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<div class="title"><h3>5.44 -Drought Tolerant Bean Varieties (Phaseolus vulgaris) Utilized to Overcome the Negative Effects of Climate Change </h3><br><h3 class="ch-owner">Jordan Candido, University of Guelph, Canada </h3></div>
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<p>Suggested citation for this chapter.</p>
<p>Candido,J. (2022) Drought Tolerant Bean Varieties (Phaseolus vulgaris) Utilized to Overcome the Negative Effects of Climate Change, In Farmpedia, The Encyclopedia for Small Scale Farmers. Editor, M.N. Raizada, University of Guelph, Canada. http://www.farmpedia.org</p>
      <h3 class="title-bg">Background</h3>
        <div class="cont-bg">
          <p>During the formation of the International Centre for Tropical Agriculture, or CIAT, in 1967, headquartered in Colombia, the vast majority of starving and malnourished people residing in tropical and sub-tropical regions were smallholder farmers (CIAT, 2017). Thus, the goal of increasing yield potential became a primary priority for CIAT (CIAT, 2017). The current areas of concern are in regard to common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) production systems, the landscapes where its production occurs, and its yield potential (CIAT, 2015). Millions of farmers within Africa and Latin America depend on high yield outcomes from their bean crops not only to provide food but also to provide an income for themselves and their families. However, due to the high demand of the crop and the drastic effects of climate change, farmers continue to struggle to meet the needs of consumers (CIAT, 2015).</p>
<p>Throughout the previous several decades, the impacts of climate change have been worsening (IFPRI, 2009). Climate change projections state that regions in Sub-Saharan Africa, Latin America, and the Caribbean will be greatly affected by an increase of drought conditions and a rise in average annual temperatures. Due to these conditions, the threats to agricultural production within these land areas are escalating (IFPRI, 2009). Within these regions, the common bean is a staple crop; beans are often referred to as “the meat of the poor” (CIAT, 2016). They contain high levels of protein, fibre, vitamins and micronutrients. An estimated 400 million people residing in the tropics consume beans in their daily diet due to their high nutritional content (CIAT, 2016).</p>
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      <h3 class="title-bg">Benefits of Drought Tolerant Bean Varieties to Small Scale Farmers </h3>
        <div class="cont-bg">
 
<p>The world’s largest and most diverse collection of beans is preserved by CIAT (CIAT, 2015). Beans were domesticated within the neo-tropics thousands of years ago, which is where the majority of CIAT’s germplasm originated. With such an extensive range of beans available, the seed bank contains many options for farmers; a variety of colours, nutritional content, and production requirements can be found within these different strains (CIAT, 2015).</p>
<p>Within the previous 15 years, researchers at the Consortium of International Agricultural Research Centres (CGIAR), CIAT’s umbrella organization, have created incredible advances towards solving issues surrounding drought, and increasing the heat-tolerance and nutritional content levels within common bean varieties (CIAT, 2015). CIAT researchers have been able to identify lines that display a tolerance to a 3˚C increase in temperature. These lines derive from a variety of crosses between common and tepary bean species (Phaseolus acutifolius). Currently cultivated traditional bean varieties have been projected to suffer a 20-50% loss by 2050, whereas heat-tolerant bred beans are projected to suffer minimal losses within that same time period (CIAT, 2015).</p>
 
<p>In order for the new bean varieties to have drought resistant qualities, different traits from different genetic groups were required (Beebe, 2014). Many of the traits which are linked to drought resistance were found within both bean roots and shoots. In order to guarantee a higher success rate of the bean plant, a lengthy root system was required. Additionally, early maturation of the bean crops was a common tactic to combat drought tolerance. A total of 36 genotypes were tested in 2009 during a growing season with significant drought stress. Table 1 shows the field trial results of 5 genotypes grown under different field conditions (Beebe, 2014).</P>
 
