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| | {{Chapters 5.61}} |
| <div class="title"><h3>5.61-Production Of Balanites Aegyptiaca For Smallholder Farmers In Sub-Saharan Africa To Overcome Challenges Caused By Climate Change</h3><br><h3 class="ch-owner">Erika Inglis , University of Guelph, Canada </h3></div>
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| [[File:4.jpg|300px]]
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| <p>Suggested citation for this chapter.</p>
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| <p>Inglis,E. (2022) Production Of Balanites Aegyptiaca For Smallholder Farmers In Sub-Saharan Africa To Overcome Challenges Caused By Climate Change, In Farmpedia, The Encyclopedia for Small Scale Farmers. Editor, M.N. Raizada, University of Guelph, Canada. http://www.farmpedia.org</p>
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| <h3 class="title-bg">Background of Balanites aegyptiaca </h3>
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| <div class="cont-bg">
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| <P><b>Physical Characteristics and Ecological Distribution</b></p>
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| <p>Balanites (Balanites aegyptiaca) (pronounced baləˈnītēz), colloquially known as “Desert Date”, is an undomesticated fruit tree with a native and naturalized range from the Sahel regions of Northwest Africa, Northeast Africa, the Middle East, and South Asia (National Research Council, 2008). These regions, especially the Sahel, are under threat of desertification and prolonged drought due to climate change (Meltzer, 2013). Desertification is currently estimated to be advancing at 30-35 times the historical rate, especially affecting semi-arid regions, which globally are home to nearly a third of the world’s population. The semi-arid regions located in northern Africa are also the native habitat of balanites(IFAD, n.d.).</p>
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| <p>Balanites are shrubs or small trees around 6 m tall with a stem up to 45 cm wide. The plant has a deep taproot, thick bark, and sharp thorns. It tolerates compacted clay, shallow sandy soils, and soils with high salinity, but typically prefers clay (National Research Council, 2008). Balanites can apparently grow in acidic or neutral soils. Its aluminium tolerance does not appear to be well researched (CABI, n.d.). The flowers are self-compatible, meaning multiple trees are not required for the plant to reproduce in order to produce fruit. Balanites have a diverse ecological range and can grow in bushlands, savanna woodland thickets, open desert, and tropical regions, although the plant does not enjoy waterlogged soil. Most trees grow where rainfall is between 250-800 mm but can survive in drier climates when the roots reach groundwater, surviving up to two years without rain (National Research Council, 2008; Sacande & Parfondry, 2018). Balanites can withstand temperatures that reach the high 40s Celsius for consecutive days but is frost-sensitive. The tree is found from 380 m below sea level to 1,800 m above (National Research Council, 2008).</p>
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| <p>Balanites produces a yellow-red date sized fruit with an edible kernel within the seed, as well as edible flowers, leaves, and bark. The fruit and kernel provide an abundance of nutrients, as illustrated in the following tables</p>
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| <p><i>Table 1 Fruit Pulp Nutritional Values</i></p>
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| [[File:Capture_730.JPG]]
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| <p><i>(Casselbury, 2018; Health Canada, 2008; Sagna et al, 2014)</i></p>
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| <p>The balanites fruit provides eight out of nine essential amino acids, deficient only in tryptophan. The fruit is high in sugar and an excellent source of micronutrients, especially potassium, calcium, magnesium, and iron, and contains trace amounts of others. It is a good source of vitamin C and has a greater caloric intake than many other tropical fruits (Health Canada, 2008; Sagna et al, 2014).</p>
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| <p><i>Table 2 Kernel Nutritional Values</i></p>
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| [[File:Capture 736.JPG]]
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| <p>The balanites kernels are rich in protein and oil, providing roughly one and a half times the recommended daily intake of protein and fat for young children (Casselbury, 2018; FAO, n.d.a; Health Canada, 2008; National Research Council, 2008). The kernel, like the fruit, provides eight out of nine essential amino acids, deficient again only in tryptophan. Of the essential and non-essential amino acids provided by the kernels, the percentage per 100 g either approaches or exceeds required daily intake (Muhammad et al, 2018). Offering many micronutrients, the kernels are especially rich in magnesium, iron, zinc, and manganese, and contain trace amounts of others (Health Canada, 2008; Muhammad et al, 2018). (see additional resources for more comprehensive assessments of the nutritional components of the kernel and fruit)</p>
