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(Created page with "<div> <div class="title"><h3>1.2 - Gloves to help subsistence farmers</h3><br><h3 class="ch-owner">Mitchell van Schepen, University of Guelph, Canada</h3></div> <div class="hero-img-2"> 300px <p>Suggested citation for this chapter.</p> <p>Author name (2022) title of chapter. In Farmpedia, The Encyclopedia for Small Scale Farmers. Editor, M.N. Raizada, University of Guelph, Canada. http://www.farmpedia.org</p> </div> <div class="ch-navber" style="display:...")
 
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  <div class="title"><h3>1.2 - Gloves to help subsistence farmers</h3><br><h3 class="ch-owner">Mitchell van Schepen, University of Guelph, Canada</h3></div>
  <div class="title"><h3>1.2 - Low-Cost Grain Moisture Sensor for Drying and Storing Grain</h3><br><h3 class="ch-owner">Amanda Poulton, University of Guelph, Canada</h3></div>
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<p><b>Related video(s)</b>: Good shelling, sorting and drying of maize (Source: Access Agriculture)</p>
<p><i> https://www.accessagriculture.org/good-shelling-sorting-and-drying-maize?cat_id=1499</i></p>
 
<p>Suggested citation for this chapter.</p>
<p>Suggested citation for this chapter.</p>
<p>Author name (2022) title of chapter. In Farmpedia, The Encyclopedia for Small Scale Farmers. Editor, M.N. Raizada, University of Guelph, Canada. http://www.farmpedia.org</p>
<p>Poulton, A (2022) Low-Cost Grain Moisture Sensor for Drying and Storing Grain. In Farmpedia, The Encyclopedia for Small Scale Farmers. Editor, M.N. Raizada, University of Guelph, Canada. http://www.farmpedia.org</p>
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       <h1 class="title-bg">Background1</h1>
       <h1 class="title-bg">Introduction to Grain Moisture </h1>
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          <p>On average, farmers living in the tropics experience 1000-2000 mm of rain per year accompanied by intense humidity (FAO, 2001). Having a dry and safe environment is critical in terms of storage to ensure that seeds remain viable for consumption (FAO, 1988). If the drying process is performed incorrectly, it can have a very detrimental impact on the grain. In order to address issues regarding excess moisture, it is critical to look into effective and low-cost solutions that prevent moisture increases during storage. With no solution, there is an inherent risk for increased pests, molds, and pathogens, allowing for the quality of grain to degrade. Seed germination post-harvest will decrease in the presence of excess grain moisture. Within Africa, smallholder farmers experience 20% to 30% post-harvest losses which economically results in an annual loss of $4 billion USD (Armstrong, 2017). Each grain has an exact moisture content that must be achieved to ensure sale, safe transportation and storage. Moving forward, simple technologies are essential for farmers to measure the moisture content level of their grain.</p>
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      <h1 class="title-bg">Implications of Wet Seeds</h1>
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          <p>The world’s 1 billion women and girls participating in subsistence farming pull weeds by hand to improve their crops and also collect firewood for cooking, resulting in their hands becoming rough and sore (Figure 1). This can be caused by wood splinters being lodged into their skin (Schaffner, 2013). Pulling weeds for hours on end can peel away layers of skin (Food and Agriculture Organization, 2016). The hands of those farmers can also become dirty and smelly from planting seeds in the soil or spreading manure by hand. To avoid the common aforementioned problems as well as hand injuries, such as cuts and scrapes, they could wear gloves on their hands, see the second picture, (Schaffner, 2013). Gloves are very common in the modern world and can be used for construction, farming, and medical practices. Gloves provide a durable layer between the skin on your hands and whatever you are working with (Espasandín-Arias & Goossens, 2014). There are a few different materials used to make gloves, along with different sizes and grips. With over one billion women and girls working on farms around the world, this grueling work can be made safer and more efficient when wearing gloves.</p>
<p>seeds fail to adequately dry, they risk exposure to fungi; this occurs as a result of cool temperatures and high humidity, trapping the moisture within the grain (Danao et al., 2015). When moisture is retained within the grain during storage, respiration increases, ultimately triggering the grain to germinate prematurely (FAO, 1988; Danao et al., 2015). When these seeds are contaminated by fungus/mold, they are no longer viable and cannot be harvested or sold for the upcoming seasons, resulting in an economic loss and increasing the potential for malnourishment (FAO, 1988).</p>  
 
