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(Created page with "<div> <div class="title"><h3>10.4 - The Use of Iodine Udder Wash for Small holder Farmers</h3><br><h3 class="ch-owner">Brooklyn Barber, University of Guelph, Canada </h3></div> <div class="hero-img-2"> 300px <p>Suggested citation for this chapter.</p> <p>Barber,B (2022) The Use of Iodine Udder Wash for Small holder Farmers, The Encyclopedia for Small Scale Farmers. Editor, M.N. Raizada, University of Guelph, Canada. http://www.farmpedia.org</p> <h...")
 
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<div class="title"><h3>10.4 - The Use of Iodine Udder Wash for Small holder Farmers</h3><br><h3 class="ch-owner">Brooklyn Barber,  University of Guelph, Canada </h3></div>
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<p>Suggested citation for this chapter.</p>
<p>Barber,B (2022) The Use of Iodine Udder Wash for Small holder Farmers, The Encyclopedia for Small Scale Farmers. Editor, M.N. Raizada, University of Guelph, Canada. http://www.farmpedia.org</p>
      <h3 class="title-bg">Background on Iodine Udder Wash and Mastitis</h3>
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          <p>Washing the udder of milk bearing animals has been a well-established practice in dairy farming for many years, and most products commonly use iodine as a bacteria-killing agent (Williamson & Lacy-Hulbert, 2013, p. 262). Additionally, most iodine-based udder washes also include an ingredient such as lanolin, glycerin, or coconut oil to moisturize the teats to prevent dry, cracked skin which can increase the risk of infection as bacteria can enter the wounds (Ruegg, 2015). There are different forms of iodine udder wash that can be applied in different ways, but the result is the same, keeping the udder clean and stopping bacteria from entering the udder to prevent mastitis.</p> 
<p>Mastitis is an infection of the udder that can affect the amount and quality of milk an animal produces, and in serious cases can be fatal. There are multiple ways that bacteria get into the udder but the most common are bacteria from the farmer’s hands when milking and inadequate cleaning of udders or milking equipment, making good milking practices and hygiene very important for dairy farmers (Erskine, 2020). Equally important, is ensuring that the animal remains standing for around 30 minutes after milking. This is because it takes time for the teat to close after being milked, which is an opportune time for bacteria to enter the udder. When an animal lays down before the muscles in the teat close, it exposes the teats to bacteria from the ground which can cause mastitis (Krekelberg, 2020).</p>
<p>The most common symptoms of mastitis are red, swollen and/or painful udders that may feel hot to touch, as well as abnormalities in milk. Farmers can check for mastitis by examining the udder for the symptoms mentioned above, and checking milk for defects like blood, clots, and a watery consistency (Erskine, 2020; Taylor, 2021). However, not all cases of mastitis present with obvious symptoms, but they can still decrease milk yield and quality. There are tests to help farmers find asymptomatic mastitis, and it is treatable with veterinary care, but small farms often cannot afford or access tests or treatment which is why prevention of mastitis through hygiene is incredibly important (Mdegela et al., 2009; Romero et al., 2018, pp. 6-7). </p>
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      <h3 class="title-bg">Benefits of Iodine Udder Wash</h3>
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<p>The main benefits of iodine udder wash for smallholder farmers are that decreasing symptomatic and asymptomatic mastitis will potentially increase milk yield and quality, and farmers are less likely to have to pay for veterinary care or cull their animals due to infection. Studies have shown that asymptomatic mastitis can cause significant losses in milk production in developing nations; for example, Adamu et al. (2020, p. 23) found that mastitis causes milk loss of up to 5.6% in Ethiopia and 17.5% in India. Preventing these losses in milk production could mean more food for a farmer’s family or extra product that can be sold for cash.</p>
<p>Another benefit of iodine udder wash is food safety. Milk from cows with symptomatic or asymptomatic mastitis can contain bacteria that can be passed on to humans and make them seriously ill, especially if the milk is consumed raw (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC], 2017; Kamal & Bayoumi, 2015, 1037). In most of Africa, India and other developing nations, the dairy sector is made up of smallholder farmers who primarily sell raw milk, and both buyers and sellers usually lack refrigeration to keep raw or processed milk fresh during the farm-to-table process (Kakati et al, 2015, p. 656; Owusu-Kwarteng et al, 2020, p. 2). Similarly, if smallholder farmers can afford to treat their animals with antibiotics for mastitis, their milk will contain those antibiotics for a period, making prevention preferable to treatment. By preventing mastitis, iodine udder washes help ensure a safe and healthy product for a farmer’s family and for their customers.</p>
<p>Iodine udder wash is also inexpensive. A one-gallon (3.78 litres) bottle of iodine concentrate costs $12.99 USD, and because 1 ounce (29.5 milliliters) of the iodine concentrate is diluted with 3 gallons (11.35 litres) of water, a single one-gallon bottle will make 384 gallons (1453.6 litres) of udder wash (Theisen’s Home Farm Auto, 2021). In the case that a farmer does not have access to clean water to dilute the solution, iodine udder wash products that are directly applied to the udder such as pre- and post-milking teat dips are similarly inexpensive, about $11.62 USD for 21 litres (Alibaba, 2021c). The undiluted iodine products will also require farmers to have a teat dip cup, which is also a very inexpensive piece of equipment priced anywhere from $0.75 USD-$3 USD depending on the number of cups farmers wish to order (Alibaba, 2021a; Alibaba 2021b).</p>
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      <h3 class="title-bg">How to Use Iodine Udder Wash</h3>
