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  <div class="title"><h1>4.10 - Livestock sheds and collecting urine to add to manure</h1><br><h3 class="ch-owner">Mitchell van Schepen, University of Guelph, Canada</h3></div>
  <div class="title"><h3>4.10 - Livestock sheds and collecting urine to add to manure</h3><br><h3 class="ch-owner">Jaime Selinger, University of Guelph, Canada</h3></div>
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<p><i>Source:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Compost_site_germany.JPG</i></p>
 
<p><b>Related video(s)</b>: Human urine as fertilizer, Manure shed (English translation)(Source: Access Agriculture, SAK Global)</p>
<p><i> https://www.accessagriculture.org/human-urine-fertilizer?cat_id=1499</i></p>
<p><i> https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tb3hH4Ma45k</i></p>
 
<p>Suggested citation for this chapter.</p>
<p>Selinger,J. (2022) Livestock sheds and collecting urine to add to manure. In Farmpedia, The Encyclopedia for Small Scale Farmers. Editor, M.N. Raizada, University of Guelph, Canada. http://www.farmpedia.org</p>
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       <h3 class="title-bg">Background</h3>
       <h1 class="title-bg">Introduction</h1>
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           <p>The world’s 1 billion women and girls participating in subsistence farming pull weeds by hand to improve their crops and also collect firewood for cooking, resulting in their hands becoming rough and sore (Figure 1). This can be caused by wood splinters being lodged into their skin (Schaffner, 2013). Pulling weeds for hours on end can peel away layers of skin (Food and Agriculture Organization, 2016). The hands of those farmers can also become dirty and smelly from planting seeds in the soil or spreading manure by hand. To avoid the common aforementioned problems as well as hand injuries, such as cuts and scrapes, they could wear gloves on their hands, see the second picture, (Schaffner, 2013). Gloves are very common in the modern world and can be used for construction, farming, and medical practices. Gloves provide a durable layer between the skin on your hands and whatever you are working with (Espasandín-Arias & Goossens, 2014). There are a few different materials used to make gloves, along with different sizes and grips. With over one billion women and girls working on farms around the world, this grueling work can be made safer and more efficient when wearing gloves.</p>
           <p>The soils of smallholder farmers often lack the proper amount of nitrogen, phosphate and potassium which are essential for healthy and bountiful growth of crops. Urine collected from livestock and humans is very rich in nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium which is important for plant growth. A family of four can produce the equivalent of a 50 kg bag of NPK fertilizer from urine alone every year (Feineigle 2011). This urine has a 10:1:4 ratio of NPK which is a higher nitrogen content than many mineral fertilizers (Feineigle 2011). Humans produce roughly 500 litres of urine and 50 litres of faeces per person per year (Caldwell & Rosemarin 2014). These contain about 4 kg of nitrogen, 0.5 kg of phosphorous and 1 kg of potassium, the three basic elements for plant growth. The exact amount varies from region to region depending on food intake. Seventy per cent of the nutrients excreted by humans are in the urine fraction (Caldwell & Rosemarin 2014). Livestock consumption of leguminous fodder such as Acacia, Calliandra and Erythrina can increase the nitrogen content of their urine (Devendra 1992). </p>
 
          <p>Rubber and cloth are the two main kinds of gloves produced (Melco, 2016). They both have their own benefits and drawbacks respectively. A benefit from rubber gloves is their ability to resist water from coming in contact with a farmer's skin, see part two, (Espasandín-Arias & Goossens, 2014). While cloth gloves can be beneficial because they can draw moisture away from their hands and can be easily washed to be cleaned. Because rubber gloves are usually meant to be disposed of after single use they tend to be cheaper to make and thus cheaper to buy. Yet some rubber gloves can be made thicker to reuse and are slightly more durable (Melco, 2016). Cloth gloves are designed to be washed after being used and last a long time under normal working conditions.</p>


           <p>Along with the different materials gloves are made of, there are also different arm lengths. Some gloves are cut off just in front or around the wrist. While others can be up to and over the elbow and everywhere in between (Melco, 2016). The benefits of the shorter gloves is comfort, no bunching around wrist or elbow, and they can be quickly put on or removed. The benefits of the long gloves are more protection, the entire forearm will be covered. All the while there is less of a chance of getting debris in their gloves because the opening is farther away from what you are working with. Farmers can also work in deeper water or mud with the long rubber gloves without getting your hands wet.</p>
           <p>Since the most prominent nutrient found in urine is nitrogen, it is important to have balanced nitrogen levels in urine that is mixed with manure and to balance urine addition with other nutrients required for plant growth. The importance of nitrogen to plant growth is outlined in Chapter 1.4 – Balanced Fertilization. Using urine as a way to enrich manure is a more cost-effective substitute for fertilizer. </p>