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          <p>Rubber and cloth are the two main kinds of gloves produced (Melco, 2016). They both have their own benefits and drawbacks respectively. A benefit from rubber gloves is their ability to resist water from coming in contact with a farmer's skin, see part two, (Espasandín-Arias & Goossens, 2014). While cloth gloves can be beneficial because they can draw moisture away from their hands and can be easily washed to be cleaned. Because rubber gloves are usually meant to be disposed of after single use they tend to be cheaper to make and thus cheaper to buy. Yet some rubber gloves can be made thicker to reuse and are slightly more durable (Melco, 2016). Cloth gloves are designed to be washed after being used and last a long time under normal working conditions.</p>
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          <p>Along with the different materials gloves are made of, there are also different arm lengths. Some gloves are cut off just in front or around the wrist. While others can be up to and over the elbow and everywhere in between (Melco, 2016). The benefits of the shorter gloves is comfort, no bunching around wrist or elbow, and they can be quickly put on or removed. The benefits of the long gloves are more protection, the entire forearm will be covered. All the while there is less of a chance of getting debris in their gloves because the opening is farther away from what you are working with. Farmers can also work in deeper water or mud with the long rubber gloves without getting your hands wet.</p>
      <h1 class="title-bg">Wet Seeds Attract Insects and Mold</h1>
 
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          <p>When working with smooth items such as hoes and some fruits and vegetables they can be slippery (Food and Agriculture Organization, 2016). A way to help farmer's hold on to the tools is to get gloves with grips (Melco, 2016). Both rubber and cloth gloves can have grips. Rubber gloves will have ridges in the molds to form grips and granular materials can be added to the outside before drying (Melco, 2016). Another option is to make the rubber gloves out of a non-slip rubber (Melco, 2016). Because cloth alone does not provide grip, cloth gloves must be dipped in liquid rubber to be able to grip smooth objects. The rubber used for grips on cloth gloves can either be non-slip smooth rubber or be rigid (Melco, 2016). </p>
<p>While grain and seeds are in storage, humidity and grain moisture interact. If a seed fails to properly dry and/or experiences temperatures increases, the seed will release moisture into the air, creating an excess amount of humidity (Taruvinga et al., 2104). Seeds consumed by moisture will invite primary and secondary pests to infect the grains (Taruvinga et al., 2014). A primary pest is one in which will attack undamaged grains as well as damaged grains, and a secondary pest will attack previously invaded grains from primary pests (Taruvinga et al., 2014). Examples of primary insects in Africa are the grain weevil, the larger grain borer, the lesser grain borer, the grain moth and the cowpea weevil; and examples of secondary pests that arise in Africa are the red rust flour beetle and the tropical warehouse moth (Taruvinga et al., 2014). Mold has a huge impact on agricultural seeds and grains in storage, causing nutrient degradation, changes in odour and colour, and causes seed inability to germinate (Taruvinga et al., 2014).</p>  
 
