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  <div class="title"><h1>4.4 - Contour farming on hillsides to prevent erosion</h1><br><h3 class="ch-owner">Mitchell van Schepen, University of Guelph, Canada</h3></div>
  <div class="title"><h3>4.4 - Contour farming on hillsides to prevent erosion</h3><br><h3 class="ch-owner">Colton Lanthier, University of Guelph, Canada</h3></div>
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<p><b>Related video(s)</b>: Contour bunds (Source: Access Agriculture)</p>
<p><i> https://www.accessagriculture.org/contour-bunds?cat_id=1499</i></p>
 
<p>Suggested citation for this chapter.</p>
<p>Lanthier,C. (2022) Contour farming on hillsides to prevent erosion. In Farmpedia, The Encyclopedia for Small Scale Farmers. Editor, M.N. Raizada, University of Guelph, Canada. http://www.farmpedia.org</p>
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       <h3 class="title-bg">Background</h3>
       <h1 class="title-bg">Background</h1>
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           <p>The world’s 1 billion women and girls participating in subsistence farming pull weeds by hand to improve their crops and also collect firewood for cooking, resulting in their hands becoming rough and sore (Figure 1). This can be caused by wood splinters being lodged into their skin (Schaffner, 2013). Pulling weeds for hours on end can peel away layers of skin (Food and Agriculture Organization, 2016). The hands of those farmers can also become dirty and smelly from planting seeds in the soil or spreading manure by hand. To avoid the common aforementioned problems as well as hand injuries, such as cuts and scrapes, they could wear gloves on their hands, see the second picture, (Schaffner, 2013). Gloves are very common in the modern world and can be used for construction, farming, and medical practices. Gloves provide a durable layer between the skin on your hands and whatever you are working with (Espasandín-Arias & Goossens, 2014). There are a few different materials used to make gloves, along with different sizes and grips. With over one billion women and girls working on farms around the world, this grueling work can be made safer and more efficient when wearing gloves.</p>
           <p>Soil degradation and erosion is one of the most prominent issues that subsistence farmers face. Impacts of soil erosion are wide ranging, and the amount of erosion around the world has been accelerated due to human activity. In South Africa for example, recent studies show that soil has eroded at 12.6 tons/ha/year under cropland whereas natural soil erosion is 5 tons/ha/year (Le Roux & Smith, 2014). In India, over 45% of all geographical surface area (130 million hectares) is seriously affected by soil erosion (India Netzone, 2012). Simpson (2010) defined soil degradation as, “ (the) decline in the productive capacity of the soil as a result of soil erosion and adverse changes in the hydrological, biological, chemical and physical properties of the soil.” It is also worth mentioning that soil erosion has impacts ranging much further than the agricultural sector. Although the immediate impacts can be felt on the farm with the loss of soil fertility and stability, the effects of erosion can leave communities in a state of chronic hunger, can flood lowland plains as sediment fills river systems, and can ruin the land for future generations of subsistence farmers (Simpson, 2010). </p>
 
          <p>Contour farming is a simple, yet underused practice to prevent erosion along hillsides. The practice consists of sowing crops in rows, perpendicular to the slope (Sussman, 2007). It improves yields and greatly reduces soil erosion, including preserving soil fertility along slopes and works best in combination with hedgerows. This is a low cost, low labour practice that requires few materials that are often readily available on the farm already. Additionally, the practice of contour farming is easy to teach and once a farmer is comfortable with the process they are able to further demonstrate the practice to others farming on sloping lands. Contour farming consists of measuring lines perpendicular to the hillside and planting crops along these lines. The use of an A-Frame device can help quickly identify these lines and furthermore improve yields immediately.</p>