           <p>When working with smooth items such as hoes and some fruits and vegetables they can be slippery (Food and Agriculture Organization, 2016). A way to help farmer's hold on to the tools is to get gloves with grips (Melco, 2016). Both rubber and cloth gloves can have grips. Rubber gloves will have ridges in the molds to form grips and granular materials can be added to the outside before drying (Melco, 2016). Another option is to make the rubber gloves out of a non-slip rubber (Melco, 2016). Because cloth alone does not provide grip, cloth gloves must be dipped in liquid rubber to be able to grip smooth objects. The rubber used for grips on cloth gloves can either be non-slip smooth rubber or be rigid (Melco, 2016). </p>
           <p>In areas where there is not as much livestock, human urine can also be added to crops as noted above. Akpan et al. (2012) recently demonstrated that human urine is strongly alkaline and contains a moderate amount of nutrients (N, P, K, Mg, Ca and Na). Application of either urine or inorganic fertilizer significantly (P<0.05) increased plant nutrient uptake compared with the control (Akpan-Idiok et al. 2012). Human or livestock urine can also be used directly in home gardens.</p>
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       <h3 class="title-bg">Physical Protection</h3>
       <h3 class="title-bg">How the practice is conducted</h3>
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           <p>Protection is the main benefit from using gloves. Repetitive motions, such as when pounding grain, can cause irritation to the skin. When collecting firewood the sticks and logs can scratch or cut the skin (Food and Agriculture Organization, 2016). Weeds can be rough and by scratching their hands many times they can become cut and sore (Espasandín-Arias & Goossens, 2014). By lifting and pulling heavy items the top layer of your skin will separate from the next, causing a blister, by wearing gloves they now will prevent blistering because the glove will act as the top layer of skin and prevent the actual skin from separating (Schaffner, 2013). Manure has a lot of bacteria in it which are harmful if they are swallow, so keeping them away from the hands used to eat with is very beneficial (Furlong, et al., 2015). If farmers are working with firewood or in construction the cloth gloves will work better because they are more durable (Food and Agriculture Organization, 2016). The disposable rubber gloves would be the worst to use in this scenario because they are so thin, stick to jobs were the main goals are to keep hands dry and dirt free when using disposable rubber gloves.</p>
           <p>Urine can be collected from livestock using a concrete floor that is sloped toward a PVC pipe that empties into a manure pit. This pipe leads to a pit or inside a mud/stone wall where it is stored. The mixture is then transferred from the storage area and spread along the soil where the crops are to grow. An alternative to this process is that the urine pipe leads to a storage drum from which urine can be added to the manure. These practices require time and effort from the household. Building a concrete floor with a slope towards a PVC pipe would cost a total of $12 USD in materials and would require up to 3 days of construction labour (Sustainable Soil Management Programme 2007). A smallholder farmer can undertake this labour, but it requires specialized knowledge and training (e.g. how to mix concrete). The construction of this can be done by digging a manure pi within the livestock shed in which the urine will be emptied into (SSMP 2007). Then, the smallholder farmer will have to make a floor at the bottom of the shed where the urine will be collected out of a compact of soil or clay, or cement if they are able to afford it (SSMP 2007). Other costs for this would be a collection devise for the urine after it is disposed into the manure pit (SSMP 2007). </p>
<p>There is an easier alternative to collecting urine from livestock, specifically by penning the livestock in a certain area where crops will grow prior to planting so that their urine and feces will directly mix with the soil (Bedford et al. 2016). The animals are able to graze the land and release urine and feces and are able to comfortably move around the land rather than be restricted (Bedford et al. 2016). This process requires little labour on the part of the farming household.</p>
<p>The urine of the livestock is collected within the livestock shed. It is suggested that the livestock shed be created out of fabric as it provides more ventilation and filtration for sheds in hot climates and is more cost-effective for smallholder farmers and industrial farmers alike (Megadome Buildings 2016). As resources are sometimes limited for smallholder farmers, the fabric livestock shed will work as long as they have constructed a proper concrete floor and slope towards the manure pit.</p>
