next, causing a blister, by wearing gloves they now will prevent blistering because the glove will act as the top layer of skin and prevent the actual skin from separating (Schaffner, 2013). Manure has a lot of bacteria in it which are harmful if they are swallow, so keeping them away from the hands used to eat with is very beneficial (Furlong, et al., 2015). If farmers are working with firewood or in construction the cloth gloves will work better because they are more durable (Food and Agriculture Organization, 2016). The disposable rubber gloves would be the worst to use in this scenario because they are so thin, stick to jobs were the main goals are to keep hands dry and dirt free when using disposable rubber gloves.</p>
           <p>There are specific criteria that make a weeding tool effective and efficient for women subsistence farmers. Firstly, it is important that the tools are of low cost. Most subsistence farmers live under the international poverty line, meaning that most farmers make less than $1.90 USD per day (The World Bank, 2015). To ensure that the tools are of low cost, a local blacksmith can be employed, crafting the tool with wood handles to reduce the cost of the tool. Secondly, it is important that vendors have versatile and appropriate tools available for sale to meet the challenges of different types of weeds (e.g. deep roots versus horizontally spreading; different soil types; different income levels). It is also important that there are different models available that cater to different women’s heights and tool weight preferences. It is best to employ participation of women both in the design and implementation process. Allowing women to fully participate in the tool crafting process will allow them to feel empowered and in control of the decisions being made on their farm, it provides women with a voice that is often always over-ruled by their husbands (Narayanan, 2003). Lastly, an important characteristic for a weeding tool to have is durability. Since subsistence farmers are very poor and the product will be used a lot, the product must be strong and of good quality to last for a long period of time.</p>
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      <h3 class="title-bg">Possible Benefits</h3>
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          <p><i>Reduction of Time and Physical Labour</i>-A study conducted by Mitchell, 2016 concludes that farmers who use an improved weeding tool experience an average decrease of 6.5 hours of weeding time, which results in an 80% overall decrease in time spent weeding (Mitchell, 2016). The time that is saved by using these tools could be put towards household duties or other agricultural tasks. In addition to the reduction of time, the use of weeding tools will reduce the physical strain that manual weeding causes (IFAD, 1998).


