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  <div class="title"><h3>1.1 - Gloves to help subsistence farmers</h3><br><h3 class="ch-owner">Mitchell van Schepen, University of Guelph, Canada</h3></div>
  <div class="title"><h3>7.2 -Evaluating the use of respirators for small scale farmers to protect them from pesticide sprays </h3><br><h3 class="ch-owner">
Cassandra Pedersen, University of Guelph, Canada</h3></div>
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<p>Suggested citation for this chapter.</p>
<p>Suggested citation for this chapter.</p>
<p>Author name (2022) title of chapter. In Farmpedia, The Encyclopedia for Small Scale Farmers. Editor, M.N. Raizada, University of Guelph, Canada. http://www.farmpedia.org</p>
<p>Pedersen,C. (2022) Evaluating the use of respirators for small scale farmers to protect them from pesticide sprays, The Encyclopedia for Small Scale Farmers. Editor, M.N. Raizada, University of Guelph, Canada. http://www.farmpedia.org</p>
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       <h1 class="title-bg">Background1</h1>
       <h1 class="title-bg">An introduction to the health risks around fertilizers</h1>
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           <p>The world’s 1 billion women and girls participating in subsistence farming pull weeds by hand to improve their crops and also collect firewood for cooking, resulting in their hands becoming rough and sore (Figure 1). This can be caused by wood splinters being lodged into their skin (Schaffner, 2013). Pulling weeds for hours on end can peel away layers of skin (Food and Agriculture Organization, 2016). The hands of those farmers can also become dirty and smelly from planting seeds in the soil or spreading manure by hand. To avoid the common aforementioned problems as well as hand injuries, such as cuts and scrapes, they could wear gloves on their hands, see the second picture, (Schaffner, 2013). Gloves are very common in the modern world and can be used for construction, farming, and medical practices. Gloves provide a durable layer between the skin on your hands and whatever you are working with (Espasandín-Arias & Goossens, 2014). There are a few different materials used to make gloves, along with different sizes and grips. With over one billion women and girls working on farms around the world, this grueling work can be made safer and more efficient when wearing gloves.</p>
           <p>Fertilizers and pesticides can be beneficial for small scale agriculture. However, without the use proper equipment they can have negative ramifications. There are approximately 55,895,916 cases of non fatal pesticide poisoning reported annually within the continent of Africa (Boedeker et al. 2020). Annually approximately 130 people are reported to perish from pesticide poisoning in this region (Boedeker et al. 2020). Without intervention, these numbers are projected to grow.</p>
 
<p>The toxicity of pesticides varies vastly relative to the chemicals used in each product. LD 50 is the legal medical dose required to kill half the tested population (ChemiSafetyPro, 2016). In essence, the smaller the proportion of LD50 the more toxic it is to the handlers. To put this into context, on average, a mixture of less then 50 mg of agent per kg of dilutant can kill a 155 lb person though 0.3 – 3 ml of oral consumption (Government of British Columbia, 2018). Signs and symptoms of mild pesticide poisoning include: headache, fatigue, blurred vision, loss of appetite with nausea, stomach cramps, diarrhea, blurred vision associated with excessive tearing, excessive sweating and salivation, and slowed heartbeat often less than 50 beats per minute (O’Malley and O’Malley, 2021). In moderate to more severe cases individuals are unable to walk and will complain of chest discomfort and tightness muscle twitching, involuntary urination and bowel movements, seizures and unconsciousness (O’Malley and O’Malley, 2021).</p>
          <p>Rubber and cloth are the two main kinds of gloves produced (Melco, 2016). They both have their own benefits and drawbacks respectively. A benefit from rubber gloves is their ability to resist water from coming in contact with a farmer's skin, see part two, (Espasandín-Arias & Goossens, 2014). While cloth gloves can be beneficial because they can draw moisture away from their hands and can be easily washed to be cleaned. Because rubber gloves are usually meant to be disposed of after single use they tend to be cheaper to make and thus cheaper to buy. Yet some rubber gloves can be made thicker to reuse and are slightly more durable (Melco, 2016). Cloth gloves are designed to be washed after being used and last a long time under normal working conditions.</p>
<p>Measures can be taken to prevent the oral consumption of droplet particles as well as aerosolized exposure to pesticides and fertilizers. For small scale farmers, being sick means the inability to work on their farm, and ultimately can be fatal.</p>
 