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<p>When working with smooth items such as hoes and some fruits and vegetables they can be slippery (Food and Agriculture Organization, 2016). A way to help farmer's hold on to the tools is to get gloves with grips (Melco, 2016). Both rubber and cloth gloves can have grips. Rubber gloves will have ridges in the molds to form grips and granular materials can be added to the outside before drying (Melco, 2016). Another option is to make the rubber gloves out of a non-slip rubber (Melco, 2016). Because cloth alone does not provide grip, cloth gloves must be dipped in liquid rubber to be able to grip smooth objects. The rubber used for grips on cloth gloves can either be non-slip smooth rubber or be rigid (Melco, 2016). </p>
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       <h1 class="title-bg">Proper Moisture Content for Diverse Seeds </h1>
       <h1 class="title-bg">Physical Protection</h1>
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          <p>Protection is the main benefit from using gloves. Repetitive motions, such as when pounding grain, can cause irritation to the skin. When collecting firewood the sticks and logs can scratch or cut the skin (Food and Agriculture Organization, 2016). Weeds can be rough and by scratching their hands many times they can become cut and sore (Espasandín-Arias & Goossens, 2014). By lifting and pulling heavy items the top layer of your skin will separate from the next, causing a blister, by wearing gloves they now will prevent blistering because the glove will act as the top layer of skin and prevent the actual skin from separating (Schaffner, 2013).  Manure has a lot of bacteria in it which are harmful if they are swallow, so keeping them away from the hands used to eat with is very beneficial (Furlong, et al., 2015). If farmers are working with firewood or in construction the cloth gloves will work better because they are more durable (Food and Agriculture Organization, 2016). The disposable rubber gloves would be the worst to use in this scenario because they are so thin, stick to jobs were the main goals are to keep hands dry and dirt free when using disposable rubber gloves.</p>
<p>Table 1 shows the ideal grain moisture percentage for different crops present in 27°C environments. If seeds are intended for human consumption, they should be dried an extra 2% to ensure the absence of all fungal growth which may otherwise deposit mycotoxins (FAO, 1988). When examining seeds that have been in storage, a small-holder farmer should conduct a germination test to ensure the viability of the seeds before planting. This consists of planting fewer seeds before planting all seeds to prevent a decrease in food production.</p>
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<p>Table 1: Target Equilibrium Moisture Content (EMC) (FAO, 1988)</p>
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       <h1 style="background: #FBB03B;padding: 15px;font-weight: 600;color: #000;font-size: 22px;margin:unset;text-align:center;">Defense Against Moisture and Chemicals</h1>
       <h1 class="title-bg">Introduction to Low Cost Grain Moisture Sensors </h1>
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          <p>Moisture blocking is a way gloves can prevent your skin from drying out and from getting too wet and dehydrating farmer's hands. By keeping the moisture from the hands inside the gloves they will prevent the skin from cracking and becoming infected (Schaffner, 2013). As well when working in wet conditions your hands can shrivel and become dehydrated if they are constantly in contact with water.</p>
      <p>The grain moisture sensor assists in measuring levels of moisture in the grain using a probe. The size of the meters varies from relatively small to large units. These meters are quick, simple and efficient and take only 1 minute to produce a moisture reading. In order for moisture to be measured, grain is dropped into the barrel of the meter. The funnel which is attached to the top of the barrel is taken off and all seeds are collected in the chamber. From here, the moisture readings are available to be read.</p>  
          <p>Pesticides can be absorbed by your skin and become harmful to the body, gloves provide an extra barrier to block them from entering in a farmer's body (Furlong, et al., 2015). Fertilizers such as nitrogen can also be caustic, and these are usually spread through broadcasting by hand. Mud can get under your nails and into cracked or cut skin and can infect a farmer's hands. Gloves will keep the mud out and keep hands clean. Both liquid pesticides and dry fertilizers can irritate skin if they come into contact with it (Kim, et al., 2013). Wearing the proper gloves, rubber ones in this case, can save their hands from becoming itchy (Keeble et al., 1996). Human skin can also absorb the pesticides which are harmful to your body, wearing gloves would prevent the pesticides from ever touching your skin.</p>
<p>There are two relatively small low-cost solutions that can easily be accessed. The first product is a “Digital Grain Moisture Meter” (Fuzhu, 2011). This meter costs $10.80 USD and can measure moisture content in up to 14 different crops. This meter can measure moisture ranging from 7.5% to 50%, by utilizing robust moisture probes. This probe does require 4 AAA batteries, but it is reported to have a slightly longer battery life than other models. Another low-cost option is the “LGS-1G Cup Grain Moisture Meter”; however it costs $58.00 USD, and can measure the moisture content in the ranges of 3-35% (Haosen, 2016). The advantage of this more expensive option is that it can be applied to 24 different kinds of grain and comes with manual instructions inside a briefcase to keep everything organized and protected. This meter provides readings for moisture, the capacity as well as the weight of the grains/seeds, however a downfall is its battery requirement in addition to an electric outlet. This meter can also be purchased on the website “Alibaba”.</p>
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<p>Additionally, a project directed by Kansas State University focused on giving a particular grain moisture meter to several small-holder famers to measure the benefits (Armstrong, 2107). This meter is called the PHL, which stands for “Post-Harvest Loss” (Armstrong, 2107). This meter was used to measure the moisture content in seeds of maize and other crops specifically focusing on the temperature and the humidity. The probe was able to read moisture from bags and bulk seeds (Armstrong, 2107). PHL meters cost $28 USD and were effective for small-holder farmers: the feedback suggested to add a newer sensor model which would reduce the price to $3 USD, manufactured by Sensirion (Armstrong, 2017).</p>
Durability and Ease of Use
These products were said to have strong durable probes (Fuzhu, 2011), along with lasting batteries that therefore do not have to be changed as frequently. Nevertheless, a common problem would consist of having to purchase new batteries which might be costly and inaccessible in remote regions; to prevent this problem, the meters should be turned off at all times when inactive and only be used when necessary. The more expensive meter comes with a briefcase, as already noted, in order to ensure the durability and safe keeping of the meter (Haosen, 2016). Small-holder farmers can share the probes which can reduce the costs. These meters come with instructions on how to use them and how to read the moisture content. Language translation may be helpful, along with picture-based instructions for low literacy populations.
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      <h1 class="title-bg">More expensive moisture sensor probes</h1>
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<p>In addition to the low cost grain moisture sensor, there are a variety of more expensive options. A more elaborate grain moisture probe consists of 4 chambers and includes a total of 6 probes (Danao et al., 2015). These probes are highly priced at $1500 USD each; the breakdown of the cost is $1000 per sensor, $100 for hardware and $400 for required power and electrical components, which would be out of reach of small-holder farmers (Danao et al., 2015).</p>
       <h1 class="title-bg">Wearable</h1>
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       <h1 class="title-bg">Free, Alternative Methods to Determine if Seeds are Dry </h1>