          <p>Rubber and cloth are the two main kinds of gloves produced (Melco, 2016). They both have their own benefits and drawbacks respectively. A benefit from rubber gloves is their ability to resist water from coming in contact with a farmer's skin, see part two, (Espasandín-Arias & Goossens, 2014). While cloth gloves can be beneficial because they can draw moisture away from their hands and can be easily washed to be cleaned. Because rubber gloves are usually meant to be disposed of after single use they tend to be cheaper to make and thus cheaper to buy. Yet some rubber gloves can be made thicker to reuse and are slightly more durable (Melco, 2016). Cloth gloves are designed to be washed after being used and last a long time under normal working conditions.</p>
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      <h3 class="title-bg">Process</h3>
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           <p>Along with the different materials gloves are made of, there are also different arm lengths. Some gloves are cut off just in front or around the wrist. While others can be up to and over the elbow and everywhere in between (Melco, 2016). The benefits of the shorter gloves is comfort, no bunching around wrist or elbow, and they can be quickly put on or removed. The benefits of the long gloves are more protection, the entire forearm will be covered. All the while there is less of a chance of getting debris in their gloves because the opening is farther away from what you are working with. Farmers can also work in deeper water or mud with the long rubber gloves without getting your hands wet.</p>
           <p>Implementing contour farming is the most labour intensive part of the practice. It begins by assembling an A-frame. This tool is used to mark out level pathways perpendicular to the slope of the hill. A level pathway is a measured line across a hillslope that farmers identify in order to plant their crops on level ground even when attempting to cultivate on a hillside (Sussman, 2007). An A-frame is easy to make and can use locally found materials. To make an A-frame one will need two poles around two meters long, another shorter pole about one meter long, some string and a stone (Evans et al, 2012). To assemble the A-frame, the two-meter poles and the one-meter pole need to be tied tightly (or nailed if available) together in the shape of a letter A. Once the poles have been connected use the rope to hang a stone from the top of the frame so that it hangs below the cross bar (Evans et al, 2012). Refer to Figure 1 for an illustration. This tool is used to measure out contour lines by marking out level pathways perpendicular to the slope of the hill.</p>


           <p>When working with smooth items such as hoes and some fruits and vegetables they can be slippery (Food and Agriculture Organization, 2016). A way to help farmer's hold on to the tools is to get gloves with grips (Melco, 2016). Both rubber and cloth gloves can have grips. Rubber gloves will have ridges in the molds to form grips and granular materials can be added to the outside before drying (Melco, 2016). Another option is to make the rubber gloves out of a non-slip rubber (Melco, 2016). Because cloth alone does not provide grip, cloth gloves must be dipped in liquid rubber to be able to grip smooth objects. The rubber used for grips on cloth gloves can either be non-slip smooth rubber or be rigid (Melco, 2016). </p>
           <p>After the contour lines have been marked its time to prepare hedgerows. Hedgerows allow uphill water to absorb into the hillside as opposed to running down the slope washing away nutrient rich soil (Evans et al, 2012). An optional intervention is the use of ditches which help in erosion prevention, irrigation, and cash crop yields. Hedgerows can be created by digging ditches along the previously marked contour lines, for an illustration as the how the process appears, refer to Figure 2 of the appendix. The ditches should be about 60 cm wide and 30 cm deep. The distance between hedgerows down a hillside is determined by the gradient of the slope. Refer to Table 1 for guidance. When excavating the ditches farmers are taught to dig from an uphill position as to maintain structural integrity of the uphill slope (Sussman, 2007). As the ditches are carved out the excavated sediment is to be placed downslope along the edge of the trench and packed in to create berms. Another optional intervention is to plant grasses, legumes or perennials along the berms as their root structures are capable of holding the berms in place and in the long run eases labour for the farmers, as they will no longer need to repair the berms after harvest. It is advised to mulch the berms while the roots develop over the first few seasons to maintain berm integrity (Sussman, 2007). If a farmer elects to plant legumes or perennials, such as pigeon peas or cassava, the farmer can harvest these vegetables to either consume or sell for money (Humphries, 2000).</p>
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       <h3 class="title-bg">Physical Protection</h3>
       <h3 class="title-bg">Labour, Time, and Materials Involved
 