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          <p>Along with the different materials gloves are made of, there are also different arm lengths. Some gloves are cut off just in front or around the wrist. While others can be up to and over the elbow and everywhere in between (Melco, 2016). The benefits of the shorter gloves is comfort, no bunching around wrist or elbow, and they can be quickly put on or removed. The benefits of the long gloves are more protection, the entire forearm will be covered. All the while there is less of a chance of getting debris in their gloves because the opening is farther away from what you are working with. Farmers can also work in deeper water or mud with the long rubber gloves without getting your hands wet.</p>
 
          <p>When working with smooth items such as hoes and some fruits and vegetables they can be slippery (Food and Agriculture Organization, 2016). A way to help farmer's hold on to the tools is to get gloves with grips (Melco, 2016). Both rubber and cloth gloves can have grips. Rubber gloves will have ridges in the molds to form grips and granular materials can be added to the outside before drying (Melco, 2016). Another option is to make the rubber gloves out of a non-slip rubber (Melco, 2016). Because cloth alone does not provide grip, cloth gloves must be dipped in liquid rubber to be able to grip smooth objects. The rubber used for grips on cloth gloves can either be non-slip smooth rubber or be rigid (Melco, 2016). </p>
 
<p>When working with smooth items such as hoes and some fruits and vegetables they can be slippery (Food and Agriculture Organization, 2016). A way to help farmer's hold on to the tools is to get gloves with grips (Melco, 2016). Both rubber and cloth gloves can have grips. Rubber gloves will have ridges in the molds to form grips and granular materials can be added to the outside before drying (Melco, 2016). Another option is to make the rubber gloves out of a non-slip rubber (Melco, 2016). Because cloth alone does not provide grip, cloth gloves must be dipped in liquid rubber to be able to grip smooth objects. The rubber used for grips on cloth gloves can either be non-slip smooth rubber or be rigid (Melco, 2016). </p>
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       <h1 class="title-bg">A potential solution</h1>
       <h1 class="title-bg">Physical Protection</h1>
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           <p>Protection is the main benefit from using gloves. Repetitive motions, such as when pounding grain, can cause irritation to the skin. When collecting firewood the sticks and logs can scratch or cut the skin (Food and Agriculture Organization, 2016). Weeds can be rough and by scratching their hands many times they can become cut and sore (Espasandín-Arias & Goossens, 2014). By lifting and pulling heavy items the top layer of your skin will separate from the next, causing a blister, by wearing gloves they now will prevent blistering because the glove will act as the top layer of skin and prevent the actual skin from separating (Schaffner, 2013).  Manure has a lot of bacteria in it which are harmful if they are swallow, so keeping them away from the hands used to eat with is very beneficial (Furlong, et al., 2015). If farmers are working with firewood or in construction the cloth gloves will work better because they are more durable (Food and Agriculture Organization, 2016). The disposable rubber gloves would be the worst to use in this scenario because they are so thin, stick to jobs were the main goals are to keep hands dry and dirt free when using disposable rubber gloves.</p>
           <p>A respirator is a device created to protect the wearer from inhaling hazardous particulates, materials carried in gases, vapors, fumes, airborne microorganisms, and dusts. The respirator filters out matter from entering into the mouth, esophagus and lungs through filters situated at the front of the breathing apparatus, while allowing the user to intake clean air (Sapbamrer et al., 2021). Respirators can protect farmers from intaking pesticides and thus help to prevent pesticide poisoning while also reducing the potential exposure to carcinogenic’s and other hazardous chemicals that can be found in unregulated pesticides (Sapbamrer et al., 2021). These apparatuses can be applied to the spaying of pesticides as well as but not limited to construction, the cleaning of farm equipment and cattle sheds.  Respirators can be re-used, and as such they can be shared throughout communities with proper coordination.</p>
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<p>On the market currently there are many different types of respirators but not all are able to protect from chemical compound exposure. N95. N99 and N100 are all not effective against chemical exposure, but rather they are used within the medical field for the prevention of the spread and intake of infectious diseases. The R95, R99, and R100 respirators, however, are effective at limiting chemical exposure but they only have a life span of 8 hours meaning they are not a cost effective long term solution. The respirators on the market that are both effective and reusable are the P95, P99, and P100 models, as such they are the ideal respirators for this solution.</p>