<p>Table 1. Drought associated traits associated with improved bean genotypes </p>
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<p>The crops were managed by the irrigation systems for up to 25 days following planting. In order to induce drought stress, the crops were fed a total of 105 mm of water initially followed by an allotted amount of 59 mm of rainwater. An analysis of these trials recommended that the most elite drought tolerant lines expressed heightened stomatal control of transpiration and contained Mexican genetics (Beebe, 2014).</p>
 
<p>Since 1996, The Pan-Africa Bean Research Alliance (PABRA) has released over 550 new drought resistant bean varieties to many of the countries within Africa in co-ordination with assistance from CIAT (CIAT, 2016). Utilizing germplasm available, the new varieties of beans (known as BIO101 and BIO107) contain 60% more iron and 50% more zinc than those of traditional bean crops. Following the creation of these specially bred beans, a trial with pregnant and young women in Rwanda discovered that the new varieties of beans reduced iron-deficiency and increased immune system strength in each of the women (CIAT, 2016). With these new advances, PABRA will assist future production by making the crops more resilient to climate change threats while simultaneously targeting direct effects on the human population (CIAT, 2015).</p>
 
<p>The regions within Latin America, Oceania and Sub-Saharan Africa contain the highest percentage of women participating in the agricultural sector. It is within these regions that 60% of the total agricultural production is completed by women (Huyer, 2016). In the world’s least developed regions, 79% of the women contributing to their national economy report that they work in the agriculture sector (Huyer, 2016). When women engage in the agricultural production (with new technologies such as heat-tolerant bean varieties) it creates a sense of empowerment and thus builds essential assets, which the women are then able to use in all other aspects of their lives (Muriel, 2019). With the climate change innovations available within common bean variety crops, female farmers are considered to be important influences (Huyer, 2016). When the women’s knowledge of available innovative resources and access to information increases, it establishes an increase in food supply as well as a more resilient community. Likewise, an attempt is made to close the gender gap, thus providing a higher chance for equal opportunities between both men and women (Huyer, 2016), which would in turn help to positively shape the future of those regions affected.</p>
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      <h3 class="title-bg">Gender Issues Associated with Production of Drought Tolerant Bean Varieties </h3>
        <div class="cont-bg">
<p>If the farmers, though especially female farmers, are not able to utilize and benefit from these new seed varieties, the food supply decreases and the gender gap increases, which diminishes the resiliency of the community (Huyer, 2016). Additionally, since very little information is available with regards to how poor regions with higher gender discrepancy respond to the threats and impacts of climate change within agricultural production, it is difficult to forecast results for future decades (Huyer, 2016).</p>
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      <h3 class="title-bg">Production of Drought Tolerant Beans (Phaseolus Vulgaris) in Arid Regions </h3>
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<p>It is necessary that farmers are equipped with all of the relevant information required to achieve the highest quality results from their newly adapted bean varieties (PABRA, 2016). Becoming knowledgeable about land preparation, crop management and harvesting is vital to ensuring success within production systems. Integrated crop management (ICM) is a holistic approach utilized by PABRA that assists farmers throughout their cultivation. The desired outcome from ICM is to give smallholder farmers access to cost-effective, climate change resistant crops. This is achieved by working with many international partners. Multiple techniques exist within ICM such as pest management, soil quality, planting and intercropping. With such techniques, approximately six million farmers have been able to improve their bean yields. The ICM research encompasses a variety of areas:</p>
<p>-    Cropping systems: Assessing the different varieties of beans while comparing the benefits of intercropping and rotation.</p> 
<p>-    Inputs: Evaluating the varieties of fertilisers available which are best suitable for the farmer’s chosen bean variety.</p>
<p>-    Water Management: In order to combat the negative effects of climate change and drought, improved practices regarding irrigation and water conservation are fundamental. </p>
<p>-    Soil Fertility: By working with the technologies available within the private sector, this promotes biological nitrogen fixation capabilities which increases yield potential.</p> 
<p>-    Pest and Disease Management: Bean varieties are frequently affected by an array of pests and diseases which have very negative effects on crop yields. PABRA analyses integrated pest management systems with utilization of both biological and chemical methods (PABRA, 2016).</p>
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      <h3 class="title-bg">Helpful Links to Get Started </h3>
        <div class="cont-bg">
<p>Resource for Requesting Seeds:</p>
<p>https://genebank.ciat.cgiar.org/genebank/inforequestmaterial.do</p>
<p>CIAT innovations on heat-tolerant beans:</p>
<p>https://blog.ciat.cgiar.org/heat-tolerant-wild-beans-tapped-to-breed-commercial-beans-for-hotter-climates/</p>
<p>What is ‘Seed Security’?</p>
<p>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xvqSaw49wnE</p>
<p>Agricultural Business Skills for seed-producers:</p>
<p>https://cgspace.cgiar.org/bitstream/handle/10568/54569/handbook_3_english.pdf</p>
<p>Crop Management:</p>
<p>https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/detail/national/newsroom/features/?&cid=nrcs143_023350</p>
<p>Smallholder Farmers Stories Who Have Adopted Drought Tolerant Bean Varieties:</p>
<p>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=O2UqFbnOc6U</p>
<p>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=x3D3DiZ4I-8</p>
<p>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Qd4RS66FMJM&t=8s</p>
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      <h3 class="title-bg">References </h3>
        <div class="cont-bg">
 
