Chapter 9.8: Difference between revisions
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<div class="title"><h3>9. | <div class="title"><h3>9.9 - Legumes and seeds as folate sources for pregnant women</h3><br><h3 class="ch-owner">Nick Moroz, University of Guelph, Canada </h3></div> | ||
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<p>Suggested citation for this chapter.</p> | <p>Suggested citation for this chapter.</p> | ||
<p>Moroz,N. (2022) Improving human nutrition, The Encyclopedia for Small Scale Farmers. Editor, M.N. Raizada, University of Guelph, Canada. http://www.farmpedia.org</p> | <p>Moroz,N. (2022) Improving human nutrition, The Encyclopedia for Small Scale Farmers. Editor, M.N. Raizada, University of Guelph, Canada. http://www.farmpedia.org</p> | ||
<h3 class="title-bg"> | <h3 class="title-bg">Introduction to Legumes and Pulses</h3> | ||
<div class="cont-bg"> | <div class="cont-bg"> | ||
<p> | <p>Legumes, known for their podded fruits and unique flower structure, consist of many staple crops of the bean and pea family that are mainly grown for their grain seed, which is called a pulse (Graham & Vance, 2003). Legumes include chickpeas, beans, lentils, peanuts, and more podded plants (Messina, 1999). Legumes also play an important role in traditional diets in many regions of the world (Messina, 1999). Legumes play an essential role in global soil nitrogen levels as most legumes have symbiotic nitrogen-fixing bacteria that grow in root structures called nodules and ‘fix-nitrogen’ from the air (Herridge, Peoples, & Boddey, 2008). As such, legumes are important for crop rotation, soil health, and high in protein content.</p> | ||
<p> | <p>Pulses simply refer to the dried grain seed of any particular legume and are separate from leguminous oil seeds by their lower fat content in comparison (WHO/FAO, 2007). Pulses are an important source of energy, dietary protein, fibre, minerals and vitamins required for healthy livelihoods (Boye, Zare, & Pletch, 2010). Pulses are a vital source of dietary protein for a large portion of the world’s population, especially in regions where consumption of animal protein is limited by scarcity or self-imposed by cultural and religious factors (Boye et al., 2010). Nutritionally, pulses contain high amounts of protein (18-32%) and essential amino acids that might not be readily available, gaining pulses recent attention for their potential to fight malnutrition and disease (Boye et al., 2010).</p> | ||
<p>The diets of subsistence level farmers in Africa and South Asia usually contain an adequate supply of carbohydrates through readily accessible grain products (maize, rice, etc.) but are often low in protein content (Broughton et al., 2003). Good supply of dietary proteins are often found in animal products, but scarcity of these products can prevent adequate protein intake (Broughton et al., 2003). Legumes are a notable solution to a lack of protein access, as legumes can provide the protein necessary for a health diet when other sources are unavailable (Broughton et al., 2003). In fact, dietary proteins are mainly acquired from legumes/pulses in many parts of the world (Broughton et al., 2003). By complementing other foods that are a primary source of carbohydrates, legumes that provide dietary proteins fulfill many human nutritional needs (Broughton et al., 2003).</p> | |||
<p>Often a mono-carbohydrate diet of a single cereal grain is indicative of a population that is malnourished because cereals lacks the protein, vitamins, and minerals required for a healthy diet (Boye et al., 2010). However, pulses are normally high in protein, vitamin, and mineral composition. Cereals provide adequate carbohydrates but lack in protein, whereas pulses often provide adequate protein but lack in carbohydrates (Boye et al., 2010). Complementing locally grown grains with pulses and blending the different nutritional advantages of these crops could potentially address protein malnutrition problems worldwide (Boye et al., 2010). Legumes and cereal combinations in cultural diets have been key to survival of many peoples, and these combinations in cultural foods can be around the globe (FAO, 2016). Often, a diverse diet that includes various legumes, cereals, fruits, and vegetables, each providing its unique nutrient supply, provides the best chance for adequate nutrition in all required nutrients for human health.</p> | |||
<p>Of vital importance, pulses are an important source of dietary minerals, with the potential to provide all 15 essential minerals required in a human diet if consuming adequate and diverse amounts (Wang et al., 2003). It should be noted that the mineral concentrations of minerals key to human metabolism (Fe, Zn, Ca, etc.) are low compared to animal food products (Wang et al., 2003).</p> | |||
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<h3 class="title-bg"> | <h3 class="title-bg">The Common Bean: A Case Study</h3> | ||