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| <p>Due to the variety and abundance of nutrients available, balanites is an ideal mitigator of malnutrition, especially in children who enjoy the sweet flavour. Balanites can provide these critical nutrients during the dry season when variety and abundance of amino acids and micronutrient-rich food are most scarce (National Research Council, 2008). The fruit is eaten raw, in drinks and cooked; many parts of the plant are used in medicine. Soaking or boiling the seeds and then drying and storing in airtight containers allows the seeds to store for longer periods of time and avoid insect damage (National Research Council, 2008; Schmidt & Jøker, 2000). The kernels held within the seed can be roasted and eaten like nuts or have the oil extracted to be used as cooking oil (National Research Council, 2008). Cooking oil is an important cooking component because it lowers the amount of time needed to cook food. This is especially important for smallholder farmers in dry areas who have a lack of access to fuelwood, which is also declining in supply due to population pressures and deforestation (FAO, n.d.b).</p>
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| <h3 class="title-bg">Uses in Agriculture and Agroforestry </h3>
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| <div class="cont-bg">
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| <p>Balanites has been used in hedgerows to contain livestock in enclosed areas, due to its thorns. The leaves are also used as fodder well into the dry season; browsing animals enjoy the leaves but the thorns restrict them to eating the young shoots high in protein (National Research Council, 2008). The kernel offers a high protein meal for livestock. The tree also provides shelter and shade. Farmers have been known to strategically plant balanites to stabilize sandy dunes (National Research Council, 2008). Balanites can be useful as an intercrop; their deep root systems provide little competition for shallow-rooted annual crops and shading also reduces soil evaporation (Issoufou, 2016).</p>
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| <div style="margin-top: 30px;">
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| <h3 class="title-bg">How Balanites Can Help Mitigate the Effects of Climate Change </h3>
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| <div class="cont-bg">
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| <p>Climate change poses the risk of extreme weather changes, and as previously noted, many regions of semi-arid Africa are under threat of desertification (Meltzer, 2013). Balanites withstands extreme drought conditions and flooding for several weeks. The tree can grow in degenerated soils, meaning it is adaptable to unfavourable conditions (Gour & Datta, 2015). Balanites can increase soil fertility by providing organic matter from leaf litter and has been shown to be an excellent carbon sequester, which is important in mitigating the effects of climate change (Becker et al, 2017; Gour & Datta, 2015). Some authoritative sources claim balanites act as a nitrogen-fixing plant, while other authoritative sources state otherwise (Becker et al, 2017; Sacande & Parfondry, 2018). This fundamental gap in knowledge illustrates the lack of scientific interest and funding into this important tree crop of the African Sahel.</p>
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| <h3 class="title-bg">Balanites Production to Build Sustainable Food Systems </h3>
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| <div class="cont-bg">
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| <p>The ability of balanites to grow in degraded landscapes and prevent soil erosion helps with landscape restoration (Gour & Datta, 2015). Its many uses that do not include culling the plant provide economic opportunities that are non-timber product based (Sacande & Parfondry, 2018). Balanites’ high nutritional content and resistance to drought mean it's an excellent famine food, providing the opportunity for improved food security and sovereignty for millions of people (Sagna et al, 2014).</p>
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| <h3 class="title-bg">Economic Opportunities from the Production of Balanites</h3>
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| <div class="cont-bg">