<p>1. Beebe, S.E., et al. (2014) Common beans, biodiversity, and multiple stresses:
a. challenges of drought resistance in tropical soils. Crop and Pasture Science 65, 667-675. Retrieved from https://www.publish.csiro.au/cp/cp13303</p>
<p>2. Buruchara, R. (2011). Development and Delivery of Bean Varieties in Africa: The Pan-
a. African Bean Research Alliance (PABRA) Model, p.227-245. African Crop Science Journal. Retrieved from https://www.ajol.info/index.php/acsj/article/view/74168/64827</p>
<p>3. Huyer, S, et al. (2016). CCAFS Gender and Social Inclusion Strategy, p.8-11. The
a. Consortium of International Agricultural Research Centres. Retrieved from https://cgspace.cgiar.org/handle/10568/72900</p>
<p>4. International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI). (2009). Climate Change: Impact
a. on Agriculture and Costs of Adaptation. Retrieved from https://books.google.ca/books?hl=en&lr=&id=1Vpe0JvYTJYC&oi=fnd&pg=PR7&ots=Xmu2c8Swla&sig=GX4sDC1DiDa7I5408r0a3nz2sJo&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false</p>
<p>5. Muriel, J., et al. (2019). The Abbreviated Women’s Empowerment in Agriculture Index
a. (A-WEIA). Project Results for ‘His and Hers, Time and Income: How Intra Household Dynamics Impact Nutrition in Agricultural Households’. The International Centre for Tropical Agriculture. Retrieved from https://cgspace.cgiar.org/handle/10568/101141</p>
<p>6. The International Centre for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT). (2015). Developing Beans that
a. Can Beat the Heat. The Consortium of International Agricultural Research Centres. Retrieved from https://ciat-library.ciat.cgiar.org/articulos_ciat/biblioteca/DEVELOPING_BEANS_THAT_CAN_BEAT_THE_HEAT_lowres%20(2).pdf</p>
<p>7. The International Centre for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT). (2016). Beans. Retrieved from
a. https://ciat.cgiar.org/what-we-do/breeding-better-crops/beans/.</p>
<p>8. The International Centre for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT). (2017). Fifty Years and Fifty
a. Wins, p.4-18. The Consortium of International Agricultural Research Centres. Retrieved from https://cgspace.cgiar.org/bitstream/handle/10568/89145/50_WINS_WEB02.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y</p>

Latest revision as of 12:40, 4 September 2024

5.44 -Analyzing Sonora White Wheat as a Crop for Smallholder Farmers to Combat Climate Change


Olivia Lund, University of Guelph, Canada

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Suggested citation for this chapter.