<p>This is not a new concept and has been utilized by many smallholder farmers. In a study conducted by Powell & Williams (1996) in the West African Sahel, the yield was compared over the course of six years using urine from livestock as fertilizer compared to chemical fertilizer. The authors found that there was a 52% increase in yields within the first year of the study (Powell & Williams 1996). </p>
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       <h3 class="title-bg">Ammonia Emissions</h3>
      <h3 style="background: #FBB03B;padding: 15px;font-weight: 600;color: #000;font-size: 22px;margin:unset;text-align:center;">Defense Against Moisture and Chemicals</h3>
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          <p>Moisture blocking is a way gloves can prevent your skin from drying out and from getting too wet and dehydrating farmer's hands. By keeping the moisture from the hands inside the gloves they will prevent the skin from cracking and becoming infected (Schaffner, 2013). As well when working in wet conditions your hands can shrivel and become dehydrated if they are constantly in contact with water.</p>
          <p>Pesticides can be absorbed by your skin and become harmful to the body, gloves provide an extra barrier to block them from entering in a farmer's body (Furlong, et al., 2015). Fertilizers such as nitrogen can also be caustic, and these are usually spread through broadcasting by hand. Mud can get under your nails and into cracked or cut skin and can infect a farmer's hands. Gloves will keep the mud out and keep hands clean. Both liquid pesticides and dry fertilizers can irritate skin if they come into contact with it (Kim, et al., 2013). Wearing the proper gloves, rubber ones in this case, can save their hands from becoming itchy (Keeble et al., 1996). Human skin can also absorb the pesticides which are harmful to your body, wearing gloves would prevent the pesticides from ever touching your skin.</p>
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       <h3 class="title-bg">Wearable</h3>
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           <p>Comfortable gloves help farmer's work longer because their hands will not hurt from completing your task. Sizing is very important when finding comfortable gloves (Melco, 2016). Make sure gloves are the proper length and width, as not to restrict movement. There will be less pain from pulling weeds and they will be able to pull more weeds because they would not have to wait a long for the pain to subside between pulling each weed, because there will be no pain if wearing gloves (Food and Agriculture Organization, 2016). If farmer's find they are working hard and their hands start to sweat the gloves should be removed , dry your hands, and put on a new pair. Cloth gloves are more breathable then rubber ones, using them is another way to prevent hands from getting sweaty. The cloth gloves can also be softer and easier to clean, but are more restricting to movement due to their durability and tougher material. Since children will also be farming, smaller glove sizes can be found. Gloves are designed to fit a farmer's hand snugly, so children should not wear adult sized gloves when working. </p>
           <p>Ammonia emission is one of the greatest environmental threats from farms (Fangmeier et al. 1994). This is an increasingly destructive threat since ammonia released into the air can affect the crops in the surrounding area as well as the possibility of ammonium contamination into groundwater and river/lake water (Fangmeier et al. 1994). Livestock urine can lead to ammonia losses. It is necessary to mix liquid and solid manures to reduce ammonia emissions (Sommer & Hutchings 2001). Due to ammonia emissions being linked to global warming and climate change, it is necessary to change the diet of livestock and add the required nutrients to soil to reduce these ammonia emissions (Fangmeier et al. 1994). It is important for livestock to be fed a well-balanced diet, including carbohydrate rich foods as it balances out the nitrogen and reduces ammonia emission into the air. Addition of fermentable carbohydrates, such as bran or pulp, into grow-finishing diets, resulted in a 14% reduction of ammonia emission for each percentage increase in carbohydrate (Powers 2004). </p>
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       <h1 class="title-bg">Picture Based Lesson to Train Farmers</h1>
       <h3 class="title-bg">Constraints To Adoption</h3>
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          <p>Gloves are very useful to farmers, but there can still be some drawbacks. Possible culturable taboos might vary from location to location. Gloves might seem feminine and not easily adopted by men in the community. Gloves act as a second, tougher skin, but they are not a farmer's skin and can slide around while working. This may feel odd and uncomfortable but farmers can get used to the new feeling over time. Gloves can come in many colours and thicknesses, which may make a farmer's hands look funny or larger. Human skin is very stretchy and flexible, while glove materials tend to be tougher than skin and will reduce movement, but not enough to hinder work. Rubber gloves can stretch well, but make hands sweat, while cloth gloves are breathable but reduce dexterity.</p>