<p><i>Increase in Crop Production</i>-
The removal of weeds is extremely important for achieving high crop yields (Holm, 1969). Weeds can cause soil degradation, limit nutrients and space and furthermore negatively impact the growth of the desired crop (Kingley and Rudolph, 2009). It is very important to remove weeds early in the growing season because competition between weeds and crop seedlings at this stage forever reduces the yield of the crop (Frick and Johnson, 2012).</p>
<p>With the use of weeding tools, more weeds can be removed in a reduced time frame. Less weeds in the fields results in less nutrient and space competition and overall increased yields (Kingley & Rudolph, 2009). If farmers have access to mechanical weeders, the re-working of weeds back into the soil can also help build up organic matter, this mobilizes micronutrients in the soil to ensure the healthy growth of a plant (WASSAN, 2006).</p>
<p><i>Increase in Profits</i>-
With an increase in crop yields, subsistence farmers will have an increase in profit from the additional crops they will now able to harvest and sell. Also, with the time they will save using weeding tools, women may have more time to spend on other profit making activities, which will then result in additional profit for her family.</p>
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       <h3 style="background: #FBB03B;padding: 15px;font-weight: 600;color: #000;font-size: 22px;margin:unset;text-align:center;">Defense Against Moisture and Chemicals</h3>
       <h3 style="background: #FBB03B;padding: 15px;font-weight: 600;color: #000;font-size: 22px;margin:unset;text-align:center;">Critical Analysis</h3>
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           <p>Moisture blocking is a way gloves can prevent your skin from drying out and from getting too wet and dehydrating farmer's hands. By keeping the moisture from the hands inside the gloves they will prevent the skin from cracking and becoming infected (Schaffner, 2013). As well when working in wet conditions your hands can shrivel and become dehydrated if they are constantly in contact with water.</p>
           <p><i>Cost Analysis</i>-
          <p>Pesticides can be absorbed by your skin and become harmful to the body, gloves provide an extra barrier to block them from entering in a farmer's body (Furlong, et al., 2015). Fertilizers such as nitrogen can also be caustic, and these are usually spread through broadcasting by hand. Mud can get under your nails and into cracked or cut skin and can infect a farmer's hands. Gloves will keep the mud out and keep hands clean. Both liquid pesticides and dry fertilizers can irritate skin if they come into contact with it (Kim, et al., 2013). Wearing the proper gloves, rubber ones in this case, can save their hands from becoming itchy (Keeble et al., 1996). Human skin can also absorb the pesticides which are harmful to your body, wearing gloves would prevent the pesticides from ever touching your skin.</p>
As mentioned in the Weeding Tool Criteria section above, it may be difficult for subsistence farmers to purchase the tools because of their low incomes. Farmers, who lack knowledge of the full extent of the tool’s benefits, may choose not to spend their money on a tool and fail to see it as a worthy purchase. To get an idea of how much a farmer would have to spend on a weeding tool, a study done by <i>the Food and Agriculture Organization</i> notes that a traditional weeding tool made by a local blacksmith would cost between 1.00-4.25 USD and an imported industrial weeder would cost $2.50-8.00USD (FAO, 1998). Furthermore, the motorized weeders would again be a higher price than those previously listed. Refer to Table 1 to see an estimated break down of prices.</p>
<p>In addition, the traditional weeding tools that are of a lower price range may not be as time efficient as the motorized tools. The motorized tools are expensive and may be outside the budget of a subsistence farmer. Moreover, the farmer may not be able to totally maximize efficiency with a low cost traditional weeder, but it would still bring benefits to them by cutting down time requirements and the amount of physical labour by a noticeable amount.  
A major cost will be the size and/or weight of the tool, which will increase transportation, costs, especially to remote areas. A way to reduce costs is to not sell the handle and let farmers create their own from local wood.</P
 
<p><i>Potential Problems</i>-
The main problem of this intervention is the ability of the women to access the weeding tools. In many societies in developing countries, women have low socio-economic statuses and are not often able to make decisions without the approval of their husband (FAO, 1998). This therefore constrains their ability to invest in gender-specific technologies (FAO, 1998).</p>
<p>Another potential problem is the lack of information transmission from seller to buyer. In order for women to use these tools properly, they must be trained on how to use them. The vendor can transmit the information to the women or the SAK picture book could be attached to the product with picture examples of how to properly utilize the tool.</p>
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      <h3 class="title-bg">Useful Resources</h3>
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          <p><u>Images and Videos of Tools</u></p>
<p>Wheel Hoe: http://dir.indiamart.com/impcat/wheel-hoe-weeder.html</p>
<p>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MUwSmojsUxY</p>
<p>Motorized Weeder:<p>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HNe5h471td0</p>
<p>Cono-Weeder</p>
<p>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=q5HohX3TwHY</p>
<p>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vIqXa9y4XHY</p>
<p>Long Handled Weeder: http://tierragarden.com/ProductImages/DeWit/31-0806.jpg</p>
<p>http://www.selections.com/media/catalog/product/cache/1/image/485x/9df78eab33525d08d6e5fb8d27136e95/G/F/GFA375.jpg</p>
<p>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6ERMmRF9Fqo</p>
<p>Short Handled Weeder: https://gallandt.files.wordpress.com/2012/07/img_0771.jpg?w=300</p>
<p>http://cdn2.bigcommerce.com/n-pktq5q/1we6yb79/templates/__custom/images/prdct-img1.jpg?t=1454504760</p>
<p>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=blPXjavqPJ8</p>
<p>Long Handled Weed Puller: http://cdn.gadgetsandgizmos.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/05/fiskarsweedpuller-600x450.jpg
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cruAPsZJwFQ</p>
<p>Links to Potential Suppliers:
http://www.alibaba.com/Agriculture-Machinery-Equipment_pid100009395?spm=a2700.8190021.199001.27.NJnzZB</p>
<p>http://www.indiamart.com</p>