Lund,O. (2022) Analyzing Sonora White Wheat as a Crop for Smallholder Farmers to Combat Climate Change, In Farmpedia, The Encyclopedia for Small Scale Farmers. Editor, M.N. Raizada, University of Guelph, Canada. http://www.farmpedia.org

How Sonora White Wheat Benefits Smallholder Farmers Specifically

Many subsistence farmers only make enough food to sell for necessity and feed their families. Bread wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) has had an unprecedented growth since The Green Revolution and has adopted the name “The Miracle Crop” because of its success in combating food insecurity for smallholder farms in developing countries (Shiferaw et al, 2013). Approximately 21% of world’s food is dependent on wheat products, and 81% of wheat consumed in developing countries is produced within the same country (Ortiz et al, 2008). Moving forward, however, wheat demand in developing countries is expected to increase by 60% by 2050 (Shiferaw, et al., 2013) at a time of climate change. Since its origin in Western Asia 10,000 years ago, and then cultivation by “the Eudeve peoples, who began to propagate the wheat near the rural village of Tuape, Sonora, not far from the present United States-Mexico” in 1640, White Sonora Wheat (Sonora blanca) has been shown to be one of the most adaptable crops cultivated (Slow Food, n.d.). It has potential to help smallholder farmers who are facing increasingly hot, dry conditions. Sonora wheat grain can be used for bread/flour and cereal, but is most commonly milled into flour to produce bread and tortillas (Local Harvest, n.d.). White Sonora wheat can be ground into flour by milling (either whole or cracked wheat) to use in baking recipes and breads. It has also been used as cereal, side dishes or as a replacements for rice in dishes (Wheat White Sonora, n.d.). The grain can provide a source of cash income for farmers, and furthermore, the stems/leaves can be used for livestock feed (Araya et al. 2020).

The optimal temperature for white Sonora wheat is 25 degrees Celsius, however, because of its adaptability, it can tolerate 3 degrees Celsius to 32 degrees Celsius (Curtis, 2002). Sonora wheat is highly tolerant to dry conditions, because of its long taproots and therefore can reach farther into the soils to retrieve water in dry seasons (Stephan Scott, n.d.). This is more stress adapted than typical wheats which require moderate rainfall (304-381 mm) and temperature (4-35˚C) (Ma Wen Jie, 2017). Sonora white wheat takes 90 days to reach maturity (Local Harvest, n.d.) and hence is ideal for dry climates with a limited rainy season. It grows optimally in well-drained, sandy, loamy or clay soils with a pH of 6.0-7.0 (Wheat White Sonora, n.d.). White Sonora Wheat is considered a spring wheat because it is planted in the spring and produces grain by the fall. Spring wheat is most common in countries that have mild winters such as South Asia, North Africa and the Middle East (Curtis, 2002). The grain has to be dried to below 12% moisture content before storing.

How White Sonora Wheat can Help Smallholder Farmers Combat Climate Change

Though Sonora white wheat was originally grown on the border of Sonora, Mexico, it has since been adopted by the U.S., specifically Arizona and California (Local Harvest, n.d.). In Sonora, the rainfall is less than 100 mm per year. Sonora has three typical climates: very dry, dry, and semi-dry (Sosa-Tinoco et al, 2016) which is ideal for wheat, since wheat diseases thrive in damp weather so it should be grown in low humidity. White Sonora wheat is specifically drought tolerant because of its root structure. White Sonora wheat has long taproots, as already noted, as well as smaller feeder roots which bring water and nutrients from deeper in the soil (Scott, 2018).

As parts of the world become drier, Sonora white wheat can provide both local nutrition and also income. A simple formula can be used to determine profit for farmers, involving the yield per ha, the price of wheat, fertilizer cost, cost of smallholder necessities used in production (land, labour, capital). Based on these parameters, the following formula can be used to estimate the potential profitability of Sonoran wheat grain:

Profits = (yield/ha x price of wheat)- necessities - fertilizer cost

(Derek Byerlee and Jim Longmire, 1986).