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<p> | <p>The common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) is the most widely directly consumed grain legume in humans (Broughton et al., 2003). Global production exceeds 23 million metric tonnes and is twice that of the chickpea, the second most important grain legume (Broughton et al., 2003). The common bean represents half the grain legumes consumed globally, despite having lower than standard yields and sub-optimal seed quality (Broughton et al., 2003). It is the primary source of protein for humans in Mexico and Brazil (Broughton et al., 2003). Countries in Africa, such as Rwanda and Burundi, have reported that average national consumption of beans is greater than 40 kg per person per year, providing the second most important source of protein and third most important source of calories within these nations (Broughton et al., 2003). The high protein and mineral content of beans, especially in Fe and Zn, is important in areas with a high prevalence of micronutrient deficiencies, and should be complemented with starchy grains such as maize or root crops (Broughton et al., 2003). Beans are a major staple crop of eastern and southern Africa, often grown by resource-poor farmers (Broughton et al., 2003).</p> | ||
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<h3 class="title-bg"> | <h3 class="title-bg">Legumes are High in Protein Content</h3> | ||
<div class="cont-bg"> | <div class="cont-bg"> | ||
<p>As | <p>As pulses are a rich source of protein, they contain high amounts of essential amino acids, including lysine, aspartic acid, and arginine (Boye et al., 2010). Pulses provide a well-balanced amino acid intake when paired with cereals and other foods rich in tryptophan and amino acids containing sulfur, as these metabolites are less prevalent in pulses (Boye et al., 2010). Table 1.1 shows that pulses are very high in protein content and as contain significant amounts of caloric energy, while some pulses are also rich in fats. In addition to their nutritional properties, pulse proteins provide water holding and fat binding functional properties that are also beneficial (Boye et al., 2010). Finally, fava beans are notable, and included in table 1.1 due to their drought resistance.</p> | ||
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Revision as of 05:57, 24 June 2022
9.9 - Legumes and seeds as folate sources for pregnant women
Nick Moroz, University of Guelph, Canada
Suggested citation for this chapter.
Moroz,N. (2022) Improving human nutrition, The Encyclopedia for Small Scale Farmers. Editor, M.N. Raizada, University of Guelph, Canada. http://www.farmpedia.org
Introduction to Legumes and Pulses
Legumes, known for their podded fruits and unique flower structure, consist of many staple crops of the bean and pea family that are mainly grown for their grain seed, which is called a pulse (Graham & Vance, 2003). Legumes include chickpeas, beans, lentils, peanuts, and more podded plants (Messina, 1999). Legumes also play an important role in traditional diets in many regions of the world (Messina, 1999). Legumes play an essential role in global soil nitrogen levels as most legumes have symbiotic nitrogen-fixing bacteria that grow in root structures called nodules and ‘fix-nitrogen’ from the air (Herridge, Peoples, & Boddey, 2008). As such, legumes are important for crop rotation, soil health, and high in protein content.
Pulses simply refer to the dried grain seed of any particular legume and are separate from leguminous oil seeds by their lower fat content in comparison (WHO/FAO, 2007). Pulses are an important source of energy, dietary protein, fibre, minerals and vitamins required for healthy livelihoods (Boye, Zare, & Pletch, 2010). Pulses are a vital source of dietary protein for a large portion of the world’s population, especially in regions where consumption of animal protein is limited by scarcity or self-imposed by cultural and religious factors (Boye et al., 2010). Nutritionally, pulses contain high amounts of protein (18-32%) and essential amino acids that might not be readily available, gaining pulses recent attention for their potential to fight malnutrition and disease (Boye et al., 2010).
The diets of subsistence level farmers in Africa and South Asia usually contain an adequate supply of carbohydrates through readily accessible grain products (maize, rice, etc.) but are often low in protein content (Broughton et al., 2003). Good supply of dietary proteins are often found in animal products, but scarcity of these products can prevent adequate protein intake (Broughton et al., 2003). Legumes are a notable solution to a lack of protein access, as legumes can provide the protein necessary for a health diet when other sources are unavailable (Broughton et al., 2003). In fact, dietary proteins are mainly acquired from legumes/pulses in many parts of the world (Broughton et al., 2003). By complementing other foods that are a primary source of carbohydrates, legumes that provide dietary proteins fulfill many human nutritional needs (Broughton et al., 2003).