[[Image:5.10a page-0001.jpg|thumb|centre|Picture Based Lesson to Train Farmer|Click on the image to access a higher resolution image as well as lessons adapted for different geographic regions.]]</p>
          <p>Farmers can find gloves to use and get started from local vendors (European Commission For The Control Of Foot-And-Mouth Disease, 2016). Once you have completed your work for the day you can clean them are reuse them, or dispose of them if they were ripped or torn (Kim, et al., 2013). You can get gloves made of rubber and like materials as well as ones made of durable cloths. The thin rubber gloves tend to be made for a single use only. A trick that the European Commission For The Control Foot-And-Mouth Disease mentions that you can wear two pairs of rubber gloves at the same time for extra protection (European Commission For The Control Of Foot-And-Mouth Disease, 2016).</p>
<p><i>For the South Asian version (pictures only, text for you to insert), click this link for lesson 5.12:http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/5.12_south_asian.pdf</i></p>
<p><i>For the East/South Asian version (pictures only, text for you to insert), click this link for lesson 5.12:http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/5.12e.s.a.pdf</i></p>
<p><i>For the Sub-Saharan Africa/Caribbean version (pictures only, text for you to insert), click this link for lesson 5.12:http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/5.12subsaharan_africa_carribean.pdf</i></p>
<p><i>For the Latin-America version (pictures only, text for you to insert), click this link for lesson 5.12:http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/5.12latin_america.pdf</i></p>
<p><i>For North Africa And Middle East version (pictures only, text for you to insert), click this link for lesson Chapter 5. 4.11:http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/4.11n._africa_middleeast.pdf</i></p>
<p><i>Source: MN Raizada and L Smith (2016) A Picture Book of Best Practices for Subsistence Farmers. eBook, University of Guelph Sustainable Agriculture Kit (SAK) Project, June 2016, Guelph, Canada.</i></p>
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       <h3 class="title-bg">Helpful Links To Get Started </h3>
       <h3 class="title-bg">Helpful Links</h3>
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           <p>Here are websites to find more information about how to obtain gloves:</p>
           <p>To learn more about the benefits and challenges of using human urine to improve agriculture, follow this link:</p>
           <p>[https://www.alibaba.com/ Alibaba]</p>
           <p>http://voices.nationalgeographic.com/2013/04/10/human-pee-added-to-compost-boosts-crops/]</p>
           <p>[https://www.indiamart.com/ Indiamart]</p>
           <p>http://permaculturenews.org/2011/11/27/urine-closing-the-npk-loop/</p>
           <p>[http://www.store.nzfarmsource.co.nz/ Store Nzfarmsource]</p>
           <p>http://modernfarmer.com/2014/01/human-pee-proven-fertilizer-future/</p>
           <p>[https://www.adenna.com Adenna]</p>
           <p>http://www.gardeningknowhow.com/garden-how-to/soil-fertilizers/feeding-plants-with-urine.htm</p>
          <p>[https://www.farmcity.co.za/ Farmcity]</p>
           <p>Refer to SAK Picture Book Lesson 5.10a and 5.10b p. 54-55 for step by step picture instructions</p>
           <p>[https://www.crazystore.co.za/ Crazystore]</p>
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      <h3 class="title-bg">Usefull Images</h3>
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       <h3 class="title-bg">References</h3>
       <h3 class="title-bg">References</h3>
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           <p>Espasandín-Arias, M., & Goossens, A. (2014). Natural rubber gloves might not protect against skin penetration of methylisothiazolinone. Contact Dermatitis, 70(4), 249-251. doi:10.1111/cod.12221</p>
           <p>1.Agriculture and Forestry. (2006).  Applying Manure on Perennial Forage. Agriculture and Forestry. http://www1.agric.gov.ab.ca/$department/deptdocs.nsf/all/agdex10727</p>
           <p>European Commission For The Control Of Foot-And-Mouth Disease. Suggested FMD PPE guidelines - Food and Agriculture, (2016)  
          <p>2.Akpan-Idiok, A.U., Udo, I.A., & Braide, E.I. (2012). The use of human urine as an organic fertilizer in the production of okra (Abelmoschus esculentus) in South Eastern Nigeria. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 62, 14-20. doi:10.1016/j.resconrec.2012.02.003.</p>