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          <p>Comfortable gloves help farmer's work longer because their hands will not hurt from completing your task. Sizing is very important when finding comfortable gloves (Melco, 2016). Make sure gloves are the proper length and width, as not to restrict movement. There will be less pain from pulling weeds and they will be able to pull more weeds because they would not have to wait a long for the pain to subside between pulling each weed, because there will be no pain if wearing gloves (Food and Agriculture Organization, 2016). If farmer's find they are working hard and their hands start to sweat the gloves should be removed , dry your hands, and put on a new pair. Cloth gloves are more breathable then rubber ones, using them is another way to prevent hands from getting sweaty. The cloth gloves can also be softer and easier to clean, but are more restricting to movement due to their durability and tougher material. Since children will also be farming, smaller glove sizes can be found. Gloves are designed to fit a farmer's hand snugly, so children should not wear adult sized gloves when working. </p>
<p>Some moisture meters can be shared between small-holder farmers and may be available at public grain storage facilities (Taruvinga et al., 2014). However, public storage facilities may be remote or inconvenient as specific times; therefore other solutions may be needed to measure grain moisture content. These methods include using one’s teeth to bite the hard seeds; pinching the seeds; or shaking the seeds (Taruvinga et al., 2014). When determining the moisture within the seeds, the seed is dry enough if the seed is hard to the touch, makes sharp sounds or cracks (Taruvinga et al., 2014). Another free and relatively efficient method consists of placing grains in a jar with dry salt for a few minutes. After a few minutes, if the salt is detected on the sides of the jar, then the moisture content is too high; however if the salt is absent from the glass, it has an acceptable moisture content for storage (Taruvinga et al., 2014).</p>  
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       <h1 class="title-bg">Other grain storage issues</h1>
       <h1 class="title-bg">Constraints To Adoption</h1>
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          <p>Gloves are very useful to farmers, but there can still be some drawbacks. Possible culturable taboos might vary from location to location. Gloves might seem feminine and not easily adopted by men in the community. Gloves act as a second, tougher skin, but they are not a farmer's skin and can slide around while working. This may feel odd and uncomfortable but farmers can get used to the new feeling over time. Gloves can come in many colours and thicknesses, which may make a farmer's hands look funny or larger. Human skin is very stretchy and flexible, while glove materials tend to be tougher than skin and will reduce movement, but not enough to hinder work. Rubber gloves can stretch well, but make hands sweat, while cloth gloves are breathable but reduce dexterity.</p>
<p>When focusing on the viability of the seeds, one should make certain each seed is dry before being placed in storage (Taruvinga et al., 2014). Aside from proper grain drying, temperature and other issues must also be considered for storing grain. The most effective conditions for storing seeds are at low temperature with little to no moisture: the maximum being 27˚C and 70% relative humidity (FAO, 1988). It is important to note grains being stored in stacks can accommodate temperatures 1-2% higher (FAO, 1988). If temperatures exceed 25°C or fall below 35°C, insects achieve an optimal temperature to destroy the grains, and if the temperature ranges from 15°C and 30°C mold will thrive; however a temperature below 15˚C prevents insect and mold growth (Taruvinga et al., 2014). Grain can easily become affected by insects, mold, and rodents. To ensure the best insect resistant grain, all dust and contaminants should be removed before storing; this can be achieved through threshing (e.g. beating grain heads on the ground) to ensure the removal of insects and pests (FAO, 1988).
          <p>Farmers can find gloves to use and get started from local vendors (European Commission For The Control Of Foot-And-Mouth Disease, 2016). Once you have completed your work for the day you can clean them are reuse them, or dispose of them if they were ripped or torn (Kim, et al., 2013). You can get gloves made of rubber and like materials as well as ones made of durable cloths. The thin rubber gloves tend to be made for a single use only. A trick that the European Commission For The Control Foot-And-Mouth Disease mentions that you can wear two pairs of rubber gloves at the same time for extra protection (European Commission For The Control Of Foot-And-Mouth Disease, 2016).</p>
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       <h1 class="title-bg">Helpful Links To Get Started </h1>
       <h1 class="title-bg">Helpful Links To Get Started </h1>
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          <p>Here are websites to find more information about how to obtain gloves:</p>
<p> https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NqnNfTqOkhk&ab_channel=Bry-Air%28Asia%29Pvt.Ltd.</p>
          <p>[https://www.alibaba.com/ Alibaba]</p>
<p> YouTube video explaining seed retardation and giving other viable seed drying options.</p>
          <p>[https://www.indiamart.com/ Indiamart]</p>
          <p>[http://www.store.nzfarmsource.co.nz/ Store Nzfarmsource]</p>
          <p>[https://www.adenna.com Adenna]</p>
          <p>[https://www.farmcity.co.za/ Farmcity]</p>
          <p>[https://www.crazystore.co.za/ Crazystore]</p>
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<p> https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WztV5c5Hlxk&ab_channel=ThomasTKtungnung</p>
      <h1 class="title-bg">Usefull Images</h1>
<p> A video describing the vital importance of having dry seeds in storage.</p>  
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                  <div class="fakeimg fakeimg-use">[[File:Imageaa.png]]</div>
                  <div class="fakeimg-name"><p>Figure 1</p></div>
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<p> https://www.fao.org/3/AD230E/AD230E04.htm</p>
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<p> A text providing useful tips for seed storage and seed handling.</p>
                  <div class="fakeimg fakeimg-use">[[File:2.jpg]]</div>
                  <div class="fakeimg-name"><p>Figure 2</p></div>
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<p> https://www.fao.org/3/i1816e/i1816e00.pdf</p>
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<p> A textbook providing the attributes of seeds, and whether or not they are healthy, also allows for information in seed testing and seed sampling.</p>
                  <div class="fakeimg fakeimg-use">[[File:3.jpg]]</div>
                  <div class="fakeimg-name"><p>Figure 3</p></div>
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<p> https://www.fao.org/3/CA1495EN/ca1495en.pdf</p>
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<p> A textbook chapter on proper and effective seed storage.</p>  
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                  <div class="fakeimg fakeimg-use">[[File:4.jpg]]</div>
                  <div class="fakeimg-name"><p>Figure 4</p></div>
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<p> https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dLwDQZmALvQ&ab_channel=PARISATECHNOLOGY.</p>
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<p> This video included shows how to put together and how to utilize the “Digital Grain Moisture Meter”.</p>
                  <div class="fakeimg fakeimg-use">[[File:5.jpg]]</div>
                  <div class="fakeimg-name"><p>Figure 5</p></div>
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<p> https://www.alibaba.com/product-detail/Grain-Moisture-Digital-Grain-Moisture-Meter_1600093027696.html?spm=a2700.galleryofferlist.normal_offer.d_title.79c23bb0asKvXw&s=p</p>
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<p> A website (Alibaba) where you can purchase a “Digital Grain Moisture Meter” for $10.80 USD.</p>
                  <div class="fakeimg fakeimg-use">[[File:6.jpg]]</div>
                  <div class="fakeimg-name"><p>Figure 6</p></div>
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<p> https://www.alibaba.com/product-detail/Grain-Moisture-Factory-Wholesale-LGS-1G_1600227103518.html?spm=a2700.galleryofferlist.normal_offer.d_title.79c23bb0P73T0S&s=p</p>
<p> A website (Alibaba) where you can purchaser a “LGS-1G Cup Grain Moisture Meter” for $58.00 USD.</p>