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           <p>Protection is the main benefit from using gloves. Repetitive motions, such as when pounding grain, can cause irritation to the skin. When collecting firewood the sticks and logs can scratch or cut the skin (Food and Agriculture Organization, 2016). Weeds can be rough and by scratching their hands many times they can become cut and sore (Espasandín-Arias & Goossens, 2014). By lifting and pulling heavy items the top layer of your skin will separate from the next, causing a blister, by wearing gloves they now will prevent blistering because the glove will act as the top layer of skin and prevent the actual skin from separating (Schaffner, 2013).  Manure has a lot of bacteria in it which are harmful if they are swallow, so keeping them away from the hands used to eat with is very beneficial (Furlong, et al., 2015). If farmers are working with firewood or in construction the cloth gloves will work better because they are more durable (Food and Agriculture Organization, 2016). The disposable rubber gloves would be the worst to use in this scenario because they are so thin, stick to jobs were the main goals are to keep hands dry and dirt free when using disposable rubber gloves.</p>
           <p>The most labour intensive aspect of contour farming, as previously mentioned, is the initial stages of preparing the land. After the contours have been marked, the ditches excavated, and the berms packed and mulched, substantial additional labour is not required. Sussman (2007) reported that contour farming requires little maintenance from season to season, with the most labour intensive aspect of this practice being the periodic removal of collected sediment in the trenches. The benefit of clearing this sediment, other than maintaining the integrity of the hedgerows, would be transporting the collected sediment to the top of the slope. The transported sediment highly fertile as it would have been collecting nutrients from organic matter, as it is the top layer of soil.</p>
 
    <p>The materials required to run a successful contour and hedgerow practice would be the aforementioned A-frame device for measuring and leveling purposes, stakes are used to mark out contour lines, and shovels, hoes, or other tools used to dig out the trenches.</p>
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       <h3 style="background: #FBB03B;padding: 15px;font-weight: 600;color: #000;font-size: 22px;margin:unset;text-align:center;">Defense Against Moisture and Chemicals</h3>
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Benefits of Reducing Soil Erosion</h3>
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           <p>Moisture blocking is a way gloves can prevent your skin from drying out and from getting too wet and dehydrating farmer's hands. By keeping the moisture from the hands inside the gloves they will prevent the skin from cracking and becoming infected (Schaffner, 2013). As well when working in wet conditions your hands can shrivel and become dehydrated if they are constantly in contact with water.</p>
           <p>By using hedgerows to catch rainwater this in turn prevents soil erosion from occurring. This is beneficial to farmers as it saves valuable nutrients in the soil from being washed away during heavy rainfall seasons. Steudel et al (2015) reported that contour banks (hedgerow berms) increased trapping capabilities by as much as 90% compared to hillsides with no soil conservation approaches. Reducing erosional discharge allows for intact soil and berms to absorb water and increase nutrient intake to the roots of crops, again improving yields (Simpson, 2010). By using these approaches to prevent soil erosion and degradation a farmer can preserve soil fertility and integrity for generations.</p>
           <p>Pesticides can be absorbed by your skin and become harmful to the body, gloves provide an extra barrier to block them from entering in a farmer's body (Furlong, et al., 2015). Fertilizers such as nitrogen can also be caustic, and these are usually spread through broadcasting by hand. Mud can get under your nails and into cracked or cut skin and can infect a farmer's hands. Gloves will keep the mud out and keep hands clean. Both liquid pesticides and dry fertilizers can irritate skin if they come into contact with it (Kim, et al., 2013). Wearing the proper gloves, rubber ones in this case, can save their hands from becoming itchy (Keeble et al., 1996). Human skin can also absorb the pesticides which are harmful to your body, wearing gloves would prevent the pesticides from ever touching your skin.</p>
 