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       <h1 class="title-bg">Implementation and distribution of respirators </h1>
       <h1 style="background: #FBB03B;padding: 15px;font-weight: 600;color: #000;font-size: 22px;margin:unset;text-align:center;">Defense Against Moisture and Chemicals</h1>
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<p>There is innovation in the respirator industry in Africa due to Covid 19, although traditionally they have been poorly accessible within rural Africa (van der Merwe, 2021). This is to say that the potential to develop respirators locally and not rely on intercontinental shipments is now a potential option and could vastly cut down the overhead cost of development. Cross continental shipping fees can be expensive and also leave a larger margin for delays and problems. African countries that could have the capabilities of producing respirators domestically are Kenya, Madagascar, South Africa, and Egypt (van der Merwe, 2021). Using local distribution channels, it may be possible to get the products to rural farming villages. The best method of getting the product to the target consumers would be through local farm organizations as well as local markets.</p>  
          <p>Moisture blocking is a way gloves can prevent your skin from drying out and from getting too wet and dehydrating farmer's hands. By keeping the moisture from the hands inside the gloves they will prevent the skin from cracking and becoming infected (Schaffner, 2013). As well when working in wet conditions your hands can shrivel and become dehydrated if they are constantly in contact with water.</p>
<p>During the implementation process, someone locally respected with an understanding of how the respirators work to explain them to farmers would improve their adoption compared solely on textual facts. This could be a very good way to get women involved within the process so that they can be in the forefront. Such participatory initiatives also represent a good opportunity to involve women within the design, manufacturing and knowledge transfer processes – to ensure equipment is the appropriate size for example.</p>  
          <p>Pesticides can be absorbed by your skin and become harmful to the body, gloves provide an extra barrier to block them from entering in a farmer's body (Furlong, et al., 2015). Fertilizers such as nitrogen can also be caustic, and these are usually spread through broadcasting by hand. Mud can get under your nails and into cracked or cut skin and can infect a farmer's hands. Gloves will keep the mud out and keep hands clean. Both liquid pesticides and dry fertilizers can irritate skin if they come into contact with it (Kim, et al., 2013). Wearing the proper gloves, rubber ones in this case, can save their hands from becoming itchy (Keeble et al., 1996). Human skin can also absorb the pesticides which are harmful to your body, wearing gloves would prevent the pesticides from ever touching your skin.</p>
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       <h1 class="title-bg">Cost analysis </h1>
       <h1 class="title-bg">Wearable</h1>
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          <p>Comfortable gloves help farmer's work longer because their hands will not hurt from completing your task. Sizing is very important when finding comfortable gloves (Melco, 2016). Make sure gloves are the proper length and width, as not to restrict movement. There will be less pain from pulling weeds and they will be able to pull more weeds because they would not have to wait a long for the pain to subside between pulling each weed, because there will be no pain if wearing gloves (Food and Agriculture Organization, 2016). If farmer's find they are working hard and their hands start to sweat the gloves should be removed , dry your hands, and put on a new pair. Cloth gloves are more breathable then rubber ones, using them is another way to prevent hands from getting sweaty. The cloth gloves can also be softer and easier to clean, but are more restricting to movement due to their durability and tougher material. Since children will also be farming, smaller glove sizes can be found. Gloves are designed to fit a farmer's hand snugly, so children should not wear adult sized gloves when working. </p>
<p>The cost of a respirator can be broken down into two sub categories: the cost of the apparatus which takes into account manufacturing costs, and second, the cost of shipping/ delivering the product. The average price of a full face respirator can range from $11 - $19 (Alibaba, 2021) on the lower end of the price spectrum. Respirators are reusable and are in theory a one time expense, not including replacement filters. Replacement filters cost $1-2 per filter, plus shipping costs (Alibaba, 2021). The largest cost becomes the cost of replacement filters over time.</p>