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<p> https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wTgZzF-MiK0&ab_channel=SKZINDUSTRIAL</p>
<p> A video giving descriptions on how to use the “LGS-1G Cup Grain Moisture Meter”.</p>
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       <h1 class="title-bg">References</h1>
       <h1 class="title-bg">References</h1>
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           <p>Espasandín-Arias, M., & Goossens, A. (2014). Natural rubber gloves might not protect against skin penetration of methylisothiazolinone. Contact Dermatitis, 70(4), 249-251. doi:10.1111/cod.12221</p>
           <p>1. Armstrong, P. R. (2017). Development and Evaluation of a Low-Cost Probe-Type Instrument to Measure the Equilibrium Moisture Content of Grain Applied Engineering in Agriculture, 33(5), 619–627. https://doi.org/10.13031/aea.12266</p>
          <p>European Commission For The Control Of Foot-And-Mouth Disease. Suggested FMD PPE guidelines - Food and Agriculture, (2016)  
 
          Food and Agriculture Organization. Rural women in household production: Increasing contributions and persisting drudgery. (2016).
<p>2. Haosen (Shenzhen) Electronics Technology (2016). Cup Grain Moisture Meter. Alibaba.com. Retrieved November 11, 2021 from https://www.alibaba.com/product-detail/Grain-Moisture-Factory-Wholesale-LGS-1G_1600227103518.html?spm=a2700.galleryofferlist.normal_offer.d_title.79c23bb0P73T0S&s=p </p>
          </p>
 
          <p>Furlong, M., Tanner, C. M., Goldman, S. M., Bhudhikanok, G. S., Blair, A., Chade, A., . . . Kamel, F. (2015). Protective glove use and hygiene habits modify the associations of specific pesticides with Parkinson's disease. Environment International, 75, 144-150. doi:10.1016/j.envint.2014.11.002</p>
<p>3. Fuzhu Heado Thade (2011). Digital Grain Moisture Meter Hygrometer use for Corn Wheat Rice Bean Peanut Grain Measurement Moisture Humidity Tester AR991. Alibaba.com. Retrieved November 11, 2021 https://www.alibaba.com/product-detail/Grain-Moisture-Digital-Grain-Moisture Meter_1600093027696.html?spm=a2700.galleryofferlist.normal_offer.d_title.79c23bb0asKvXw&s=p</p>
          <p>Keeble, V. B., Correll, L., & Ehrich, M. (1996). Effect of Laundering on Ability of Glove Fabrics to Decrease the Penetration of Organophosphate Insecticides Through in vitro Epidermal Systems. J. Appl. Toxicol. Journal of Applied Toxicology, 16(5), 401-406. doi:10.1002/(sici)1099-1263(199609)16:53.3.co;2-6</p>
 