           <p>Farmers are influenced to measure the rate at which their hillside farms erode using a “Jumbie” (Simpson, 2010). A Jumbie is a metal rod or a stick that is driven into the ground to a depth between 30-60cm, or to the point in which it is securely anchored into the land. Placing multiple Jumbies evenly down and across a slope allows a farmer to figure out where along the hill needs the most maintenance and treatment. The farmer is to make a mark on the Jumbie where the tip protrudes from the ground. Farmers should check the Jumbies monthly and compare how much more of the tip is exposed compared to the previous markings. Hudson (1987) documented that 1mm of soil depth change measured is equivalent to the loss of 15 tons of sediment per acre per year. This figure further represents the importance of implementing contour plowing and hedgerows into a hillside farm. Therefore, Jumbies are a simple yet effective method to demonstrate to farmers the severity of erosion and the effects it can have.</p>
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       <h3 class="title-bg">Wearable</h3>
       <h3 class="title-bg">Problems </h3>
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           <p>Comfortable gloves help farmer's work longer because their hands will not hurt from completing your task. Sizing is very important when finding comfortable gloves (Melco, 2016). Make sure gloves are the proper length and width, as not to restrict movement. There will be less pain from pulling weeds and they will be able to pull more weeds because they would not have to wait a long for the pain to subside between pulling each weed, because there will be no pain if wearing gloves (Food and Agriculture Organization, 2016). If farmer's find they are working hard and their hands start to sweat the gloves should be removed , dry your hands, and put on a new pair. Cloth gloves are more breathable then rubber ones, using them is another way to prevent hands from getting sweaty. The cloth gloves can also be softer and easier to clean, but are more restricting to movement due to their durability and tougher material. Since children will also be farming, smaller glove sizes can be found. Gloves are designed to fit a farmer's hand snugly, so children should not wear adult sized gloves when working. </p>
           <p>The challenge for farmers to adopt this practice is the labour and time required to integrate contour farming into their practice. Humphries et al (2000) brought to light the idea of sensitizing farmers to the issue of soil degradation. This is a problem that requires government assistance to overcome. Without the population of farmers cultivating on a hillside becoming aware of the importance of maintaining soil fertility they will not be in a hurry to alter their traditional farming practices.</p>
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<p>Another problem that arises in regards to hillside contour farming is the gradient of the slope the farmer is trying to cultivate. Contour plowing and hedgerow implementation is an extraordinarily effective method for reducing soil erosion and degradation and improves harvest yields but is only effective to a certain point. Referring to Table 1 again, the highest degree of the slope this practice is useful for is up until 33 degrees (Sussman, 2007). Beyond that measurement the contour lines would have to be measured too closely together in order to reap the benefits of the practice. Additionally, it becomes increasingly difficult to have livestock assisted labour as the slope a farmer chooses to cultivate becomes steeper and steeper.</p>
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       <h1 class="title-bg">Picture Based Lesson to Train Farmers</h1>
       <h3 class="title-bg">Constraints To Adoption</h3>
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          <p>Gloves are very useful to farmers, but there can still be some drawbacks. Possible culturable taboos might vary from location to location. Gloves might seem feminine and not easily adopted by men in the community. Gloves act as a second, tougher skin, but they are not a farmer's skin and can slide around while working. This may feel odd and uncomfortable but farmers can get used to the new feeling over time. Gloves can come in many colours and thicknesses, which may make a farmer's hands look funny or larger. Human skin is very stretchy and flexible, while glove materials tend to be tougher than skin and will reduce movement, but not enough to hinder work. Rubber gloves can stretch well, but make hands sweat, while cloth gloves are breathable but reduce dexterity.</p>
[[Image:5.4.jpg|thumb|centre|Picture Based Lesson to Train Farmer|Click on the image to access a higher resolution image as well as lessons adapted for different geographic regions.]]</p>
          <p>Farmers can find gloves to use and get started from local vendors (European Commission For The Control Of Foot-And-Mouth Disease, 2016). Once you have completed your work for the day you can clean them are reuse them, or dispose of them if they were ripped or torn (Kim, et al., 2013). You can get gloves made of rubber and like materials as well as ones made of durable cloths. The thin rubber gloves tend to be made for a single use only. A trick that the European Commission For The Control Foot-And-Mouth Disease mentions that you can wear two pairs of rubber gloves at the same time for extra protection (European Commission For The Control Of Foot-And-Mouth Disease, 2016).</p>
<p><i>For the South Asian version (pictures only, text for you to insert), click this link for lesson 5.4:http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/5.4_south_asian.pdf.</i></p>
<p><i>For the East/South Asian version (pictures only, text for you to insert), click this link for lesson 5.4:http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/5.4e.s.a.pdf</i></p>
<p><i>For the Sub-Saharan Africa/Caribbean version (pictures only, text for you to insert), click this link for lesson 5.4:http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/5.4subsaharan_africa_carribean.pdf</i></p>
<p><i>For the Latin-America version (pictures only, text for you to insert), click this link for lesson 5.4:http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/5.4latin_america.pdf</i></p>
<p><i>For North Africa And Middle East version (pictures only, text for you to insert), click this link for lesson Chapter 5. 4.3:http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/4.3n._africa_middleeast.pdf</i></p>
<p><i>Source: MN Raizada and LJ Smith (2016) A Picture Book of Best Practices for Subsistence Farmers. eBook, University of Guelph Sustainable Agriculture Kit (SAK) Project, June 2016, Guelph, Canada. </i></p>
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       <h3 class="title-bg">Helpful Links To Get Started </h3>
       <h3 class="title-bg">Additional Readings and Information</h3>
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           <p>Here are websites to find more information about how to obtain gloves:</p>
           <p>The following link will direct the reader to an informative and descriptive video produced by CropLife (a global organization in the plant science industry (CropLife, 2016) on their efforts to teach and implement contour farming practices in the Philippines.
          <p>[https://www.alibaba.com/ Alibaba]</p>
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fpdcEf-npr4.</p>
           <p>[https://www.indiamart.com/ Indiamart]</p>
 