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| <p> Balanites are abundant producers of fruit, yielding 100-125 kg per tree annually (National Research Council, 2008; Sacande & Parfondry, 2018). Although the fruit is often eaten raw, it can also be cooked into a pulp, providing an opportunity to preserve it by canning for sale as a value-added product. Opportunities to preserve the balanites fruit in a powdered form, a method that has been successful with other fruit, could be explored (National Research Council, 2008). The fruit can be found for sale online for roughly $6 USD per 100 g (Amazon, n.d.). While the sale of the fruit provides an economic opportunity, there is also opportunity for post-harvest value addition in oil, soap, and honey products from balanites. Balanites’ oil is extracted from the kernel of the seed to be sold within local and growing international markets (Sacande & Parfondry, 2018). The oil can also be used to make soap. The FAO Action Against Desertification (AAD) initiative has identified the value chain of balanites oil to help facilitate economic opportunities for women while promoting the production of non-timber forest products as part of a land restoration project (Sacande & Parfondry, 2018). Many women have formed partnerships to ease the workload; the production of soap specifically has provided net monthly revenues of roughly USD 30 (FAO, 2020a). The production of honey is an opportunity provided by balanites role as a major pollinator. The AAD has assisted in increasing production from 6 kg produced by a traditional beehive to 23 kg within a project in Ethiopia (Sacande & Parfondry, 2018). There is also the opportunity to use balanites trees as a renewable fuel and wood source. The plants coppice readily, which is ideal due to concerns over deforestation, and the wood burns with little smoke (National Research Council, 2008).</p>
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| <h3 class="title-bg">Critical Analysis</h3>
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| <div class="cont-bg">
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| <p><b>Constraints for Growing Balanites</b></p>
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| <p>Seedlings are not readily available because it is not a widely cultivated crop, so many farmers may have to propagate their own. There is an NGO or business opportunity to distribute or sell saplings or a research organization to use plant tissue culture to accelerate its propagation (see additional resources for educational material). Manual scarification and soaking of the seeds in water improve germination (National Research Council, 2008). Wild seedlings may also be transplanted. Balanites can be propagated by root cuttings, stem cuttings, and by cutting off and rooting the suckers that grow from existing plants (National Research Council, 2008). The trees grow slowly and are most vulnerable to grass fires, grazing animals, and weed competition before becoming established after 3 years. Within 5-8 years, the seedlings mature to produce fruit, no longer require additional protection, and have an average lifespan of 100 years (National Research Council, 2008). Growing seedlings provides a challenge because new equipment and tools would be required to start a nursery that necessitates the use of cropland. There are limited studies exploring cultivation methods for balanites, as they have been a relatively ignored crop despite promising potential (National Research Council, 2008). A recent study from 2019 assessed fruit production variability and nutrient content and abundance variability and found variation between plants. The selection of plants based on desirable traits resulted in an improved first-generation, highlighting the opportunity for further study of the genetic improvement of balanites trees and ideal cultivation and growing methods (Tsobeng et al, 2019).</p>
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| <p><b>Constraints for Processing of Balanites</b></p>
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| <p>Balanites fruit is harvested once ripened and fallen to the ground from where it is then collected. The fruit is not typically harvested from the branches because the thorns on the plant make harvesting difficult. However, unripe fruit stores longer and hence picking them directly from the branches reduces the risk of pests compromising quality of the crop. Affordable tools could provide a solution: please see additional resources for suggestions (National Research Council, 2008). Processing balanites seeds sometimes results in injury. No machine can remove the kernel without damaging it, a major constraint if an intact kernel is desired (National Research Council, 2008). A machine that damages the kernel may be helpful for people processing the kernels for oil because the shells are difficult to crack. Damage is not a concern since the kernels are ground and boiled to remove the oil (FAO, 2020a; Sacande & Parfondry, 2018). Extraction of the oil is not optimal, as only 30-40% of oil is extracted with current tools, highlighting a need for effective and accessible technology (Sacande & Parfondry, 2018). Processing the kernels for food is additionally arduous because they must be soaked and boiled in water and then dried before they are edible (National Research Council, 2008). Insect threat is prevalent, especially to seed if not stored properly (Orwa et al, 2009; National Research Council, 2008).</p>
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| <p><b> Constraints for Economic Development</b></p>