Often a mono-carbohydrate diet of a single cereal grain is indicative of a population that is malnourished because cereals lacks the protein, vitamins, and minerals required for a healthy diet (Boye et al., 2010). However, pulses are normally high in protein, vitamin, and mineral composition. Cereals provide adequate carbohydrates but lack in protein, whereas pulses often provide adequate protein but lack in carbohydrates (Boye et al., 2010). Complementing locally grown grains with pulses and blending the different nutritional advantages of these crops could potentially address protein malnutrition problems worldwide (Boye et al., 2010). Legumes and cereal combinations in cultural diets have been key to survival of many peoples, and these combinations in cultural foods can be around the globe (FAO, 2016). Often, a diverse diet that includes various legumes, cereals, fruits, and vegetables, each providing its unique nutrient supply, provides the best chance for adequate nutrition in all required nutrients for human health.
Of vital importance, pulses are an important source of dietary minerals, with the potential to provide all 15 essential minerals required in a human diet if consuming adequate and diverse amounts (Wang et al., 2003). It should be noted that the mineral concentrations of minerals key to human metabolism (Fe, Zn, Ca, etc.) are low compared to animal food products (Wang et al., 2003).
The Common Bean: A Case Study
The common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) is the most widely directly consumed grain legume in humans (Broughton et al., 2003). Global production exceeds 23 million metric tonnes and is twice that of the chickpea, the second most important grain legume (Broughton et al., 2003). The common bean represents half the grain legumes consumed globally, despite having lower than standard yields and sub-optimal seed quality (Broughton et al., 2003). It is the primary source of protein for humans in Mexico and Brazil (Broughton et al., 2003). Countries in Africa, such as Rwanda and Burundi, have reported that average national consumption of beans is greater than 40 kg per person per year, providing the second most important source of protein and third most important source of calories within these nations (Broughton et al., 2003). The high protein and mineral content of beans, especially in Fe and Zn, is important in areas with a high prevalence of micronutrient deficiencies, and should be complemented with starchy grains such as maize or root crops (Broughton et al., 2003). Beans are a major staple crop of eastern and southern Africa, often grown by resource-poor farmers (Broughton et al., 2003).
Legumes are High in Protein Content
As pulses are a rich source of protein, they contain high amounts of essential amino acids, including lysine, aspartic acid, and arginine (Boye et al., 2010). Pulses provide a well-balanced amino acid intake when paired with cereals and other foods rich in tryptophan and amino acids containing sulfur, as these metabolites are less prevalent in pulses (Boye et al., 2010). Table 1.1 shows that pulses are very high in protein content and as contain significant amounts of caloric energy, while some pulses are also rich in fats. In addition to their nutritional properties, pulse proteins provide water holding and fat binding functional properties that are also beneficial (Boye et al., 2010). Finally, fava beans are notable, and included in table 1.1 due to their drought resistance.
Natural Sources of Folate and Folate Fortification/Supplementation
Consumption of a diversity of foods and vegetables is key to providing adequate supply of folate, among other vitamins and minerals. Beans and dark green vegetables are some of the foods with the highest natural folate concentrations (NIH, 2016). Many of the leafy greens are also high in iron, folate, and vitamin A. Natural folate can be found in beans and dark green leafy vegetables such as spinach, turnips, and seaweed. Folate can also be found in nuts, seeds, diary/egg products and meats, (NIH, 2016). Some of these products can be seen from table 2. The benefits of legume consumption for folate are further outlined in table 4.
Many countries (U.S., Canada, South Africa, Chile) have now established folic acid fortification programs, mainly enriching breads, cereals, flours, and other grain products with folic acid (NIH, 2016). The highest amounts of folate are now found among folic acid-enriched cereals (USDA, 2017). The U.S. Food and Drug Administration’s fortification program has aimed to increased folic acid intake by 100 micrograms per day (NIH, 2016). As such, folic acid supplementation is an effective disease-prevention measure for helping to addressing folate deficiency on a large scale. It should also be noted that the National Institute of Health reports that folic acid is more bioavailable (85% availability) than folates naturally present in foods, which are said to have 50% bioavailability and requiring higher intake (NIH, 2016).
Eat Seeds and Legumes for Higher Natural Folate and Mineral Nutrition
In general, the seeds of fruits and vegetables are very high in iron, zinc, folate and other minerals (USDA, 2017-a). The seed’s outermost layer, known as the pericarp, contains the highest concentration of minerals, helping to strengthen this protective outer layer of the seed. This means that the pericarps of fruit and vegetable seeds are generally the area of the seed highest in mineral content. Seeds are often referred to as nutrient “sinks” because seeds accumulate nutrients for long-term storage from their parent plants (Zhang et al., 2007). The amount of folate in seeds is significant, as seen in table 1.3.
Seeds can also provide the necessary protein and fat content needed to fight many micronutrient deficiencies, as fat intake is important for micronutrient absorption (Wickens, 1995; FAO/WHO, 2002). Pumpkin and squash seeds kernels can provide more than 30 grams of protein per 100 grams of seeds (USDA, 2017-b).