          <p>[http://www.store.nzfarmsource.co.nz/ Store Nzfarmsource]</p>
           <p>This link will bring the reader to a simple manual describing and further illustrating the process of contour farming and hedgerow construction.
          <p>[https://www.adenna.com Adenna]</p>
http://www.bebuffered.com/downloads/sussman_contour_trenches.pdf.</p>
          <p>[https://www.farmcity.co.za/ Farmcity]</p>
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          <p>[https://www.crazystore.co.za/ Crazystore]</p>
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       <h3 class="title-bg">Appendix</h3>
       <h3 class="title-bg">Usefull Images</h3>
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       <h3 class="title-bg">References</h3>
       <h3 class="title-bg">References</h3>
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           <p>Espasandín-Arias, M., & Goossens, A. (2014). Natural rubber gloves might not protect against skin penetration of methylisothiazolinone. Contact Dermatitis, 70(4), 249-251. doi:10.1111/cod.12221</p>
           <p>1."About." CropLife International. N.p., 2016. Web. 23 Nov. 2016.</p>
           <p>European Commission For The Control Of Foot-And-Mouth Disease. Suggested FMD PPE guidelines - Food and Agriculture, (2016)
           <p>2.Evans, Chris, Laxman Rana, Hari Dhungana, and Malati Lakoul. The Farmers' Handbook, Part 5 - "Forest, Soil and Other Topics" Kathmandu: Formatting Printing, 2012. Print.</p>
          Food and Agriculture Organization. Rural women in household production: Increasing contributions and persisting drudgery. (2016).
           <p>3.Hudson, Norman. Soil and Water Conservation in Semi-arid Areas. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 1987. Print.</p>
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           <p>4.Keeble, V. B., Correll, L., & Ehrich, M. (1996). Effect of Laundering on Ability of Glove Fabrics to Decrease the Penetration of Organophosphate Insecticides Through in vitro Epidermal Systems. J. Appl. Toxicol. Journal of Applied Toxicology, 16(5), 401-406. doi:10.1002/(sici)1099-1263(199609)16:53.3.co;2-6</p>
           <p>Furlong, M., Tanner, C. M., Goldman, S. M., Bhudhikanok, G. S., Blair, A., Chade, A., . . . Kamel, F. (2015). Protective glove use and hygiene habits modify the associations of specific pesticides with Parkinson's disease. Environment International, 75, 144-150. doi:10.1016/j.envint.2014.11.002</p>
           <p>5.Humphries, Sally, Juan Gonzales, Jose Jimenez, and Fredy Sierra. Searching for Sustainable Land Use Practices in Honduras: Lessons from a Programme of Participatory Research with Hillside Farmers. London: Overseas Development Institute, 2000. Agricultural Research and Extension Network. Web.</p>
           <p>Keeble, V. B., Correll, L., & Ehrich, M. (1996). Effect of Laundering on Ability of Glove Fabrics to Decrease the Penetration of Organophosphate Insecticides Through in vitro Epidermal Systems. J. Appl. Toxicol. Journal of Applied Toxicology, 16(5), 401-406. doi:10.1002/(sici)1099-1263(199609)16:53.3.co;2-6</p>
          <p>6.Le Roux, Jay, and Hendrick Smith. "Soil Erosion in South Africa - Its Nature and Distribution." Soil Erosion in South Africa - Its Nature and Distribution. Grain SA, Nov. 2014. Web. 02 Dec. 2016.</p>
           <p>Kim, J., Kim, J., Cha, E., Ko, Y., Kim, D., & Lee, W. (2013). Work-Related Risk Factors by Severity for Acute Pesticide Poisoning Among Male Farmers in South Korea. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 10(3), 1100-1112. doi:10.3390/ijerph10031100</p>
          <p>7.Simpson, Leslie A. "A Manual of Soil Conservation and Slope Cultivation." Mainstreaming and Capacity Building for Sustainable Land Management (2010): 9-30. Print.</p>
          <p>Melco, M. (2016). Gardening Gloves. Retrieved from [http://garden.lovetoknow.com/wiki/Gardening_Gloves Garden Lovetoknow]</p>
<p>8."Soil Erosion in India." Soil Erosion in India. India Netzone, 30 Nov. 2012. Web. 02 Dec. 2016.</p>
          <p>Schaffner, A. D. (2013). Minimizing Surgical Skin Incision Scars with a Latex Surgical Glove. Aesthetic Plastic Surgery, 37(2), 463-463. doi:10.1007/s00266-013-0071-y</p>
<p>9.Steudel, Thomas, Richard Bugan, Holm Kipka, Pfennig, Manfred Fink, Willem DeClercq, Wolfgang-Albert Flugel, and Helmschrot. "Implementing Contour Bank Farming Practices into the J2000 Model to Improve Hydrological and Erosion Modelling in Semi-arid Western Cape Province of South Africa." Hydrology Research 46.2 (2015): 192. Web.</p>
<p>10.Sussman, Daniel. Design Manual: Contour Trenches (n.d.): n. pag. University of California Santa Barbara, 2007. Web.</p>
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Latest revision as of 21:56, 14 January 2026