           Food and Agriculture Organization. Rural women in household production: Increasing contributions and persisting drudgery. (2016).
           <p>3.Andersson, E., (2015). Turning waste into value: using human urine to enrich soils for sustainable food production in Uganda. Journal of Cleaner Production, 96, 290-298. doi: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2014.01.070.</p>
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           <p>4.Arnold, C., (2013). Human Pee Added to Compost Boosts Crops. National Geographic. http://voices.nationalgeographic.com/2013/04/10/human-pee-added-to-compost-boosts-crops/</p>
           <p>Furlong, M., Tanner, C. M., Goldman, S. M., Bhudhikanok, G. S., Blair, A., Chade, A., . . . Kamel, F. (2015). Protective glove use and hygiene habits modify the associations of specific pesticides with Parkinson's disease. Environment International, 75, 144-150. doi:10.1016/j.envint.2014.11.002</p>
           <p>5.Bedford, M. R., Choct, M., & O'Neill, H. M. (2016). Nutrition Experiments in Pigs and Poultry: A Practical Guide. CABI.</p>
           <p>Keeble, V. B., Correll, L., & Ehrich, M. (1996). Effect of Laundering on Ability of Glove Fabrics to Decrease the Penetration of Organophosphate Insecticides Through in vitro Epidermal Systems. J. Appl. Toxicol. Journal of Applied Toxicology, 16(5), 401-406. doi:10.1002/(sici)1099-1263(199609)16:53.3.co;2-6</p>
          <p>6.Bishwakarma, B.K., Dahal, N.R., Allen, R., Rajbhandari, N.P., Dhital, B.K., Gurung, D.B., Bajracharya, R.M., & Baillie, I.C. (2015). Effects of improved management and quality of farmyard manure on soil organic carbon contents in small-holder farming systems of the Middle Hills of Nepal. Climate and Development, 7(5), 426-436. doi: 10.1080/17565529.2014.966045</p>
          <p>Kim, J., Kim, J., Cha, E., Ko, Y., Kim, D., & Lee, W. (2013). Work-Related Risk Factors by Severity for Acute Pesticide Poisoning Among Male Farmers in South Korea. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 10(3), 1100-1112. doi:10.3390/ijerph10031100</p>
          <p>7.Caldwell, I. & Rosemarin, A. (2014). Human urine and faeces as a fertilizer. Stockholm Environment Institute. </p>
          <p>Melco, M. (2016). Gardening Gloves. Retrieved from [http://garden.lovetoknow.com/wiki/Gardening_Gloves Garden Lovetoknow]</p>
          <p>8.Devendra, C. (1992). Nutritional potential of fodder trees and shrubs as protein sources in ruminant nutrition. Legume trees and other fodder trees as protein sources for livestock, 100, 95-113.</p>
          <p>Schaffner, A. D. (2013). Minimizing Surgical Skin Incision Scars with a Latex Surgical Glove. Aesthetic Plastic Surgery, 37(2), 463-463. doi:10.1007/s00266-013-0071-y</p>
           <p>9.De Vries, J.W., Aarnink, A.J.A., Groot Koerkamp, P.W.G., & De Boer, I.J.M. (2013). Life Cycle Assessment of Segregating Fattening Pig Urine and Feces Compared to Conventional Liquid Manure Management. Environmental Science & Technology, 47, 1587-1597. doi: 10.1021/es302951a</p>
        <p>10.Fangmeier, A., Hadwiger-Fangmeier, A., Van der Eerden, L., & Jäger, H-J. (1994). Effects of atmospheric ammonia on vegetation – A review. Environmental Pollution, 86(1), 43-82.</p>
<p>11.Feineigle, M. (2011). Urine: Closing the NPK Loop. Permaculture Research Institute.
http://permaculturenews.org/2011/11/27/urine-closing-the-npk-loop/</p>
<p>12.Jana, B.B., Bag, S.K., & Rana, S. (2012). Comparative evaluation of the fertilizer value of human urine, cow manure and their mix for the production of carp fingerlings in small holding tanks. Aquaculture International, 20, 735-749. doi: 10.1007/s10499-012-9500-1.</p>
<p>13.Powell, J. M., & Williams, T. O. (1993). Livestock, nutrient cycling and sustainable agriculture in the West African Sahel. Sustainable Agriculture Programme, International Institute for Environment and Development, 37.</p>
<p>14.Powers, W. (2004). Practices to reduce ammonia emissions from livestock operations.
Rees, R.M., Baddeley, J.A., Bhogal, A., Ball, B.C., Chadwick, D.R., MacLeod, M., Lilly, A., Pappa, V.A., Thorman, R.E., Watson, C.A., & Williams, J.R. (2013). Nitrous oxide mitigation in UK agriculture. Soil Science and Plant Nutrition, 59, 3-15. doi: 10.1080/00380768.2012.733869.</p>
<p>15.Sommer, S.G., & Hutchings, N.J., (2001). Ammonia emission from field applied manure and its reduction – invited paper. European Journal of Agronomy, 15, 1-15. doi:10.1016/S1161-0301(01)00112-5.</p>
<p>16.The Sustainable Soil Management Programme. (2007). Improved cattleshed for urine collection. ICIMOD. http://www.icimod.org/?q=10339</p>
<p>17.Tremorin, D.G., Tenuta, M., Mkhabela, M., Flaten, D.N., & Ominski, K.H. (2012). Nitrous oxide emissions from feces and synthetic urine of cattle grazing forage grass fertilized with hog slurry. Animal Feed Science and Technology, 177(3-4), 225-236. doi: 10.1016/j.anifeedsci.2012.08.008.</p>
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Latest revision as of 12:03, 15 January 2026