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<p>Shipping costs can vary considerably. For example the cost of shipping 1 tonne per km along the route from Durban, South Africa to Lusaka in Zambia is $0.06 USD (Teravaninthorn, 2012), however from Douala (Cameroon) to N’djamena (Chad) is $0.11 USD (Teravaninthorn, 2012). The varying shipping and transport costs are higher within Africa compared to other parts of the world, but even within Africa the costs very because of variable fuel costs, age of fleet trucks (older trucks tend to have higher fuel consumption) and poor road conditions.</p>  
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       <h1 class="title-bg">Critical analysis</h1>
       <h1 class="title-bg">Constraints To Adoption</h1>
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          <p>Gloves are very useful to farmers, but there can still be some drawbacks. Possible culturable taboos might vary from location to location. Gloves might seem feminine and not easily adopted by men in the community. Gloves act as a second, tougher skin, but they are not a farmer's skin and can slide around while working. This may feel odd and uncomfortable but farmers can get used to the new feeling over time. Gloves can come in many colours and thicknesses, which may make a farmer's hands look funny or larger. Human skin is very stretchy and flexible, while glove materials tend to be tougher than skin and will reduce movement, but not enough to hinder work. Rubber gloves can stretch well, but make hands sweat, while cloth gloves are breathable but reduce dexterity.</p>
<p>The three main points where potential problems may arise is determining the cost of distribution, distribution constraints and the likelihood the product will be accepted. The major cost uncertainty is due to variation in the cost of freight; this could be offset by agricultural organizations or a sponsor company. Sending products out through hub points can be effective but the cost of shipping will still remain volatile and variable depending on the region. As far as distribution constraints, due to the poor roads and bridges, there may be long wait times. The speed of over land travel can range from anywhere to 25 to 50 kilometers per day in parts of Africa (Teravaninthorn, 2012). When analyzing the likelihood of whether or not respirators will be successful, we have to take into consideration the potential for their rejection which requires thoughtful training and implementation to improve their adoption by small scale farmers. Other reasons for issues with adopting respirators include the procedural changes required to use respirators, the associated discomfort of the masks (e.g. more sweat), the potential cost increase (include to change filters due dirt and sweat) and potential for fake PPE. With the recent COVID 19 pandemic, there has been an onslaught of fake PPE reaching the market at discounted rates, and as a result, consumers and users have a lack of trust in PPE and those who distribute it</p>  
          <p>Farmers can find gloves to use and get started from local vendors (European Commission For The Control Of Foot-And-Mouth Disease, 2016). Once you have completed your work for the day you can clean them are reuse them, or dispose of them if they were ripped or torn (Kim, et al., 2013). You can get gloves made of rubber and like materials as well as ones made of durable cloths. The thin rubber gloves tend to be made for a single use only. A trick that the European Commission For The Control Foot-And-Mouth Disease mentions that you can wear two pairs of rubber gloves at the same time for extra protection (European Commission For The Control Of Foot-And-Mouth Disease, 2016).</p>
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       <h1 class="title-bg">Conclusion</h1>
       <h1 class="title-bg">Helpful Links To Get Started </h1>
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          <p>Here are websites to find more information about how to obtain gloves:</p>
<p>In conclusion, the most efficient way of dealing with the health related issues caused by prolonged exposure to pesticides/fertilizers and their mishandling is to provide respirators to farmers within Africa as well as South Asia. The benefit to small scale farmers is the prevention of potentially fatal and avoidable illness which could take away from their ability to provide for their families.</p>
          <p>[https://www.alibaba.com/ Alibaba]</p>
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          <p>[https://www.indiamart.com/ Indiamart]</p>
          <p>[http://www.store.nzfarmsource.co.nz/ Store Nzfarmsource]</p>
          <p>[https://www.adenna.com Adenna]</p>
          <p>[https://www.farmcity.co.za/ Farmcity]</p>
          <p>[https://www.crazystore.co.za/ Crazystore]</p>
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      <h1 class="title-bg">Helpful links</h1>
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          <p>https://youtu.be/yBg2B2BP9nA
- Link to how to properly use the respirator and a breakdown of its individual part</p>