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| <p>The lack of efficient tools available prevents growers and processors from improving their products to expand their business, although many women have improved efficiency by developing cooperatives to share the labour of production (Sacande & Parfondry, 2018; FAO, 2020a). A lack of access to capital limits farmers, especially women, from starting operations, as does poor access to knowledge sharing networks. One of the AAD’s initiatives is to train people in rural communities with skills to improve sustainability along the balanites’ value chain (FAO, 2019; FAO, 2020b). Transport of finished product is also limited by available infrastructure (Bambara et al, 2018).</p>
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| <h3 class="title-bg">Conclusion</h3>
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| <div class="cont-bg">
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| <p>Use of balanites as a crop to mitigate the effects of desertification has potential. Balanites fruit is an excellent source of nutrients, and the plant withstands drought conditions with resilience, demonstrating the opportunity for it to be a staple crop for people and animals during times of water shortage and low food production (National Research Council, 2008; Sagna et al, 2014). Balanites can be used as a non-timber product to provide various economic opportunities and for restoring degraded landscapes (Sacande & Parfondry, 2018). With increased cultivation and research, balanites can be an effective mitigation crop for addressing the effects of drought and desertification on smallholder farmers.</p>
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| <h3 class="title-bg">Additional Resources</h3>
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| <div class="cont-bg">
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| <p>https://www.desertdateco.com/
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| Existing sustainable business connecting rural women in Africa with the global supply chain to provide balanites oil for cosmetic use, while maintaining forest habitats.</p>
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| <p>https://vimeo.com/322258673
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| Video showing women breaking Balanites seeds with stones. Includes discussion of the opportunities for Balanites to improve food security and address malnutrition. Commentary provided in French.</p>
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| <p>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Rl1dfcag5bg&ab_channel=ENDA%C3%89nergieTV
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| A video discussing the economic opportunities and challenges for women who work with Balanites. Also shows a cold-press oil processing tool. Commentary provided in French.</p>
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| <p>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=byDRcpUldBE&ab_channel=ManfredTaege
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| Examples of simple and small solar dryers/dehydrators in South Sudan.</p>
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| <p>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mI_C1uJpEDc&ab_channel=TomGlenn
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| Examples of solar fruit dryers in Malawi. </p>
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| <p>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=w2H9LijlCCc&ab_channel=ResilientAfricaNetwork%28RAN%29
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| Kaza solar dryer use for a small perishable food business.</p>
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| <p>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4DFDReXD-kg&ab_channel=HarryRogers
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| A video discussing what coppicing is, with suggestions for cheap tools. Commentary provided in English.</p>
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| <p>https://northernwoodlands.org/articles/article/coppicing-firewood
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| An article discussing coppicing.</p>
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| <p>https://worldagroforestry.org/sites/default/files/outputs/Buyinza,%20J%20and%20Opolot,%20V.%20(2016).%20Tree%20nursery%20establishment%20and%20tree%20management,%20Training%20Manual%20for%20Community%20Tree%20Nursery%20Operators%20and%20Tree%20Farmers.pdf
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| Resource for starting a tree nursery provided by World Agroforestry.</p>
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| <p>http://apps.worldagroforestry.org/products/grunew/index.php/seeds
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| Order seeds from the World Agroforestry. Balanites aegyptiaca is a seed offered but supply is not reliable.</p>
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| <p>http://apps.worldagroforestry.org/sites/default/files/users/admin/Guidelines-for-ordering-seed.pdf