4.10 - Livestock sheds and collecting urine to add to manure


Jaime Selinger, University of Guelph, Canada

4.10.jpeg

Source:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Compost_site_germany.JPG

Related video(s): Human urine as fertilizer, Manure shed (English translation)(Source: Access Agriculture, SAK Global)

https://www.accessagriculture.org/human-urine-fertilizer?cat_id=1499

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tb3hH4Ma45k

Suggested citation for this chapter.

Selinger,J. (2022) Livestock sheds and collecting urine to add to manure. In Farmpedia, The Encyclopedia for Small Scale Farmers. Editor, M.N. Raizada, University of Guelph, Canada. http://www.farmpedia.org

Introduction

The soils of smallholder farmers often lack the proper amount of nitrogen, phosphate and potassium which are essential for healthy and bountiful growth of crops. Urine collected from livestock and humans is very rich in nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium which is important for plant growth. A family of four can produce the equivalent of a 50 kg bag of NPK fertilizer from urine alone every year (Feineigle 2011). This urine has a 10:1:4 ratio of NPK which is a higher nitrogen content than many mineral fertilizers (Feineigle 2011). Humans produce roughly 500 litres of urine and 50 litres of faeces per person per year (Caldwell & Rosemarin 2014). These contain about 4 kg of nitrogen, 0.5 kg of phosphorous and 1 kg of potassium, the three basic elements for plant growth. The exact amount varies from region to region depending on food intake. Seventy per cent of the nutrients excreted by humans are in the urine fraction (Caldwell & Rosemarin 2014). Livestock consumption of leguminous fodder such as Acacia, Calliandra and Erythrina can increase the nitrogen content of their urine (Devendra 1992).

Since the most prominent nutrient found in urine is nitrogen, it is important to have balanced nitrogen levels in urine that is mixed with manure and to balance urine addition with other nutrients required for plant growth. The importance of nitrogen to plant growth is outlined in Chapter 1.4 – Balanced Fertilization. Using urine as a way to enrich manure is a more cost-effective substitute for fertilizer.

In areas where there is not as much livestock, human urine can also be added to crops as noted above. Akpan et al. (2012) recently demonstrated that human urine is strongly alkaline and contains a moderate amount of nutrients (N, P, K, Mg, Ca and Na). Application of either urine or inorganic fertilizer significantly (P<0.05) increased plant nutrient uptake compared with the control (Akpan-Idiok et al. 2012). Human or livestock urine can also be used directly in home gardens.