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<p>https://youtu.be/GLllZ-qiXJA
      <h1 class="title-bg">Usefull Images</h1>
- link to a brief history in the question do we really need pesticides</p>  
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                  <div class="fakeimg fakeimg-use">[[File:Imageaa.png]]</div>
                  <div class="fakeimg-name"><p>Figure 1</p></div>
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<p>https://youtu.be/kfgPR2yF8Cg
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- Link to PPE related to spraying pesticides</p>
                  <div class="fakeimg fakeimg-use">[[File:2.jpg]]</div>
                  <div class="fakeimg-name"><p>Figure 2</p></div>
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<p>https://youtu.be/TenRNA_usxA
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- link to how to spray pesticides to prevent backsplash with the knapsack sprayers</p>
                  <div class="fakeimg fakeimg-use">[[File:3.jpg]]</div>
                  <div class="fakeimg-name"><p>Figure 3</p></div>
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<p>https://youtu.be/aooaY6mttPE
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- link how to mix and load your pesticide sprayers</p>
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                  <div class="fakeimg fakeimg-use">[[File:4.jpg]]</div>
                  <div class="fakeimg-name"><p>Figure 4</p></div>
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<p>https://youtu.be/Ln_Lp-liMoE
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- link to how to properly use pesticide sprayers</p>
                  <div class="fakeimg fakeimg-use">[[File:5.jpg]]</div>
                  <div class="fakeimg-name"><p>Figure 5</p></div>
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<p>https://www.alibaba.com/product-detail/3M-6200-2091cn-P100-Grade-Particulate_62525995333.html
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- link to acceptable respirator though wholesale</p>
                  <div class="fakeimg fakeimg-use">[[File:6.jpg]]</div>
                  <div class="fakeimg-name"><p>Figure 6</p></div>
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       <h1 class="title-bg">References</h1>
       <h1 class="title-bg">References</h1>
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           <p>Espasandín-Arias, M., & Goossens, A. (2014). Natural rubber gloves might not protect against skin penetration of methylisothiazolinone. Contact Dermatitis, 70(4), 249-251. doi:10.1111/cod.12221</p>
           <p>1. Alibaba (2021) Full Face Respirators-Full Face Respirators Manufacturers, Suppliers and Exporters on Alibaba.comWelding Helmets. Alibaba. https://www.alibaba.com/trade/search?fsb=y&IndexArea=product_en&CatId=&SearchText=FULL+FACE+RESPORATORS&viewtype=&tab=\</p>
          <p>European Commission For The Control Of Foot-And-Mouth Disease. Suggested FMD PPE guidelines - Food and Agriculture, (2016)  
<p>2. Boedeker, W. Watts, M., Clausing, P. and Marquez, E. 2020 The Global Distribution of Acute Unintentional Pesticide Poisoning: Estimations Based on a Systematic Review. BMC Public Health 20, 1875, https://bmcpublichealth.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12889-020-09939-0/tables/8.</p>
          Food and Agriculture Organization. Rural women in household production: Increasing contributions and persisting drudgery. (2016).
<p>3. ChemSafetyPro (2016) Definition of Toxicological Dose Descriptors (LD50, LC50, EC50, NOAEL, LOAEL, etc). http://www.chemsafetypro.com/Topics/CRA/Toxicology_Dose_Descriptors.html</p>
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<p>4. Government of British Columbia (2016) Pesticide Toxicity and Hazard - Gov.bc.ca. https://www2.gov.bc.ca/assets/gov/farming-natural-resources-and-industry/agriculture-and-seafood/animal-and-crops/plant-health/pesticide-toxicity-hazard.pdf?bcgovtm=2free</p>
          <p>Furlong, M., Tanner, C. M., Goldman, S. M., Bhudhikanok, G. S., Blair, A., Chade, A., . . . Kamel, F. (2015). Protective glove use and hygiene habits modify the associations of specific pesticides with Parkinson's disease. Environment International, 75, 144-150. doi:10.1016/j.envint.2014.11.002</p>
<p>5. Government of Canada (2021) Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety. Pesticides - Health Effects: Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety, 29 Sept. 2021, https://www.ccohs.ca/oshanswers/chemicals/pesticides/health_effects.html</p>
          <p>Keeble, V. B., Correll, L., & Ehrich, M. (1996). Effect of Laundering on Ability of Glove Fabrics to Decrease the Penetration of Organophosphate Insecticides Through in vitro Epidermal Systems. J. Appl. Toxicol. Journal of Applied Toxicology, 16(5), 401-406. doi:10.1002/(sici)1099-1263(199609)16:53.3.co;2-6</p>
<p>6. O’Malley, G. F., & O’Malley, R. (2021). Insecticide Poisoning. Merck Manual Consumer Version. Merck, Grand strand, Calgary  https://www.merckmanuals.com/en-ca/home/injuries-and-poisoning/poisoning/insecticide-poisoning</p>
          <p>Kim, J., Kim, J., Cha, E., Ko, Y., Kim, D., & Lee, W. (2013). Work-Related Risk Factors by Severity for Acute Pesticide Poisoning Among Male Farmers in South Korea. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 10(3), 1100-1112. doi:10.3390/ijerph10031100</p>
<p>7. Sapbamrer, R., Hongsibsong, S., Naksata, M., & Naksata, W. (2021). Insecticide Filtration Efficiency of Respiratory Protective Equipment Commonly Worn by Farmers in Thailand. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(5), 2624. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18052624</p>
          <p>Melco, M. (2016). Gardening Gloves. Retrieved from [http://garden.lovetoknow.com/wiki/Gardening_Gloves Garden Lovetoknow]</p>
<p>8. Teravaninthorn, S. (2012). Transport Prices and Costs in Africa: A Review of the International Corridors. World Bank, Washington, D.C. Https://Openknowledge.Worldbank.Org/Handle/10986/6610. https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/6610</p>
          <p>Schaffner, A. D. (2013). Minimizing Surgical Skin Incision Scars with a Latex Surgical Glove. Aesthetic Plastic Surgery, 37(2), 463-463. doi:10.1007/s00266-013-0071-y</p>
<p>9. van der Merwe, C. (2021). South Africa’s ventilator project shows value of basic research. Research Professional News, South Africa. https://researchprofessionalnews.com/rr-news-africa-south-2021-6-south-africa-s-ventilator-project-shows-value-of-basic-research/</p>
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Latest revision as of 19:28, 27 June 2022