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<p>http://dir.indiamart.com/industry/agro-poultry-dairy.html</p>
      <h3 class="title-bg">Wearable</h3>
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          <p>Comfortable gloves help farmer's work longer because their hands will not hurt from completing your task. Sizing is very important when finding comfortable gloves (Melco, 2016). Make sure gloves are the proper length and width, as not to restrict movement. There will be less pain from pulling weeds and they will be able to pull more weeds because they would not have to wait a long for the pain to subside between pulling each weed, because there will be no pain if wearing gloves (Food and Agriculture Organization, 2016). If farmer's find they are working hard and their hands start to sweat the gloves should be removed , dry your hands, and put on a new pair. Cloth gloves are more breathable then rubber ones, using them is another way to prevent hands from getting sweaty. The cloth gloves can also be softer and easier to clean, but are more restricting to movement due to their durability and tougher material. Since children will also be farming, smaller glove sizes can be found. Gloves are designed to fit a farmer's hand snugly, so children should not wear adult sized gloves when working. </p>
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<p>Instructional Resources:
      <h3 class="title-bg">Constraints To Adoption</h3>
http://saknepal.org/resource/sample-images-of-agricultural-tools-machines-supplies/ (Austin Brush, University of Guelph)</p>
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          <p>Gloves are very useful to farmers, but there can still be some drawbacks. Possible culturable taboos might vary from location to location. Gloves might seem feminine and not easily adopted by men in the community. Gloves act as a second, tougher skin, but they are not a farmer's skin and can slide around while working. This may feel odd and uncomfortable but farmers can get used to the new feeling over time. Gloves can come in many colours and thicknesses, which may make a farmer's hands look funny or larger. Human skin is very stretchy and flexible, while glove materials tend to be tougher than skin and will reduce movement, but not enough to hinder work. Rubber gloves can stretch well, but make hands sweat, while cloth gloves are breathable but reduce dexterity.</p>
          <p>Farmers can find gloves to use and get started from local vendors (European Commission For The Control Of Foot-And-Mouth Disease, 2016). Once you have completed your work for the day you can clean them are reuse them, or dispose of them if they were ripped or torn (Kim, et al., 2013). You can get gloves made of rubber and like materials as well as ones made of durable cloths. The thin rubber gloves tend to be made for a single use only. A trick that the European Commission For The Control Foot-And-Mouth Disease mentions that you can wear two pairs of rubber gloves at the same time for extra protection (European Commission For The Control Of Foot-And-Mouth Disease, 2016).</p>
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<p>Refer to the SAK picture book for picture illustrations of how to use different types of weeding tools:
      <h3 class="title-bg">Helpful Links To Get Started </h3>
A Picture Book of Best Practices for Subsistence Farmers: South Asian version</p>
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          <p>Here are websites to find more information about how to obtain gloves:</p>
          <p>[https://www.alibaba.com/ Alibaba]</p>
          <p>[https://www.indiamart.com/ Indiamart]</p>
          <p>[http://www.store.nzfarmsource.co.nz/ Store Nzfarmsource]</p>
          <p>[https://www.adenna.com Adenna]</p>
          <p>[https://www.farmcity.co.za/ Farmcity]</p>
          <p>[https://www.crazystore.co.za/ Crazystore]</p>
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       <h3 class="title-bg">Usefull Images</h3>
       <h3 class="title-bg">References</h3>
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          <p>1. Aggarwal, S., Khanna, K., & Malhan, S. (2003). Quality of Life of Farm Women. Delhi:
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Abhijeet Publications</p>
                <div class="card">
                  <div class="fakeimg fakeimg-use">[[File:1.jpg]]</div>
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<p>2. Agriculture Equipment (2016). In ismat Engineering Works. Retrieved from
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http://www.kismatengineering.com/agriculture-equipment.html#agricultural-hoe</p>
                  <div class="fakeimg fakeimg-use">[[File:2.jpg]]</div>
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<p>3. Farm Machinery (2016). In Alibaba. Retrieved from
                <div class="card">
https://www.alibaba.com/product-detail/China-export-15hp-power-tiller-weeder_1887396732.html</p>
                  <div class="fakeimg fakeimg-use">[[File:3.jpg]]</div>
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<p>4. FAO (1998). The potential for improving production tools and implements used by
              <div class="column" style="max-width: 28%;">
women (1998). Retrieved from http://www.fao.org/docrep/w8794e/w8794e01.htm#P372_59507</p>
                <div class="card">
                  <div class="fakeimg fakeimg-use">[[File:4.jpg]]</div>
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<p>5. Triple-Claw Weeder (2016). In Fiskars. Retrieved from
                <div class="card">
http://www2.fiskars.com/Products/Gardening-and-Yard-Care/Weeders/Triple-claw-Weeder</p>
                  <div class="fakeimg fakeimg-use">[[File:5.jpg]]</div>
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<p>6. Frick, B., & Johnson, E. (2012). Weeds - when are they a problem?. In Linking Organic
                <div class="card">
Knowledge . Retrieved from http://www.oacc.info/Extension/ext_weed_problem.asp</p>
                  <div class="fakeimg fakeimg-use">[[File:6.jpg]]</div>
 