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| Guidelines for ordering seeds, provided by World Agroforestry.</p>
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| <p> http://apps.worldagroforestry.org/downloads/Publications/PDFS/B14043.pdf
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| A practical guide to vegetative tree propagation discussing several methods including those mentioned as desirable for Balanites.</p>
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| <p>https://sl.ku.dk/rapporter/seed-leaflets/filer/balanites-aegyptiaca-21.pdf
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| Additional resource including information on harvest, processing, germination, and storage.</p>
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| <p>http://www.fao.org/3/T0044E/T0044e04.htm
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| Extremely comprehensive outline of information from the FAO. From propagation to economic uses. Includes nutritional profile.</p>
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| <p>https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/9eb0/018d63d7c97d55d10ce78e183098fa2b3144.pdf
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| Amino acid profile and mineral content of the kernel.</p>
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| <p>https://sl.ku.dk/rapporter/seed-leaflets/filer/balanites-aegyptiaca-21.pdf
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| Leaflet on Balanites aegyptiaca seed, includes storing and processing information, plus insect treatment during storage recommendations.</p>
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| <p>http://www.fao.org/in-action/action-against-desertification/activities/land-restoration/en/
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| Additional information on the Action Against Desertification initiative from the FAO.</p>
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| <p>http://www.fao.org/3/CA2428EN/ca2428en.pdf
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| Article discussion various non-timber forest products for restoration of degraded land and income generation, including Balanites and Balanites oil.</p>
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| <p>https://www.alibaba.com/trade/search?fsb=y&IndexArea=product_en&CatId=&SearchText=fruit+picker
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| Low-cost fruit pickers that may be helpful when picking underripe fruit.</p>
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| <p>https://www.amazon.in/LIFERR-Hingot-Fruit-200-Gm/dp/B07NWVNH6P
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| Hingot fruit (Balanites common name in India) 499 Rupees, roughly $6 USD for 100 g </p>
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| <p>https://fasostore.com/en/oils/15-oil-of-balanites.html
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| Balanites oil for 1000 CFA, roughly $1.85 USD (volume not provided)</p>
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| </div>
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| </div>
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| <div style="margin-top: 30px;">
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| <h3 class="title-bg">References </h3>
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| <div class="cont-bg">
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| <p>1. Amazon. (n.d.) Buy LIFERR Hingot Fruit: Balanites Aegyptiaca: Hingan: Ingudi: Hinguputra: 200g Online at Low Prices in India. Amazon.in. Retrieved December 9, 2020, from https://www.amazon.in/LIFERR-Hingot-Fruit-200-Gm/dp/B07NWVNH6P.</p>
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| <p>2. Bambara, L. D. F., Sawadogo, M., Roy, D., Anciaux, D., Blin, J., & Ouiminga, S. K. (2018). Biofuel from Balanites aegyptiaca: Optimization of the feedstock supply chain. Sustainability (Switzerland), 10(12), 4501. https://doi.org/10.3390/su10124501</p>
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| <p>3. Becker, J. N., Gütlein, A., Sierra Cornejo, N., Kiese, R., Hertel, D., & Kuzyakov, Y. (2017). Legume and Non-legume Trees Increase Soil Carbon Sequestration in Savanna. Ecosystems, 20(5), 989–999. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10021-016-0087-7</p>
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| <p>4. CABI. (n.d.) Invasive species compendium: Balanites aegyptiaca (simple-thorned torchwood). Centre for Agriculture and Biosciences International. Retrieved December 9, 2020, from https://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/8311. </p>
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| <p>5. Casselbury, K. (2018). What is the average amount of fat that children should take in on a daily basis? Healthy Eating | SF Gate. Retrieved December 9, 2020, from, https://healthyeating.sfgate.com/average-amount-fat-children-should-intake-daily-basis-7884.html.</p>
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| <p>6. FAO. (2019). FAO train villagers on Balanites oil extraction, packaging for better livelihoods. Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations, Rome. Retrieved October 1, 2020, from http://www.fao.org/nigeria/news/detail-events/en/c/1256575/</p>