Under ideal conditions Sonora wheat can produce 6-14 seed heads per plant (Wheat White Sonora, n.d.).Using information from Oscar Valequez in Sonora, Mexico 2013, based on a yield of 6.5 tons/ha (Trigo Mexico, 2013), and a late 2020 price of 4.3k pesos per ton (Index Mundi, 2020), the revenue would be ~$1400 USD per hectare, minus seed, fertilizer, chemicals, tractor, labour and land charges.

Critical Analysis

Planting a legume during crop rotation can ensure adequate soil nitrogen (Wheat White Sonora, n.d.). Some pests that may come into contact with white Sonora wheat include birds, moths, slugs and snails. White Sonora wheat is resistant to rust and Fusarium blight, however there are some diseases to consider such as powdery mildew, smut, Stagonospora, Barley Yellow Dwarf Virus and Wheat Spindle Streak (Wheat White Sonora, n.d.).

Resources and Institutions for Smallholder Farmers

The International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT) breeds lines of wheat for developing nations, with improved quality including resistance to stress (e.g. weather, pathogens) and improved agronomic practices (CIMMYT, 2020). CIMMYT has international field research stations, seed banks, breeders’ seed and helpful resources for smallholder farmers. Farmer organizations can obtain wheat seeds from CIMMYT (see link below).

Smallholder farmers struggle with financing. The International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) gives loans to support organizations that assist smallholder farmers (see further information below).

Useful resources and practical links to get started:

CIMMYT Resources: Seed Site: https://www.cimmyt.org/resources/seed-request/ Wheat Doctor: http://wheatdoctor.org/ Nutrient Management: https://www.cimmyt.org/news/precision-nutrient-management-the-future-of-nitrogen-use-efficiency/ Drought Site: https://www.cimmyt.org/tag/drought/

•Wheat School: Three Key Steps to Planting Winter Wheat by Real Agriculture - Understanding some key points regarding planting winter wheat https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vIqK8Uk9f2U

•International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) One specific program that is ongoing in 2020 is the Sustainable Development Project for Communities in Semiarid Areas. Smallholder farmers are part of the target group that this project can assist by supporting sustainable agricultural production. To contact IFAD, farmers can call +39-065459 or email ifad@ifad.org. You can also reach the project Sustainable Development Project Contact Francisco Javier Pichon through their website: https://www.ifad.org/en/.

•White Sonora Wheat by Underwood gardens: - Explains how White Sonora Wheat can be beneficial for smallholder farmers https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=s-1SKJR8MWg

•White Sonora Wheat Harvest by Avalon Organic Gardens: - Understanding the harvesting process https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=y40u77cKvbI

References

1. Araya, A., Prasad, P.V.V., Gowda, P.H., M. Djanaguiraman & A. H. Kassa. 2020. Potential impacts of climate change factors and agronomic adaptation strategies on wheat yields in central highlands of Ethiopia. Climatic Change, 159, 461–479 (2020). Retrieved from: https://doi-org.subzero.lib.uoguelph.ca/10.1007/s10584-019-02627-y

2. Board on Science and Technology for International Development, Office of International Affairs, National Research Council. 1996. Book of Lost Crops in Africa: Volume 1: Grains. (2020). Retrieved from https://courselink.uoguelph.ca/d2l/le/content/645725/viewContent/2497669/View.

3. Cost of Living in San Carlos, Sonora. N.d. Retrieved from https://costof.live/cost-of-living/in/san-carlos-sonora

4. Curtis, B.C. (2002) Wheat in the World. In: Curtis, B.C., Rajaram, S. and Macpherson, H.G., Eds., Bread Wheat Improvement and Production, Plant Production and Protection Series 30, FAO, Roma, 1-18. http://www.fao.org/3/y4011e04.htm#TopOfPage

5. Derek Byerlee, Jim Longmire. (1986). Comparative Advantage and Policy Incentives for Wheat Production in Rainfed and Irrigated Areas of Mexico. CIMMYT Economics Program Working Paper, No. 01/86. Retrieved from: https://repository.cimmyt.org/xmlui/bitstream/handle/10883/828/13372.pdf

6. Index Mundi. 2020. Urea Monthly Price – US dollars per metric ton. Retrieved from https://www.indexmundi.com/Commodities/?commodity=urea&currency=mxn).