7.2 -Evaluating the use of respirators for small scale farmers to protect them from pesticide sprays


Cassandra Pedersen, University of Guelph, Canada

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Suggested citation for this chapter.

Pedersen,C. (2022) Evaluating the use of respirators for small scale farmers to protect them from pesticide sprays, The Encyclopedia for Small Scale Farmers. Editor, M.N. Raizada, University of Guelph, Canada. http://www.farmpedia.org

An introduction to the health risks around fertilizers

Fertilizers and pesticides can be beneficial for small scale agriculture. However, without the use proper equipment they can have negative ramifications. There are approximately 55,895,916 cases of non fatal pesticide poisoning reported annually within the continent of Africa (Boedeker et al. 2020). Annually approximately 130 people are reported to perish from pesticide poisoning in this region (Boedeker et al. 2020). Without intervention, these numbers are projected to grow.

The toxicity of pesticides varies vastly relative to the chemicals used in each product. LD 50 is the legal medical dose required to kill half the tested population (ChemiSafetyPro, 2016). In essence, the smaller the proportion of LD50 the more toxic it is to the handlers. To put this into context, on average, a mixture of less then 50 mg of agent per kg of dilutant can kill a 155 lb person though 0.3 – 3 ml of oral consumption (Government of British Columbia, 2018). Signs and symptoms of mild pesticide poisoning include: headache, fatigue, blurred vision, loss of appetite with nausea, stomach cramps, diarrhea, blurred vision associated with excessive tearing, excessive sweating and salivation, and slowed heartbeat often less than 50 beats per minute (O’Malley and O’Malley, 2021). In moderate to more severe cases individuals are unable to walk and will complain of chest discomfort and tightness muscle twitching, involuntary urination and bowel movements, seizures and unconsciousness (O’Malley and O’Malley, 2021).