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| <p>7. FAO. (2020a). How balanites soap put a smile back on Hadjatou Ouedraogo’s face. Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations, Rome. Retrieved November 20, 2020, from http://www.fao.org/in-action/action-against-desertification/news-and-multimedia/detail/en/c/1177465/</p>
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| <p>8. FAO. (2020b). Action Against Desertification: Burkina Faso. Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations, Rome. Retrieved November 21, 2020, from http://www.fao.org/in-action/action-against-desertification/countries/africa/burkina-faso/en/</p>
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| <p>9. FAO.(n.d.a) Balanites aegyptiaca. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome. Retrieved December 9, 2020, from http://www.fao.org/3/T0044E/T0044e04.htm.</p>
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| <p>10. FAO. (n.d.b). The impact of fuelwood scarcity on dietary patterns: Hypotheses for research. Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nation, Rome. Retrieved December 9, 2020, from http://www.fao.org/3/t7750e/t7750e05.htm.</p>
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| <p>11. Gour, V. S., & Datta, M. (2015). Soil Carbon Sequestration Through Desert Date Based Forestry in Arid and Salt Affected Regions. National Academy Science Letters, 38(2), 127–128. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40009-014-0320-x</p>
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| <p>12. Health Canada. (2006). Dietary reference intakes tables. Government of Canada. Retrieved December 9, 2020, from https://www.canada.ca/en/health-canada/services/food-nutrition/healthy-eating/dietary-reference-intakes/tables.html. </p>
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| <p>13. IFAD. (n.d.). Drought, desertification and avoiding the next big global food shortage. International Fund for Agricultural Development, United Nations, Rome. Retrieved November 20, 2020, from https://www.ifad.org/en/web/latest/story/asset/39018922</p>
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| <p>14. Issoufou, A. (2016). Chapter 10 - Date Fruits: Nutritional Composition of Dates (Balanites aegyptiaca Delile and Phoenix dactylifera L.). Nutritional Composition of Fruit Cultivars (pp. 215-233). Academic Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-408117-8.00010-6.</p>
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| <p>15. Meltzer, E. (2013). Climate Change and Instability in the Sahel. Arizona State University. Retrieved November 21, 2020, from http://csc.asu.edu/2013/06/10/climate-change-and-instability-in-the-sahel/</p>
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| <p>16. Muhammad, I. U., Alhassan, A. J., Ramatu, Y., Mohammad, A., Nasir, A., Yaradua, A. I., … Ezema, M. D. (2018). Amino Acid Profile and Mineral Content of Balanites aegyptiaca Kernel. Asian Journal of Applied Chemistry Research, 1(4), 1–7. https://doi.org/10.9734/ajacr/2018/v1i49683</p>
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| <p>17. National Research Council. (2008). Lost Crops of Africa. Volume III: Fruits, Washington, D.C.: The National Academies Press</p>
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| <p>18. Orwa, C., Mutua, A., Kindt, R. Jamnadass, R., Simons, A. (2009). The Agroforestree Database. World Agroforestry. Retrieved October 02, 2020, from http://www.worldagroforestry.org/output/agroforestree-database</p>
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| <p>19. Sacande, M., & Parfondry, M. (2018). Non-timber forest products: From restoration to income generation. Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations, Rome. Retrieved November 20, 2020, from http://www.fao.org/3/CA2428EN/ca2428en.pdf</p>
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| <p>20. Sagna, M. B., Diallo, A., Sarr, P. S., Ndiaye, O., Goffner, D., & Guisse, A. (2014). Biochemical composition and nutritional value of Balanites aegyptiaca (L.) Del fruit pulps from Northern Ferlo in Senegal. African Journal of Biotechnology, 13(2), 336-342. doi:10.5897/ajb2013.12395</p>
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| <p>21. Schmidt, L., & Jøker, D. (2000, September). Seed leaflet: Balanites aegyptiaca. Danida Forest Seed Centre. Retrieved December 9, 2020, from https://sl.ku.dk/rapporter/seed-leaflets/filer/balanites-aegyptiaca-21.pdf.</p>
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| <p>22. Tsobeng, A., Degrande, A., Uwishaka, C., Muchugi, A., Atangana, A., Souleymanou, A., . . . Hassab, A. (2019). Domestication of Balanites aegyptiaca: Phenotypic variation in fruit traits and tree selection in Eastern Chad. Book of Abstracts, 4th World Congress on Agroforestry, p778. Retrieved November 20, 2020, from https://www.alphavisa.com/agroforestry/2019/documents/Agroforestry2019-Book-of-Abstract-v1.pdf</p>
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