7. Index Mundi, 2020. Commodity Monthly Price – Mexican Pesos per metric ton. Retrieved from https://www.indexmundi.com/commodities/?commodity=wheat&months=12&currency=mxn

8. International Fund for Agricultural Development. (n.d.). Retrieved October 01, 2020, from https://www.ifad.org/en/

9. International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (2020) Seed Request. Retrieved November 17, 2020. CIMMYT. https://www.cimmyt.org/resources/seed-request/

10. Ma Wen Jie. 2017. Requirements for Growing Wheat. Garden Guides, Retrieved from https://www.gardenguides.com/124101-requirements-growing-wheat.html

11. Ortiz-Monasterio R. J.I. (2002). Nitrogen management in irrigated spring wheat. FAO, Rome. Retrieved from http://www.fao.org/3/y4011e0t.htm

12. Ortiz, R., Sayrea, K., Govaerts, B., Gupta R., Subbarao G.V., Ban T., Hodson D., Dixon J.M., Ortiz-Monasterio J.I & Reynolds M. (June, 2008). Climate Change: Can Wheat Beat the Heat. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environments. 126, 46-58. Retrieved from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0167880908000194

13. Scott, S. (2018, June 04). White Sonora Wheat – Perfect Grain for the Home Gardener. Retrieved November 18, 2020, from https://underwoodgardens.com/white-sonora-wheat-perfect-grain-home-gardener/

14. Shiferaw, B., Smale, M., Braun, H., Duveiller E., Reynolds M. & Muricho G. 2013. Crops that feed the world 10. Past successes and future challenges to the role played by wheat in global food security. Food Sec. 5, 291–317. Retrieved from: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12571-013-0263-y

15. Slow Food. N.d. White Sonora Wheat. Retrieved from https://www.fondazioneslowfood.com/en/ark-of-taste-slow-food/white-sonoran-wheat/

16. Sosa-Tinoco, I., Peralta-Jaramillo, J., Otero-Casal, C., López- Agüera, A., Miguez-Macho, G., & Rodríguez-Cabo, I. (2016). Validation of a global horizontal irradiation assessment from a numerical weather prediction model in the south of Sonora–Mexico. Renewable Energy, 90, 105–113. Retrieved from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2015.12.055

17. Buechler, S. (2009). Gender, water, and climate change in Sonora, Mexico: implications for policies and programmes on agricultural income-generation. Gender & Development, 17:1, 51-66. DOI: 10.1080/13552070802696912

18. Stephan Scott. N.d. White Sonora Wheat – Perfect Grain for the Home Gardener. Retrieved from:https://underwoodgardens.com/white-sonora-wheat-perfect-grain-home-gardener/#:~:text=White%20Sonora%20Wheat%20has%20a%20root%20structure%20much,making%20the%20plant%20less%20susceptible%20to%20moisture%20fluctuations.

19. Thompson, J. (2018, December 09). A quick way to estimate wheat yield. Website. Retrieved November 18, 2020, from https://www.farmprogress.com/grains/quick-way-estimate-wheat-yield

20. Trigo Mexico. 2013. World Press. Retrieved from: https://trigomexico.wordpress.com/tag/sonora/

21. Wheat White Sonora. N.d. CC Grow. Retrieved from: http://www.phytotheca.com/phytotheca/wheat-white-sonora/

22. White Sonora Wheat. (n.d.). Website. Retrieved November 18, 2020, from https://www.localharvest.org/ark/white-sonora-wheat

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