Measures can be taken to prevent the oral consumption of droplet particles as well as aerosolized exposure to pesticides and fertilizers. For small scale farmers, being sick means the inability to work on their farm, and ultimately can be fatal.

A potential solution

A respirator is a device created to protect the wearer from inhaling hazardous particulates, materials carried in gases, vapors, fumes, airborne microorganisms, and dusts. The respirator filters out matter from entering into the mouth, esophagus and lungs through filters situated at the front of the breathing apparatus, while allowing the user to intake clean air (Sapbamrer et al., 2021). Respirators can protect farmers from intaking pesticides and thus help to prevent pesticide poisoning while also reducing the potential exposure to carcinogenic’s and other hazardous chemicals that can be found in unregulated pesticides (Sapbamrer et al., 2021). These apparatuses can be applied to the spaying of pesticides as well as but not limited to construction, the cleaning of farm equipment and cattle sheds. Respirators can be re-used, and as such they can be shared throughout communities with proper coordination.

On the market currently there are many different types of respirators but not all are able to protect from chemical compound exposure. N95. N99 and N100 are all not effective against chemical exposure, but rather they are used within the medical field for the prevention of the spread and intake of infectious diseases. The R95, R99, and R100 respirators, however, are effective at limiting chemical exposure but they only have a life span of 8 hours meaning they are not a cost effective long term solution. The respirators on the market that are both effective and reusable are the P95, P99, and P100 models, as such they are the ideal respirators for this solution.

Implementation and distribution of respirators

There is innovation in the respirator industry in Africa due to Covid 19, although traditionally they have been poorly accessible within rural Africa (van der Merwe, 2021). This is to say that the potential to develop respirators locally and not rely on intercontinental shipments is now a potential option and could vastly cut down the overhead cost of development. Cross continental shipping fees can be expensive and also leave a larger margin for delays and problems. African countries that could have the capabilities of producing respirators domestically are Kenya, Madagascar, South Africa, and Egypt (van der Merwe, 2021). Using local distribution channels, it may be possible to get the products to rural farming villages. The best method of getting the product to the target consumers would be through local farm organizations as well as local markets.

During the implementation process, someone locally respected with an understanding of how the respirators work to explain them to farmers would improve their adoption compared solely on textual facts. This could be a very good way to get women involved within the process so that they can be in the forefront. Such participatory initiatives also represent a good opportunity to involve women within the design, manufacturing and knowledge transfer processes – to ensure equipment is the appropriate size for example.

Cost analysis

The cost of a respirator can be broken down into two sub categories: the cost of the apparatus which takes into account manufacturing costs, and second, the cost of shipping/ delivering the product. The average price of a full face respirator can range from $11 - $19 (Alibaba, 2021) on the lower end of the price spectrum. Respirators are reusable and are in theory a one time expense, not including replacement filters. Replacement filters cost $1-2 per filter, plus shipping costs (Alibaba, 2021). The largest cost becomes the cost of replacement filters over time.

Shipping costs can vary considerably. For example the cost of shipping 1 tonne per km along the route from Durban, South Africa to Lusaka in Zambia is $0.06 USD (Teravaninthorn, 2012), however from Douala (Cameroon) to N’djamena (Chad) is $0.11 USD (Teravaninthorn, 2012). The varying shipping and transport costs are higher within Africa compared to other parts of the world, but even within Africa the costs very because of variable fuel costs, age of fleet trucks (older trucks tend to have higher fuel consumption) and poor road conditions.