As such, seed of fruits and vegetables should be considered in malnutrition interventions by relief organizations, in addition to the possible fortification of staple crops. Seeds and legumes keep for a long period of time, acting as a reliable food source throughout the year in drought-stricken regions. Considering the seeds of local fruits and vegetables as well as legume pulses (legume grains) may be an advantageous folate/nutrition source, especially give that pulses and seeds can be stored and keep over the dry season, when other crops are not available.
Legumes also contain an outer layer “coating” structure that is high in minerals and folate. For example, the red layer surrounding kidney beans is good source of minerals, including folate. The high folate content of various legumes can be seen in table 4. From table 4, analysis of the species name of Kidney, Pinto and Black beans shows that many frequently consumed beans are in fact the same species, Phaseolus vulgaris, also known as “the common bean.” Phaseolus vulgaris exists in various varieties. Table 4 shows that although the legume species is the same, nutritional concentrations can differ between varieties, even if their pulses look similar.
Despite the natural sources of folate, many products may not be the staple crops of a particular region. Furthermore, the strong enrichment programs that exist in some nations may not exist in others. Therefore, when addressing FD in regions endemic with FD, it is important to increase folate intake by promoting food choices or enriched staple crops that are accessible for each particular region.
Critical Analysis of Folate Deficiencies and Supplementation Guidelines
Folic acid supplementation can address anemia but not the potentially permanent neurological damage that can result from vitamin B12 deficiency (NIH, 2016). As such, it is important to beware the affects of masking affect that folate supplementation can have in covering up vitamin B12 deficiency (NIH, 2016). Folate should not be consumed over the recommended upper limits due to possible health risks (NIH, 2016).
As part of a micronutrient deficiency supplementation program, the WHO recommends iron and folic acid supplementation in menstruating women in areas of high anemia prevalence. It is recommended that the supplemental dose of folate be seven times the 400 micrograms daily recommended dose to improve red call folate concentrations and reduce the risk of NTDs in menstruating women (WHO, 2011). Also note that as the neural tube closes by the 28th day of pregnancy, folic acid supplementation after this day will not prevent NTDs (WHO, 2012).
More Resources Moving Forward
National Institute of Health Office of Dietary Supplements: https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/Folate-HealthProfessional/
Merck Manuel Professional Version Folate Information: http://www.merckmanuals.com/en-ca/professional/nutritional-disorders/vitamin-deficiency,-dependency,-and-toxicity/folate
Scientific Book on the health benefits of eating seeds and nuts: Preedy V. R., Watson R. W., Patel V.B. (2011). Nuts and Seeds in Health and Disease Prevention. Academic Press. London, UK.
References
1. Basset, G. J., Quinlivan, E. P., Gregory, J. F., & Hanson, A. D. (2005). Folate synthesis and metabolism in plants and prospects for biofortification. Crop Science, 45(2), 449-453.
2. FAO/WHO, Joint (2002). Human vitamin and mineral requirements. Chapter 7. Rome, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations and World Health Organization.
3. Merck Manuel, Professional Version. (2016). Folate (Folic Acid), Nutritional Disorders. Merck & Co., Inc. Retrieved from: http://www.merckmanuals.com/en-ca/professional/nutritional-disorders/vitamin-deficiency,-dependency,-and-toxicity/folate
4. NIH, National Institute of Health. (2016 – last update). Folate. NIH, Office of Dietary Supplements. Retrieved from: https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/Folate-HealthProfessional/
5. USDA (United States Department of Agriculture)-a, 2017. USDA Food Composition Databases. Retrieved from: https://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/search/list
6. USDA (United States Department of Agriculture)-b, 2017. USDA Food Composition Databases. Retrieved from: https://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/nutrients/report/nutrientsfrm?max=25&offset=0&totCount=0&nutrient1=417&nutrient2=&nutrient3=&subset=0&sort=c&measureby=g
7. WHO. (2011). Guideline: Intermittent iron and folic acid supplementation in menstruating women. Geneva, World Health Organization.
8. WHO. (2012). Guideline: Daily iron and folic acid supplementation in pregnant women. Geneva, World Health Organization.
9. Wickens, G.E. (1995). Edible Nuts. Rome, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
10. Zhang, W. H., Zhou, Y., Dibley, K. E., Tyerman, S. D., Furbank, R. T., & Patrick, J. W. (2007). Nutrient loading of developing seeds. Functional Plant Biology, 34(4), 314-331