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<p>7. Garden Tools (2016). In Alibaba. Retrieved from
              </div>
https://www.alibaba.com/product-detail/welded-bow-carbon-steel-garden-rake_60430829304.html</p>
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<p>8. Grassi, F., Landberg, J., & Huyer, S. (2015). Running Out of Time: The Reduction of
    </div>
women’s work burden in agricultural production. Retrieved from http://www.fao.org/3/a-i4741e.pdf</p>
 
 
  <div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<p>9. Holm, L. (1969). Weeds Problems in Developing Countries. Weed Science, 17(1), 113-
      <h3 class="title-bg">References</h3>
118. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org.subzero.lib.uoguelph.ca/stable/pdf/4041470.pdf</p>
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          <p>Espasandín-Arias, M., & Goossens, A. (2014). Natural rubber gloves might not protect against skin penetration of methylisothiazolinone. Contact Dermatitis, 70(4), 249-251. doi:10.1111/cod.12221</p>
<p>10. IFAD (1998). In Agricultural Implements Used by Women Farmers in Africa.
          <p>European Commission For The Control Of Foot-And-Mouth Disease. Suggested FMD PPE guidelines - Food and Agriculture, (2016)  
Retrieved November from ftp://ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/011/aj334e/aj334e.pdf</p>
          Food and Agriculture Organization. Rural women in household production: Increasing contributions and persisting drudgery. (2016).
 
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<p>11. Kingely & Rudolph, V. (2009). Weeds : Retrieved from
          <p>Furlong, M., Tanner, C. M., Goldman, S. M., Bhudhikanok, G. S., Blair, A., Chade, A., . . . Kamel, F. (2015). Protective glove use and hygiene habits modify the associations of specific pesticides with Parkinson's disease. Environment International, 75, 144-150. doi:10.1016/j.envint.2014.11.002</p>
http://web.b.ebscohost.com/ehost/ebookviewer/ebook/bmxlYmtfXzM1NDMzNV9fQU41?sid=9250de35-4ae7-47ae-a2a7-3e0a998abb21@sessionmgr120&vid=0&format=EB&rid=1</p>
          <p>Keeble, V. B., Correll, L., & Ehrich, M. (1996). Effect of Laundering on Ability of Glove Fabrics to Decrease the Penetration of Organophosphate Insecticides Through in vitro Epidermal Systems. J. Appl. Toxicol. Journal of Applied Toxicology, 16(5), 401-406. doi:10.1002/(sici)1099-1263(199609)16:53.3.co;2-6</p>
 