          <p>Kim, J., Kim, J., Cha, E., Ko, Y., Kim, D., & Lee, W. (2013). Work-Related Risk Factors by Severity for Acute Pesticide Poisoning Among Male Farmers in South Korea. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 10(3), 1100-1112. doi:10.3390/ijerph10031100</p>
<p>4. Danao, M.-G. C. (2015). Development of a Grain Monitoring Probe to Measure Temperature, Relative Humidity, Carbon Dioxide Levels and Logistical Information During Handling and Transportation of Soybeans. Computers and Electronics in Agriculture, 119, 74–82. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compag.2015.10.008</p>
          <p>Melco, M. (2016). Gardening Gloves. Retrieved from [http://garden.lovetoknow.com/wiki/Gardening_Gloves Garden Lovetoknow]</p>
<p>5. FAO (1988). Farm Structures in Tropical Climates: Chapter Grain Crop Drying, Handling and Storage. Food and Agriculture Organization, Rome.   Retrieved November 2, 2021, from https://www.fao.org/3/i2433e/i2433e10.pdf.</p>
          <p>Schaffner, A. D. (2013). Minimizing Surgical Skin Incision Scars with a Latex Surgical Glove. Aesthetic Plastic Surgery, 37(2), 463-463. doi:10.1007/s00266-013-0071-y</p>
6. FAO (2001). Global Ecological Zoning for the Global Forest Resources Assessment 2000 Final Report. Food and Agriculture Organization, Rome. Retrieved November 2, 2021, from https://www.fao.org/3/ad652e/ad652e00.htm</p>
 
<p>7. Kandala, C. V. K. (2012). Non-destructive Measurement of Moisture Content of Different Varieties of Wheat Using a Single Calibration with a Parallel-Plate Capacitance Sensor. Transactions of the ASABE, 55(4), 1583–1587.</p>
 
<p>8. Taruvinga C., Mejia D., & Alvarez S.J. (2014). Appropriate Seed and Grain Storage Systems for Small-scale Farmers: Key practices for DRR Implements. FAO, Rome.E-ISBN 978-92-5-108335-2. https://www.fao.org/3/i3769e/i3769e.pdf</p>
 
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     </div>
   </div>
   </div>

Latest revision as of 21:19, 14 January 2026

1.2 - Low-Cost Grain Moisture Sensor for Drying and Storing Grain


Amanda Poulton, University of Guelph, Canada

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Related video(s): Good shelling, sorting and drying of maize (Source: Access Agriculture)

https://www.accessagriculture.org/good-shelling-sorting-and-drying-maize?cat_id=1499

Suggested citation for this chapter.

Poulton, A (2022) Low-Cost Grain Moisture Sensor for Drying and Storing Grain. In Farmpedia, The Encyclopedia for Small Scale Farmers. Editor, M.N. Raizada, University of Guelph, Canada. http://www.farmpedia.org

Introduction to Grain Moisture

On average, farmers living in the tropics experience 1000-2000 mm of rain per year accompanied by intense humidity (FAO, 2001). Having a dry and safe environment is critical in terms of storage to ensure that seeds remain viable for consumption (FAO, 1988). If the drying process is performed incorrectly, it can have a very detrimental impact on the grain. In order to address issues regarding excess moisture, it is critical to look into effective and low-cost solutions that prevent moisture increases during storage. With no solution, there is an inherent risk for increased pests, molds, and pathogens, allowing for the quality of grain to degrade. Seed germination post-harvest will decrease in the presence of excess grain moisture. Within Africa, smallholder farmers experience 20% to 30% post-harvest losses which economically results in an annual loss of $4 billion USD (Armstrong, 2017). Each grain has an exact moisture content that must be achieved to ensure sale, safe transportation and storage. Moving forward, simple technologies are essential for farmers to measure the moisture content level of their grain.

Implications of Wet Seeds

seeds fail to adequately dry, they risk exposure to fungi; this occurs as a result of cool temperatures and high humidity, trapping the moisture within the grain (Danao et al., 2015). When moisture is retained within the grain during storage, respiration increases, ultimately triggering the grain to germinate prematurely (FAO, 1988; Danao et al., 2015). When these seeds are contaminated by fungus/mold, they are no longer viable and cannot be harvested or sold for the upcoming seasons, resulting in an economic loss and increasing the potential for malnourishment (FAO, 1988).

Wet Seeds Attract Insects and Mold

While grain and seeds are in storage, humidity and grain moisture interact. If a seed fails to properly dry and/or experiences temperatures increases, the seed will release moisture into the air, creating an excess amount of humidity (Taruvinga et al., 2104). Seeds consumed by moisture will invite primary and secondary pests to infect the grains (Taruvinga et al., 2014). A primary pest is one in which will attack undamaged grains as well as damaged grains, and a secondary pest will attack previously invaded grains from primary pests (Taruvinga et al., 2014). Examples of primary insects in Africa are the grain weevil, the larger grain borer, the lesser grain borer, the grain moth and the cowpea weevil; and examples of secondary pests that arise in Africa are the red rust flour beetle and the tropical warehouse moth (Taruvinga et al., 2014). Mold has a huge impact on agricultural seeds and grains in storage, causing nutrient degradation, changes in odour and colour, and causes seed inability to germinate (Taruvinga et al., 2014).