How the practice is conducted

Urine can be collected from livestock using a concrete floor that is sloped toward a PVC pipe that empties into a manure pit. This pipe leads to a pit or inside a mud/stone wall where it is stored. The mixture is then transferred from the storage area and spread along the soil where the crops are to grow. An alternative to this process is that the urine pipe leads to a storage drum from which urine can be added to the manure. These practices require time and effort from the household. Building a concrete floor with a slope towards a PVC pipe would cost a total of $12 USD in materials and would require up to 3 days of construction labour (Sustainable Soil Management Programme 2007). A smallholder farmer can undertake this labour, but it requires specialized knowledge and training (e.g. how to mix concrete). The construction of this can be done by digging a manure pi within the livestock shed in which the urine will be emptied into (SSMP 2007). Then, the smallholder farmer will have to make a floor at the bottom of the shed where the urine will be collected out of a compact of soil or clay, or cement if they are able to afford it (SSMP 2007). Other costs for this would be a collection devise for the urine after it is disposed into the manure pit (SSMP 2007).

There is an easier alternative to collecting urine from livestock, specifically by penning the livestock in a certain area where crops will grow prior to planting so that their urine and feces will directly mix with the soil (Bedford et al. 2016). The animals are able to graze the land and release urine and feces and are able to comfortably move around the land rather than be restricted (Bedford et al. 2016). This process requires little labour on the part of the farming household.

The urine of the livestock is collected within the livestock shed. It is suggested that the livestock shed be created out of fabric as it provides more ventilation and filtration for sheds in hot climates and is more cost-effective for smallholder farmers and industrial farmers alike (Megadome Buildings 2016). As resources are sometimes limited for smallholder farmers, the fabric livestock shed will work as long as they have constructed a proper concrete floor and slope towards the manure pit.

This is not a new concept and has been utilized by many smallholder farmers. In a study conducted by Powell & Williams (1996) in the West African Sahel, the yield was compared over the course of six years using urine from livestock as fertilizer compared to chemical fertilizer. The authors found that there was a 52% increase in yields within the first year of the study (Powell & Williams 1996).

Ammonia Emissions

Ammonia emission is one of the greatest environmental threats from farms (Fangmeier et al. 1994). This is an increasingly destructive threat since ammonia released into the air can affect the crops in the surrounding area as well as the possibility of ammonium contamination into groundwater and river/lake water (Fangmeier et al. 1994). Livestock urine can lead to ammonia losses. It is necessary to mix liquid and solid manures to reduce ammonia emissions (Sommer & Hutchings 2001). Due to ammonia emissions being linked to global warming and climate change, it is necessary to change the diet of livestock and add the required nutrients to soil to reduce these ammonia emissions (Fangmeier et al. 1994). It is important for livestock to be fed a well-balanced diet, including carbohydrate rich foods as it balances out the nitrogen and reduces ammonia emission into the air. Addition of fermentable carbohydrates, such as bran or pulp, into grow-finishing diets, resulted in a 14% reduction of ammonia emission for each percentage increase in carbohydrate (Powers 2004).

Picture Based Lesson to Train Farmers

Click on the image to access a higher resolution image as well as lessons adapted for different geographic regions.

For the South Asian version (pictures only, text for you to insert), click this link for lesson 5.12:http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/5.12_south_asian.pdf

For the East/South Asian version (pictures only, text for you to insert), click this link for lesson 5.12:http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/5.12e.s.a.pdf

For the Sub-Saharan Africa/Caribbean version (pictures only, text for you to insert), click this link for lesson 5.12:http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/5.12subsaharan_africa_carribean.pdf

For the Latin-America version (pictures only, text for you to insert), click this link for lesson 5.12:http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/5.12latin_america.pdf

For North Africa And Middle East version (pictures only, text for you to insert), click this link for lesson Chapter 5. 4.11:http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/4.11n._africa_middleeast.pdf

Source: MN Raizada and L Smith (2016) A Picture Book of Best Practices for Subsistence Farmers. eBook, University of Guelph Sustainable Agriculture Kit (SAK) Project, June 2016, Guelph, Canada.

Helpful Links

To learn more about the benefits and challenges of using human urine to improve agriculture, follow this link:

http://voices.nationalgeographic.com/2013/04/10/human-pee-added-to-compost-boosts-crops/]

http://permaculturenews.org/2011/11/27/urine-closing-the-npk-loop/

http://modernfarmer.com/2014/01/human-pee-proven-fertilizer-future/

http://www.gardeningknowhow.com/garden-how-to/soil-fertilizers/feeding-plants-with-urine.htm

Refer to SAK Picture Book Lesson 5.10a and 5.10b p. 54-55 for step by step picture instructions

References

1.Agriculture and Forestry. (2006). Applying Manure on Perennial Forage. Agriculture and Forestry. http://www1.agric.gov.ab.ca/$department/deptdocs.nsf/all/agdex10727

2.Akpan-Idiok, A.U., Udo, I.A., & Braide, E.I. (2012). The use of human urine as an organic fertilizer in the production of okra (Abelmoschus esculentus) in South Eastern Nigeria. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 62, 14-20. doi:10.1016/j.resconrec.2012.02.003.