          <p>Kim, J., Kim, J., Cha, E., Ko, Y., Kim, D., & Lee, W. (2013). Work-Related Risk Factors by Severity for Acute Pesticide Poisoning Among Male Farmers in South Korea. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 10(3), 1100-1112. doi:10.3390/ijerph10031100</p>
<p>12. Langill, S., & Landon, S. (1998). Indigenous Knowledge. IDRC, Readings and  Resources for
          <p>Melco, M. (2016). Gardening Gloves. Retrieved from [http://garden.lovetoknow.com/wiki/Gardening_Gloves Garden Lovetoknow]</p>
Comunity-Based Natural Resource Management Researchers, 4. Retreived from https://idl-bnc.idrc.ca/dspace/bitstream/10625/32031/6/114509.pdf</p>
          <p>Schaffner, A. D. (2013). Minimizing Surgical Skin Incision Scars with a Latex Surgical Glove. Aesthetic Plastic Surgery, 37(2), 463-463. doi:10.1007/s00266-013-0071-y</p>
 
<p>13. Manual and Mechanical Weeding (2016). In Rice Knowledge Bank. Retrieved from
http://www.knowledgebank.irri.org/step-by-step-production/growth/weed-management/manual-and-mechanical-weeding</p>
 
<p>14. Mitchell, A. (2016). Examination of Improved Weeding Technologies with
Smallholder Rice Farmers in Southern Benin, West Africa. Retrieved from http://sri.ciifad.cornell.edu/countries/benin/research/BeninMPSpaperAMMitchell.pdf</p>
 
<p>15. Narayanan, P. (2003). Empowerment through Participation: How Effective Is This
Approach. Economic and Political Weekly, 38(25), 2484-2486. Retreived from https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/4413702.pdf</p>
 
<p>16. Raut, V. D., Deshmukh, P. B. D., & Dekate, P. D. (2013). Review paper on “ Various  aspects of Weeders for Economical Cultivation ” Preparation of Papers for International Journal of Modern Engineering and Bold ), 3, 3296–3299. Retrieved from http://www.ijmer.com/papers/Vol3_Issue5/EG3532963299.pdf</p>
 
<p>17. SOFA Team. & Doss, C. (2011). The role of women in agriculture. In FAO. Retrieved from
http://www.fao.org/docrep/013/am307e/am307e00.pdf</p>
 
<p>18. The World Bank. (2016). Global Poverty Line Updated. In The World Bank. Retrieved
from http://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/poverty/brief/global-poverty-line-faqe</p>
 
<p>19. WASSAN. (2006). WEEDERS A Reference Compendium, 28. Retrieved from
http://sri.ciifad.cornell.edu/countries/india/extmats/SRIWeederManual06.pdf</p>
 
<p>20. Wheel Hoe Weeder (2016). In India Mart. Retrieved, from
http://dir.indiamart.com/impcat/wheel-hoe-weeder.html</p>
     </div>
     </div>
   </div>
   </div>

Revision as of 23:48, 13 June 2022

6.2 - Lost cost weeding tools for women


Natalie Fear, University of Guelph, Canada

Background Information

Women represent about 43% of the agricultural labour force in developing countries as well as globally (FAO, 2011). Today, women account for one third of the total agricultural input in most parts of Asia and Africa (Aggarwal et al., 2003). Furthermore, women carry a disproportionate work burden compared to men (Grassi et al., 2015). For example, in India women work 10 hours more per week compared to their male counterparts on agricultural tasks (Aggarwal et al., 2003). Time surveys show that predominant female activates include weeding and harvesting (FAO, 2011). These two tasks are likely the most time consuming and the most difficult in terms of physical labour compared to all other agricultural tasks. These tasks are very physically straining for women because of their limited access to labour saving technologies (Grassi et al., 2015). In particular, it is estimated that hand weeding consumes 400-600 work hours per hectare per growing season (Raut et al., 2013).