Proper Moisture Content for Diverse Seeds

Table 1 shows the ideal grain moisture percentage for different crops present in 27°C environments. If seeds are intended for human consumption, they should be dried an extra 2% to ensure the absence of all fungal growth which may otherwise deposit mycotoxins (FAO, 1988). When examining seeds that have been in storage, a small-holder farmer should conduct a germination test to ensure the viability of the seeds before planting. This consists of planting fewer seeds before planting all seeds to prevent a decrease in food production.

Table 1: Target Equilibrium Moisture Content (EMC) (FAO, 1988)

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Introduction to Low Cost Grain Moisture Sensors

The grain moisture sensor assists in measuring levels of moisture in the grain using a probe. The size of the meters varies from relatively small to large units. These meters are quick, simple and efficient and take only 1 minute to produce a moisture reading. In order for moisture to be measured, grain is dropped into the barrel of the meter. The funnel which is attached to the top of the barrel is taken off and all seeds are collected in the chamber. From here, the moisture readings are available to be read.

There are two relatively small low-cost solutions that can easily be accessed. The first product is a “Digital Grain Moisture Meter” (Fuzhu, 2011). This meter costs $10.80 USD and can measure moisture content in up to 14 different crops. This meter can measure moisture ranging from 7.5% to 50%, by utilizing robust moisture probes. This probe does require 4 AAA batteries, but it is reported to have a slightly longer battery life than other models. Another low-cost option is the “LGS-1G Cup Grain Moisture Meter”; however it costs $58.00 USD, and can measure the moisture content in the ranges of 3-35% (Haosen, 2016). The advantage of this more expensive option is that it can be applied to 24 different kinds of grain and comes with manual instructions inside a briefcase to keep everything organized and protected. This meter provides readings for moisture, the capacity as well as the weight of the grains/seeds, however a downfall is its battery requirement in addition to an electric outlet. This meter can also be purchased on the website “Alibaba”.

Additionally, a project directed by Kansas State University focused on giving a particular grain moisture meter to several small-holder famers to measure the benefits (Armstrong, 2107). This meter is called the PHL, which stands for “Post-Harvest Loss” (Armstrong, 2107). This meter was used to measure the moisture content in seeds of maize and other crops specifically focusing on the temperature and the humidity. The probe was able to read moisture from bags and bulk seeds (Armstrong, 2107). PHL meters cost $28 USD and were effective for small-holder farmers: the feedback suggested to add a newer sensor model which would reduce the price to $3 USD, manufactured by Sensirion (Armstrong, 2017).

Durability and Ease of Use These products were said to have strong durable probes (Fuzhu, 2011), along with lasting batteries that therefore do not have to be changed as frequently. Nevertheless, a common problem would consist of having to purchase new batteries which might be costly and inaccessible in remote regions; to prevent this problem, the meters should be turned off at all times when inactive and only be used when necessary. The more expensive meter comes with a briefcase, as already noted, in order to ensure the durability and safe keeping of the meter (Haosen, 2016). Small-holder farmers can share the probes which can reduce the costs. These meters come with instructions on how to use them and how to read the moisture content. Language translation may be helpful, along with picture-based instructions for low literacy populations.

More expensive moisture sensor probes

In addition to the low cost grain moisture sensor, there are a variety of more expensive options. A more elaborate grain moisture probe consists of 4 chambers and includes a total of 6 probes (Danao et al., 2015). These probes are highly priced at $1500 USD each; the breakdown of the cost is $1000 per sensor, $100 for hardware and $400 for required power and electrical components, which would be out of reach of small-holder farmers (Danao et al., 2015).

Free, Alternative Methods to Determine if Seeds are Dry

Some moisture meters can be shared between small-holder farmers and may be available at public grain storage facilities (Taruvinga et al., 2014). However, public storage facilities may be remote or inconvenient as specific times; therefore other solutions may be needed to measure grain moisture content. These methods include using one’s teeth to bite the hard seeds; pinching the seeds; or shaking the seeds (Taruvinga et al., 2014). When determining the moisture within the seeds, the seed is dry enough if the seed is hard to the touch, makes sharp sounds or cracks (Taruvinga et al., 2014). Another free and relatively efficient method consists of placing grains in a jar with dry salt for a few minutes. After a few minutes, if the salt is detected on the sides of the jar, then the moisture content is too high; however if the salt is absent from the glass, it has an acceptable moisture content for storage (Taruvinga et al., 2014).