3.Andersson, E., (2015). Turning waste into value: using human urine to enrich soils for sustainable food production in Uganda. Journal of Cleaner Production, 96, 290-298. doi: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2014.01.070.

4.Arnold, C., (2013). Human Pee Added to Compost Boosts Crops. National Geographic. http://voices.nationalgeographic.com/2013/04/10/human-pee-added-to-compost-boosts-crops/

5.Bedford, M. R., Choct, M., & O'Neill, H. M. (2016). Nutrition Experiments in Pigs and Poultry: A Practical Guide. CABI.

6.Bishwakarma, B.K., Dahal, N.R., Allen, R., Rajbhandari, N.P., Dhital, B.K., Gurung, D.B., Bajracharya, R.M., & Baillie, I.C. (2015). Effects of improved management and quality of farmyard manure on soil organic carbon contents in small-holder farming systems of the Middle Hills of Nepal. Climate and Development, 7(5), 426-436. doi: 10.1080/17565529.2014.966045

7.Caldwell, I. & Rosemarin, A. (2014). Human urine and faeces as a fertilizer. Stockholm Environment Institute.

8.Devendra, C. (1992). Nutritional potential of fodder trees and shrubs as protein sources in ruminant nutrition. Legume trees and other fodder trees as protein sources for livestock, 100, 95-113.

9.De Vries, J.W., Aarnink, A.J.A., Groot Koerkamp, P.W.G., & De Boer, I.J.M. (2013). Life Cycle Assessment of Segregating Fattening Pig Urine and Feces Compared to Conventional Liquid Manure Management. Environmental Science & Technology, 47, 1587-1597. doi: 10.1021/es302951a

10.Fangmeier, A., Hadwiger-Fangmeier, A., Van der Eerden, L., & Jäger, H-J. (1994). Effects of atmospheric ammonia on vegetation – A review. Environmental Pollution, 86(1), 43-82.

11.Feineigle, M. (2011). Urine: Closing the NPK Loop. Permaculture Research Institute. http://permaculturenews.org/2011/11/27/urine-closing-the-npk-loop/

12.Jana, B.B., Bag, S.K., & Rana, S. (2012). Comparative evaluation of the fertilizer value of human urine, cow manure and their mix for the production of carp fingerlings in small holding tanks. Aquaculture International, 20, 735-749. doi: 10.1007/s10499-012-9500-1.

13.Powell, J. M., & Williams, T. O. (1993). Livestock, nutrient cycling and sustainable agriculture in the West African Sahel. Sustainable Agriculture Programme, International Institute for Environment and Development, 37.

14.Powers, W. (2004). Practices to reduce ammonia emissions from livestock operations. Rees, R.M., Baddeley, J.A., Bhogal, A., Ball, B.C., Chadwick, D.R., MacLeod, M., Lilly, A., Pappa, V.A., Thorman, R.E., Watson, C.A., & Williams, J.R. (2013). Nitrous oxide mitigation in UK agriculture. Soil Science and Plant Nutrition, 59, 3-15. doi: 10.1080/00380768.2012.733869.

15.Sommer, S.G., & Hutchings, N.J., (2001). Ammonia emission from field applied manure and its reduction – invited paper. European Journal of Agronomy, 15, 1-15. doi:10.1016/S1161-0301(01)00112-5.

16.The Sustainable Soil Management Programme. (2007). Improved cattleshed for urine collection. ICIMOD. http://www.icimod.org/?q=10339

17.Tremorin, D.G., Tenuta, M., Mkhabela, M., Flaten, D.N., & Ominski, K.H. (2012). Nitrous oxide emissions from feces and synthetic urine of cattle grazing forage grass fertilized with hog slurry. Animal Feed Science and Technology, 177(3-4), 225-236. doi: 10.1016/j.anifeedsci.2012.08.008.

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