A low cost solution to this problem is to introduce improved weeding tools to women. These tools will allow the task of weeding to be less physically demanding and time consuming compared to the pre-existing indigenous tools that have been used for generations (Langill and Landon, 1998). For many tools available today, women were not involved in the design process even though they are the primary users and have special needs (e.g. low weight and height specific). These improved tools will be specific to the women’s desired designs, for increased productivity. The purpose of this chapter is to provide detailed options and information about how this intervention may reach women in developing countries and how they can then use this specialized product and practice to benefit their daily lives.

Description of Practice and Product

The obscure task of weeding is usually performed manually by bending over and pulling the weed and its roots above the ground (Raut et al., 2013). The posture used while weeding leads to induced back pain for the women involved (Raut et al., 2013). Improved weeding tools are helpful because they allow the women to remain in an upright body position and can be used to remove the weed without the women having to touch the weed or put difficult labour into pulling it out (IFAD, 1998). There are several types of tools that are available for different purposes and preferences. Please refer to Table 1 to assess the types of weeders available and what they are best used for.

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The farmer may choose their type of weeding tool according to price, availability, preference and weed type. It is important to realize that the motorized weeder would be the most costly option and may not be of financial reach to all farmers. However the other tools, which are less expensive, will still be of great assistance to women farmers while weed picking. These weeding tools can be purchased from a local vendor or can be made by a local blacksmith.

Weeding Tool Criteria

There are specific criteria that make a weeding tool effective and efficient for women subsistence farmers. Firstly, it is important that the tools are of low cost. Most subsistence farmers live under the international poverty line, meaning that most farmers make less than $1.90 USD per day (The World Bank, 2015). To ensure that the tools are of low cost, a local blacksmith can be employed, crafting the tool with wood handles to reduce the cost of the tool. Secondly, it is important that vendors have versatile and appropriate tools available for sale to meet the challenges of different types of weeds (e.g. deep roots versus horizontally spreading; different soil types; different income levels). It is also important that there are different models available that cater to different women’s heights and tool weight preferences. It is best to employ participation of women both in the design and implementation process. Allowing women to fully participate in the tool crafting process will allow them to feel empowered and in control of the decisions being made on their farm, it provides women with a voice that is often always over-ruled by their husbands (Narayanan, 2003). Lastly, an important characteristic for a weeding tool to have is durability. Since subsistence farmers are very poor and the product will be used a lot, the product must be strong and of good quality to last for a long period of time.

Possible Benefits

Reduction of Time and Physical Labour-A study conducted by Mitchell, 2016 concludes that farmers who use an improved weeding tool experience an average decrease of 6.5 hours of weeding time, which results in an 80% overall decrease in time spent weeding (Mitchell, 2016). The time that is saved by using these tools could be put towards household duties or other agricultural tasks. In addition to the reduction of time, the use of weeding tools will reduce the physical strain that manual weeding causes (IFAD, 1998).

Increase in Crop Production- The removal of weeds is extremely important for achieving high crop yields (Holm, 1969). Weeds can cause soil degradation, limit nutrients and space and furthermore negatively impact the growth of the desired crop (Kingley and Rudolph, 2009). It is very important to remove weeds early in the growing season because competition between weeds and crop seedlings at this stage forever reduces the yield of the crop (Frick and Johnson, 2012).

With the use of weeding tools, more weeds can be removed in a reduced time frame. Less weeds in the fields results in less nutrient and space competition and overall increased yields (Kingley & Rudolph, 2009). If farmers have access to mechanical weeders, the re-working of weeds back into the soil can also help build up organic matter, this mobilizes micronutrients in the soil to ensure the healthy growth of a plant (WASSAN, 2006).