Other grain storage issues

When focusing on the viability of the seeds, one should make certain each seed is dry before being placed in storage (Taruvinga et al., 2014). Aside from proper grain drying, temperature and other issues must also be considered for storing grain. The most effective conditions for storing seeds are at low temperature with little to no moisture: the maximum being 27˚C and 70% relative humidity (FAO, 1988). It is important to note grains being stored in stacks can accommodate temperatures 1-2% higher (FAO, 1988). If temperatures exceed 25°C or fall below 35°C, insects achieve an optimal temperature to destroy the grains, and if the temperature ranges from 15°C and 30°C mold will thrive; however a temperature below 15˚C prevents insect and mold growth (Taruvinga et al., 2014). Grain can easily become affected by insects, mold, and rodents. To ensure the best insect resistant grain, all dust and contaminants should be removed before storing; this can be achieved through threshing (e.g. beating grain heads on the ground) to ensure the removal of insects and pests (FAO, 1988).

Helpful Links To Get Started

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NqnNfTqOkhk&ab_channel=Bry-Air%28Asia%29Pvt.Ltd.

YouTube video explaining seed retardation and giving other viable seed drying options.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WztV5c5Hlxk&ab_channel=ThomasTKtungnung

A video describing the vital importance of having dry seeds in storage.

https://www.fao.org/3/AD230E/AD230E04.htm

A text providing useful tips for seed storage and seed handling.

https://www.fao.org/3/i1816e/i1816e00.pdf

A textbook providing the attributes of seeds, and whether or not they are healthy, also allows for information in seed testing and seed sampling.

https://www.fao.org/3/CA1495EN/ca1495en.pdf

A textbook chapter on proper and effective seed storage.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dLwDQZmALvQ&ab_channel=PARISATECHNOLOGY.

This video included shows how to put together and how to utilize the “Digital Grain Moisture Meter”.

https://www.alibaba.com/product-detail/Grain-Moisture-Digital-Grain-Moisture-Meter_1600093027696.html?spm=a2700.galleryofferlist.normal_offer.d_title.79c23bb0asKvXw&s=p

A website (Alibaba) where you can purchase a “Digital Grain Moisture Meter” for $10.80 USD.

https://www.alibaba.com/product-detail/Grain-Moisture-Factory-Wholesale-LGS-1G_1600227103518.html?spm=a2700.galleryofferlist.normal_offer.d_title.79c23bb0P73T0S&s=p

A website (Alibaba) where you can purchaser a “LGS-1G Cup Grain Moisture Meter” for $58.00 USD.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wTgZzF-MiK0&ab_channel=SKZINDUSTRIAL

A video giving descriptions on how to use the “LGS-1G Cup Grain Moisture Meter”.

References

1. Armstrong, P. R. (2017). Development and Evaluation of a Low-Cost Probe-Type Instrument to Measure the Equilibrium Moisture Content of Grain Applied Engineering in Agriculture, 33(5), 619–627. https://doi.org/10.13031/aea.12266

2. Haosen (Shenzhen) Electronics Technology (2016). Cup Grain Moisture Meter. Alibaba.com. Retrieved November 11, 2021 from https://www.alibaba.com/product-detail/Grain-Moisture-Factory-Wholesale-LGS-1G_1600227103518.html?spm=a2700.galleryofferlist.normal_offer.d_title.79c23bb0P73T0S&s=p

3. Fuzhu Heado Thade (2011). Digital Grain Moisture Meter Hygrometer use for Corn Wheat Rice Bean Peanut Grain Measurement Moisture Humidity Tester AR991. Alibaba.com. Retrieved November 11, 2021 https://www.alibaba.com/product-detail/Grain-Moisture-Digital-Grain-Moisture Meter_1600093027696.html?spm=a2700.galleryofferlist.normal_offer.d_title.79c23bb0asKvXw&s=p

4. Danao, M.-G. C. (2015). Development of a Grain Monitoring Probe to Measure Temperature, Relative Humidity, Carbon Dioxide Levels and Logistical Information During Handling and Transportation of Soybeans. Computers and Electronics in Agriculture, 119, 74–82. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compag.2015.10.008

5. FAO (1988). Farm Structures in Tropical Climates: Chapter Grain Crop Drying, Handling and Storage. Food and Agriculture Organization, Rome. Retrieved November 2, 2021, from https://www.fao.org/3/i2433e/i2433e10.pdf.

6. FAO (2001). Global Ecological Zoning for the Global Forest Resources Assessment 2000 Final Report. Food and Agriculture Organization, Rome. Retrieved November 2, 2021, from https://www.fao.org/3/ad652e/ad652e00.htm

7. Kandala, C. V. K. (2012). Non-destructive Measurement of Moisture Content of Different Varieties of Wheat Using a Single Calibration with a Parallel-Plate Capacitance Sensor. Transactions of the ASABE, 55(4), 1583–1587.

8. Taruvinga C., Mejia D., & Alvarez S.J. (2014). Appropriate Seed and Grain Storage Systems for Small-scale Farmers: Key practices for DRR Implements. FAO, Rome.E-ISBN 978-92-5-108335-2. https://www.fao.org/3/i3769e/i3769e.pdf

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