4.4 - Contour farming on hillsides to prevent erosion


Colton Lanthier, University of Guelph, Canada

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Related video(s): Contour bunds (Source: Access Agriculture)

https://www.accessagriculture.org/contour-bunds?cat_id=1499

Suggested citation for this chapter.

Lanthier,C. (2022) Contour farming on hillsides to prevent erosion. In Farmpedia, The Encyclopedia for Small Scale Farmers. Editor, M.N. Raizada, University of Guelph, Canada. http://www.farmpedia.org

Background

Soil degradation and erosion is one of the most prominent issues that subsistence farmers face. Impacts of soil erosion are wide ranging, and the amount of erosion around the world has been accelerated due to human activity. In South Africa for example, recent studies show that soil has eroded at 12.6 tons/ha/year under cropland whereas natural soil erosion is 5 tons/ha/year (Le Roux & Smith, 2014). In India, over 45% of all geographical surface area (130 million hectares) is seriously affected by soil erosion (India Netzone, 2012). Simpson (2010) defined soil degradation as, “ (the) decline in the productive capacity of the soil as a result of soil erosion and adverse changes in the hydrological, biological, chemical and physical properties of the soil.” It is also worth mentioning that soil erosion has impacts ranging much further than the agricultural sector. Although the immediate impacts can be felt on the farm with the loss of soil fertility and stability, the effects of erosion can leave communities in a state of chronic hunger, can flood lowland plains as sediment fills river systems, and can ruin the land for future generations of subsistence farmers (Simpson, 2010).

Contour farming is a simple, yet underused practice to prevent erosion along hillsides. The practice consists of sowing crops in rows, perpendicular to the slope (Sussman, 2007). It improves yields and greatly reduces soil erosion, including preserving soil fertility along slopes and works best in combination with hedgerows. This is a low cost, low labour practice that requires few materials that are often readily available on the farm already. Additionally, the practice of contour farming is easy to teach and once a farmer is comfortable with the process they are able to further demonstrate the practice to others farming on sloping lands. Contour farming consists of measuring lines perpendicular to the hillside and planting crops along these lines. The use of an A-Frame device can help quickly identify these lines and furthermore improve yields immediately.

Process

Implementing contour farming is the most labour intensive part of the practice. It begins by assembling an A-frame. This tool is used to mark out level pathways perpendicular to the slope of the hill. A level pathway is a measured line across a hillslope that farmers identify in order to plant their crops on level ground even when attempting to cultivate on a hillside (Sussman, 2007). An A-frame is easy to make and can use locally found materials. To make an A-frame one will need two poles around two meters long, another shorter pole about one meter long, some string and a stone (Evans et al, 2012). To assemble the A-frame, the two-meter poles and the one-meter pole need to be tied tightly (or nailed if available) together in the shape of a letter A. Once the poles have been connected use the rope to hang a stone from the top of the frame so that it hangs below the cross bar (Evans et al, 2012). Refer to Figure 1 for an illustration. This tool is used to measure out contour lines by marking out level pathways perpendicular to the slope of the hill.