Increase in Profits- With an increase in crop yields, subsistence farmers will have an increase in profit from the additional crops they will now able to harvest and sell. Also, with the time they will save using weeding tools, women may have more time to spend on other profit making activities, which will then result in additional profit for her family.

Critical Analysis

Cost Analysis- As mentioned in the Weeding Tool Criteria section above, it may be difficult for subsistence farmers to purchase the tools because of their low incomes. Farmers, who lack knowledge of the full extent of the tool’s benefits, may choose not to spend their money on a tool and fail to see it as a worthy purchase. To get an idea of how much a farmer would have to spend on a weeding tool, a study done by the Food and Agriculture Organization notes that a traditional weeding tool made by a local blacksmith would cost between 1.00-4.25 USD and an imported industrial weeder would cost $2.50-8.00USD (FAO, 1998). Furthermore, the motorized weeders would again be a higher price than those previously listed. Refer to Table 1 to see an estimated break down of prices.

In addition, the traditional weeding tools that are of a lower price range may not be as time efficient as the motorized tools. The motorized tools are expensive and may be outside the budget of a subsistence farmer. Moreover, the farmer may not be able to totally maximize efficiency with a low cost traditional weeder, but it would still bring benefits to them by cutting down time requirements and the amount of physical labour by a noticeable amount. A major cost will be the size and/or weight of the tool, which will increase transportation, costs, especially to remote areas. A way to reduce costs is to not sell the handle and let farmers create their own from local wood.</P

Potential Problems- The main problem of this intervention is the ability of the women to access the weeding tools. In many societies in developing countries, women have low socio-economic statuses and are not often able to make decisions without the approval of their husband (FAO, 1998). This therefore constrains their ability to invest in gender-specific technologies (FAO, 1998).

Another potential problem is the lack of information transmission from seller to buyer. In order for women to use these tools properly, they must be trained on how to use them. The vendor can transmit the information to the women or the SAK picture book could be attached to the product with picture examples of how to properly utilize the tool.

Useful Resources

Images and Videos of Tools

Wheel Hoe: http://dir.indiamart.com/impcat/wheel-hoe-weeder.html

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MUwSmojsUxY

Motorized Weeder:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HNe5h471td0

Cono-Weeder

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=q5HohX3TwHY

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vIqXa9y4XHY

Long Handled Weeder: http://tierragarden.com/ProductImages/DeWit/31-0806.jpg

http://www.selections.com/media/catalog/product/cache/1/image/485x/9df78eab33525d08d6e5fb8d27136e95/G/F/GFA375.jpg

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6ERMmRF9Fqo

Short Handled Weeder: https://gallandt.files.wordpress.com/2012/07/img_0771.jpg?w=300

http://cdn2.bigcommerce.com/n-pktq5q/1we6yb79/templates/__custom/images/prdct-img1.jpg?t=1454504760

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=blPXjavqPJ8

Long Handled Weed Puller: http://cdn.gadgetsandgizmos.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/05/fiskarsweedpuller-600x450.jpg https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cruAPsZJwFQ

Links to Potential Suppliers: http://www.alibaba.com/Agriculture-Machinery-Equipment_pid100009395?spm=a2700.8190021.199001.27.NJnzZB

http://www.indiamart.com

http://dir.indiamart.com/industry/agro-poultry-dairy.html

Instructional Resources: http://saknepal.org/resource/sample-images-of-agricultural-tools-machines-supplies/ (Austin Brush, University of Guelph)

Refer to the SAK picture book for picture illustrations of how to use different types of weeding tools: A Picture Book of Best Practices for Subsistence Farmers: South Asian version

References

1. Aggarwal, S., Khanna, K., & Malhan, S. (2003). Quality of Life of Farm Women. Delhi: Abhijeet Publications

2. Agriculture Equipment (2016). In ismat Engineering Works. Retrieved from http://www.kismatengineering.com/agriculture-equipment.html#agricultural-hoe