Critical analysis

The three main points where potential problems may arise is determining the cost of distribution, distribution constraints and the likelihood the product will be accepted. The major cost uncertainty is due to variation in the cost of freight; this could be offset by agricultural organizations or a sponsor company. Sending products out through hub points can be effective but the cost of shipping will still remain volatile and variable depending on the region. As far as distribution constraints, due to the poor roads and bridges, there may be long wait times. The speed of over land travel can range from anywhere to 25 to 50 kilometers per day in parts of Africa (Teravaninthorn, 2012). When analyzing the likelihood of whether or not respirators will be successful, we have to take into consideration the potential for their rejection which requires thoughtful training and implementation to improve their adoption by small scale farmers. Other reasons for issues with adopting respirators include the procedural changes required to use respirators, the associated discomfort of the masks (e.g. more sweat), the potential cost increase (include to change filters due dirt and sweat) and potential for fake PPE. With the recent COVID 19 pandemic, there has been an onslaught of fake PPE reaching the market at discounted rates, and as a result, consumers and users have a lack of trust in PPE and those who distribute it

Conclusion

In conclusion, the most efficient way of dealing with the health related issues caused by prolonged exposure to pesticides/fertilizers and their mishandling is to provide respirators to farmers within Africa as well as South Asia. The benefit to small scale farmers is the prevention of potentially fatal and avoidable illness which could take away from their ability to provide for their families.

Helpful links

https://youtu.be/yBg2B2BP9nA - Link to how to properly use the respirator and a breakdown of its individual part

https://youtu.be/GLllZ-qiXJA - link to a brief history in the question do we really need pesticides

https://youtu.be/kfgPR2yF8Cg - Link to PPE related to spraying pesticides

https://youtu.be/TenRNA_usxA - link to how to spray pesticides to prevent backsplash with the knapsack sprayers

https://youtu.be/aooaY6mttPE - link how to mix and load your pesticide sprayers

https://youtu.be/Ln_Lp-liMoE - link to how to properly use pesticide sprayers

https://www.alibaba.com/product-detail/3M-6200-2091cn-P100-Grade-Particulate_62525995333.html - link to acceptable respirator though wholesale

References

1. Alibaba (2021) Full Face Respirators-Full Face Respirators Manufacturers, Suppliers and Exporters on Alibaba.comWelding Helmets. Alibaba. https://www.alibaba.com/trade/search?fsb=y&IndexArea=product_en&CatId=&SearchText=FULL+FACE+RESPORATORS&viewtype=&tab=\

2. Boedeker, W. Watts, M., Clausing, P. and Marquez, E. 2020 The Global Distribution of Acute Unintentional Pesticide Poisoning: Estimations Based on a Systematic Review. BMC Public Health 20, 1875, https://bmcpublichealth.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12889-020-09939-0/tables/8.

3. ChemSafetyPro (2016) Definition of Toxicological Dose Descriptors (LD50, LC50, EC50, NOAEL, LOAEL, etc). http://www.chemsafetypro.com/Topics/CRA/Toxicology_Dose_Descriptors.html

4. Government of British Columbia (2016) Pesticide Toxicity and Hazard - Gov.bc.ca. https://www2.gov.bc.ca/assets/gov/farming-natural-resources-and-industry/agriculture-and-seafood/animal-and-crops/plant-health/pesticide-toxicity-hazard.pdf?bcgovtm=2free

5. Government of Canada (2021) Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety. Pesticides - Health Effects: Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety, 29 Sept. 2021, https://www.ccohs.ca/oshanswers/chemicals/pesticides/health_effects.html

6. O’Malley, G. F., & O’Malley, R. (2021). Insecticide Poisoning. Merck Manual Consumer Version. Merck, Grand strand, Calgary https://www.merckmanuals.com/en-ca/home/injuries-and-poisoning/poisoning/insecticide-poisoning

7. Sapbamrer, R., Hongsibsong, S., Naksata, M., & Naksata, W. (2021). Insecticide Filtration Efficiency of Respiratory Protective Equipment Commonly Worn by Farmers in Thailand. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(5), 2624. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18052624

8. Teravaninthorn, S. (2012). Transport Prices and Costs in Africa: A Review of the International Corridors. World Bank, Washington, D.C. Https://Openknowledge.Worldbank.Org/Handle/10986/6610. https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/6610

9. van der Merwe, C. (2021). South Africa’s ventilator project shows value of basic research. Research Professional News, South Africa. https://researchprofessionalnews.com/rr-news-africa-south-2021-6-south-africa-s-ventilator-project-shows-value-of-basic-research/

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