After the contour lines have been marked its time to prepare hedgerows. Hedgerows allow uphill water to absorb into the hillside as opposed to running down the slope washing away nutrient rich soil (Evans et al, 2012). An optional intervention is the use of ditches which help in erosion prevention, irrigation, and cash crop yields. Hedgerows can be created by digging ditches along the previously marked contour lines, for an illustration as the how the process appears, refer to Figure 2 of the appendix. The ditches should be about 60 cm wide and 30 cm deep. The distance between hedgerows down a hillside is determined by the gradient of the slope. Refer to Table 1 for guidance. When excavating the ditches farmers are taught to dig from an uphill position as to maintain structural integrity of the uphill slope (Sussman, 2007). As the ditches are carved out the excavated sediment is to be placed downslope along the edge of the trench and packed in to create berms. Another optional intervention is to plant grasses, legumes or perennials along the berms as their root structures are capable of holding the berms in place and in the long run eases labour for the farmers, as they will no longer need to repair the berms after harvest. It is advised to mulch the berms while the roots develop over the first few seasons to maintain berm integrity (Sussman, 2007). If a farmer elects to plant legumes or perennials, such as pigeon peas or cassava, the farmer can harvest these vegetables to either consume or sell for money (Humphries, 2000).

Labour, Time, and Materials Involved

The most labour intensive aspect of contour farming, as previously mentioned, is the initial stages of preparing the land. After the contours have been marked, the ditches excavated, and the berms packed and mulched, substantial additional labour is not required. Sussman (2007) reported that contour farming requires little maintenance from season to season, with the most labour intensive aspect of this practice being the periodic removal of collected sediment in the trenches. The benefit of clearing this sediment, other than maintaining the integrity of the hedgerows, would be transporting the collected sediment to the top of the slope. The transported sediment highly fertile as it would have been collecting nutrients from organic matter, as it is the top layer of soil.

The materials required to run a successful contour and hedgerow practice would be the aforementioned A-frame device for measuring and leveling purposes, stakes are used to mark out contour lines, and shovels, hoes, or other tools used to dig out the trenches.

Benefits of Reducing Soil Erosion

By using hedgerows to catch rainwater this in turn prevents soil erosion from occurring. This is beneficial to farmers as it saves valuable nutrients in the soil from being washed away during heavy rainfall seasons. Steudel et al (2015) reported that contour banks (hedgerow berms) increased trapping capabilities by as much as 90% compared to hillsides with no soil conservation approaches. Reducing erosional discharge allows for intact soil and berms to absorb water and increase nutrient intake to the roots of crops, again improving yields (Simpson, 2010). By using these approaches to prevent soil erosion and degradation a farmer can preserve soil fertility and integrity for generations.

Farmers are influenced to measure the rate at which their hillside farms erode using a “Jumbie” (Simpson, 2010). A Jumbie is a metal rod or a stick that is driven into the ground to a depth between 30-60cm, or to the point in which it is securely anchored into the land. Placing multiple Jumbies evenly down and across a slope allows a farmer to figure out where along the hill needs the most maintenance and treatment. The farmer is to make a mark on the Jumbie where the tip protrudes from the ground. Farmers should check the Jumbies monthly and compare how much more of the tip is exposed compared to the previous markings. Hudson (1987) documented that 1mm of soil depth change measured is equivalent to the loss of 15 tons of sediment per acre per year. This figure further represents the importance of implementing contour plowing and hedgerows into a hillside farm. Therefore, Jumbies are a simple yet effective method to demonstrate to farmers the severity of erosion and the effects it can have.

Problems

The challenge for farmers to adopt this practice is the labour and time required to integrate contour farming into their practice. Humphries et al (2000) brought to light the idea of sensitizing farmers to the issue of soil degradation. This is a problem that requires government assistance to overcome. Without the population of farmers cultivating on a hillside becoming aware of the importance of maintaining soil fertility they will not be in a hurry to alter their traditional farming practices.