3. Farm Machinery (2016). In Alibaba. Retrieved from https://www.alibaba.com/product-detail/China-export-15hp-power-tiller-weeder_1887396732.html

4. FAO (1998). The potential for improving production tools and implements used by women (1998). Retrieved from http://www.fao.org/docrep/w8794e/w8794e01.htm#P372_59507

5. Triple-Claw Weeder (2016). In Fiskars. Retrieved from http://www2.fiskars.com/Products/Gardening-and-Yard-Care/Weeders/Triple-claw-Weeder

6. Frick, B., & Johnson, E. (2012). Weeds - when are they a problem?. In Linking Organic Knowledge . Retrieved from http://www.oacc.info/Extension/ext_weed_problem.asp

7. Garden Tools (2016). In Alibaba. Retrieved from https://www.alibaba.com/product-detail/welded-bow-carbon-steel-garden-rake_60430829304.html

8. Grassi, F., Landberg, J., & Huyer, S. (2015). Running Out of Time: The Reduction of women’s work burden in agricultural production. Retrieved from http://www.fao.org/3/a-i4741e.pdf

9. Holm, L. (1969). Weeds Problems in Developing Countries. Weed Science, 17(1), 113- 118. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org.subzero.lib.uoguelph.ca/stable/pdf/4041470.pdf

10. IFAD (1998). In Agricultural Implements Used by Women Farmers in Africa. Retrieved November from ftp://ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/011/aj334e/aj334e.pdf

11. Kingely & Rudolph, V. (2009). Weeds : Retrieved from http://web.b.ebscohost.com/ehost/ebookviewer/ebook/bmxlYmtfXzM1NDMzNV9fQU41?sid=9250de35-4ae7-47ae-a2a7-3e0a998abb21@sessionmgr120&vid=0&format=EB&rid=1

12. Langill, S., & Landon, S. (1998). Indigenous Knowledge. IDRC, Readings and Resources for Comunity-Based Natural Resource Management Researchers, 4. Retreived from https://idl-bnc.idrc.ca/dspace/bitstream/10625/32031/6/114509.pdf

13. Manual and Mechanical Weeding (2016). In Rice Knowledge Bank. Retrieved from http://www.knowledgebank.irri.org/step-by-step-production/growth/weed-management/manual-and-mechanical-weeding

14. Mitchell, A. (2016). Examination of Improved Weeding Technologies with Smallholder Rice Farmers in Southern Benin, West Africa. Retrieved from http://sri.ciifad.cornell.edu/countries/benin/research/BeninMPSpaperAMMitchell.pdf

15. Narayanan, P. (2003). Empowerment through Participation: How Effective Is This Approach. Economic and Political Weekly, 38(25), 2484-2486. Retreived from https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/4413702.pdf

16. Raut, V. D., Deshmukh, P. B. D., & Dekate, P. D. (2013). Review paper on “ Various aspects of Weeders for Economical Cultivation ” Preparation of Papers for International Journal of Modern Engineering and Bold ), 3, 3296–3299. Retrieved from http://www.ijmer.com/papers/Vol3_Issue5/EG3532963299.pdf

17. SOFA Team. & Doss, C. (2011). The role of women in agriculture. In FAO. Retrieved from http://www.fao.org/docrep/013/am307e/am307e00.pdf

18. The World Bank. (2016). Global Poverty Line Updated. In The World Bank. Retrieved from http://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/poverty/brief/global-poverty-line-faqe

19. WASSAN. (2006). WEEDERS A Reference Compendium, 28. Retrieved from http://sri.ciifad.cornell.edu/countries/india/extmats/SRIWeederManual06.pdf

20. Wheel Hoe Weeder (2016). In India Mart. Retrieved, from http://dir.indiamart.com/impcat/wheel-hoe-weeder.html

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