Another problem that arises in regards to hillside contour farming is the gradient of the slope the farmer is trying to cultivate. Contour plowing and hedgerow implementation is an extraordinarily effective method for reducing soil erosion and degradation and improves harvest yields but is only effective to a certain point. Referring to Table 1 again, the highest degree of the slope this practice is useful for is up until 33 degrees (Sussman, 2007). Beyond that measurement the contour lines would have to be measured too closely together in order to reap the benefits of the practice. Additionally, it becomes increasingly difficult to have livestock assisted labour as the slope a farmer chooses to cultivate becomes steeper and steeper.

Picture Based Lesson to Train Farmers

Click on the image to access a higher resolution image as well as lessons adapted for different geographic regions.

For the South Asian version (pictures only, text for you to insert), click this link for lesson 5.4:http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/5.4_south_asian.pdf.

For the East/South Asian version (pictures only, text for you to insert), click this link for lesson 5.4:http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/5.4e.s.a.pdf

For the Sub-Saharan Africa/Caribbean version (pictures only, text for you to insert), click this link for lesson 5.4:http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/5.4subsaharan_africa_carribean.pdf

For the Latin-America version (pictures only, text for you to insert), click this link for lesson 5.4:http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/5.4latin_america.pdf

For North Africa And Middle East version (pictures only, text for you to insert), click this link for lesson Chapter 5. 4.3:http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/4.3n._africa_middleeast.pdf

Source: MN Raizada and LJ Smith (2016) A Picture Book of Best Practices for Subsistence Farmers. eBook, University of Guelph Sustainable Agriculture Kit (SAK) Project, June 2016, Guelph, Canada.

Additional Readings and Information

The following link will direct the reader to an informative and descriptive video produced by CropLife (a global organization in the plant science industry (CropLife, 2016) on their efforts to teach and implement contour farming practices in the Philippines. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fpdcEf-npr4.

This link will bring the reader to a simple manual describing and further illustrating the process of contour farming and hedgerow construction. http://www.bebuffered.com/downloads/sussman_contour_trenches.pdf.

Appendix

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References

1."About." CropLife International. N.p., 2016. Web. 23 Nov. 2016.

2.Evans, Chris, Laxman Rana, Hari Dhungana, and Malati Lakoul. The Farmers' Handbook, Part 5 - "Forest, Soil and Other Topics" Kathmandu: Formatting Printing, 2012. Print.

3.Hudson, Norman. Soil and Water Conservation in Semi-arid Areas. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 1987. Print.

4.Keeble, V. B., Correll, L., & Ehrich, M. (1996). Effect of Laundering on Ability of Glove Fabrics to Decrease the Penetration of Organophosphate Insecticides Through in vitro Epidermal Systems. J. Appl. Toxicol. Journal of Applied Toxicology, 16(5), 401-406. doi:10.1002/(sici)1099-1263(199609)16:53.3.co;2-6

5.Humphries, Sally, Juan Gonzales, Jose Jimenez, and Fredy Sierra. Searching for Sustainable Land Use Practices in Honduras: Lessons from a Programme of Participatory Research with Hillside Farmers. London: Overseas Development Institute, 2000. Agricultural Research and Extension Network. Web.

6.Le Roux, Jay, and Hendrick Smith. "Soil Erosion in South Africa - Its Nature and Distribution." Soil Erosion in South Africa - Its Nature and Distribution. Grain SA, Nov. 2014. Web. 02 Dec. 2016.

7.Simpson, Leslie A. "A Manual of Soil Conservation and Slope Cultivation." Mainstreaming and Capacity Building for Sustainable Land Management (2010): 9-30. Print.

8."Soil Erosion in India." Soil Erosion in India. India Netzone, 30 Nov. 2012. Web. 02 Dec. 2016.

9.Steudel, Thomas, Richard Bugan, Holm Kipka, Pfennig, Manfred Fink, Willem DeClercq, Wolfgang-Albert Flugel, and Helmschrot. "Implementing Contour Bank Farming Practices into the J2000 Model to Improve Hydrological and Erosion Modelling in Semi-arid Western Cape Province of South Africa." Hydrology Research 46.2 (2015): 192. Web.

10.Sussman, Daniel. Design Manual: Contour Trenches (n.d.): n. pag. University of California Santa Barbara, 2007. Web.

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