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<p>There are different forms of iodine udder wash that require different procedures. For example, some udder washes need to be mixed with water and others are applied directly to the udder, similarly some are used before milking, while others are used after milking (Baumberger et al., 2016; Foran, n.d.), so it is always important to follow the directions on each product. No matter which form of udder wash is used, it is important to make sure that hands and milking equipment are clean, and that the solution stays on the teats for a minimum of 30 seconds, as this is how long it takes for iodine to kill bacteria (Erskine, 2020; Krekelberg, 2020). Also, it is essential to make sure that each teat is fully covered in the iodine solution since missed spots could allow bacteria to enter the udder.</p>
<p>At the end of this document, there are links to pictures and videos explaining how to use different types of iodine udder wash products as well as other resources for improving health and productivity of a herd.</p>
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      <h3 class="title-bg">Adoption of Iodine Udder Wash for Smallholder Farmers</h3>
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<p>To the best of my knowledge, there do not currently seem to be any major initiatives to increase the use of iodine udder wash by smallholder farmers. However, there have been successful interventions in Egypt and Tanzania where smallholder farmers were given the products, tools, and instructions to use iodine udder wash products resulting in fewer cases of asymptomatic mastitis in herds, increasing milk quality and quantity, and by extension improving quality of life for the farmers (Kamal & Bayoumi, 2015; VanLeeuwen et al., 2012).</p>
<p>Farmers also may not be aware of asymptomatic mastitis or they may not realize the financial losses that it can cause (Romero, Benavides & Meza, 2018 p.6), which suggests that education on the topic is needed. Karimuribo et al. (2006) found that offering a mastitis training course and handouts on preventing mastitis and then asking participants to share knowledge with other farmers was effective in reducing mastitis long-term on smallholder farms in Tanzania. A similar training course or handout could be created to educate farmers on the benefits of iodine udder wash. In particular, picture-based lessons and handouts would likely benefit smallholder farmers, as this has been shown to be one of the preferred ways of learning for this population (Devkota et al., 2020). Additionally, educational advertisements on local television and radio programmes would also be beneficial as this is also a primary way that smallholder farmers prefer to receive information (Devkota et al., 2020, p. 10).</p>
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      <h3 class="title-bg">Critical Analysis</h3>
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<p>Though prevention of mastitis is important for smallholder farmers and iodine udder wash could be an effective solution to this problem, it is not without its limitations. As mentioned above, some udder washes require water to mix with the iodine concentrate, but the water used to mix the udder wash must be clean or there is a risk of mastitis causing bacteria being in the water which would render the solution useless (Erskine, 2020). It may be difficult for some farmers to access clean water in which case it would be better for them to use an udder wash that does not need to be diluted and can be directly applied to the udder. However, even udder washes that do not require water do require other equipment such as a teat dip cup that will need to be cleaned to the farmer’s best ability with clean water between milking sessions. So, whether the farmer chooses a diluted wash or a direct wash, there will still be some sort of extra input needed to use the product properly.</p>
<p>In the case of farmers who choose an udder wash that needs to be diluted with water, there will be extra labour involved in obtaining that water and bringing it back to their farm, but this labour cost is potentially offset by the benefits of increased milk quality and quantity through mastitis prevention. Additionally, all forms of udder wash require minimal extra labour during the milking process, and that labour is likely worth the increased milk production (Romero et al., 2018, pp. 7-8).</p>
<p>There is also a concern about excess iodine from udder washes getting into the milk (Borucki Castro et al., 2012, p. 220). Therefore, all iodine udder wash products must be used as directed and instructions generally include cleaning any excess iodine wash from the udder before milking.</p>
<p>A final concern is that the cost of iodine udder wash products may be too expensive for a single smallholder farmer. However, the product could easily be shared amongst a village, farmer group or cooperative to help keep costs down for individual farmers.</p>
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      <h3 class="title-bg">Conclusion</h3>
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<p>Mastitis is a significant problem for smallholder dairy farms and prevention is essential (Mdegala et al., 2009). Iodine udder wash is an inexpensive and easily used product that could reduce the number of symptomatic and asymptomatic mastitis infections which could in turn increase income and quality of life for smallholder farmers (Kamal & Bayoumi, 2015; VanLeeuwen et al., 2012). Initiatives to educate smallholder farmers about mastitis and the use of iodine udder wash as prevention need to be further explored.</p>
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      <h3 class="title-bg">Additional Resources and How-To Videos</h3>
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<p>Text and picture infographic showing how to hand milk cows including pre- and post-dipping procedures: https://animal.ifas.ufl.edu/media/animalifasufledu/dairy/docs/How-to-Properly-Hand-Milk-Cows-(1).pdf</p>
<p>Animated video showing how to use iodine teat dip: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XWW-Pwe8Ac4&list=WL&index=3&t=58s</p>
<p>How to use iodine udder wash that is diluted with water: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jSXjNd0Oumc</p>
<p>Explains a few different ways iodine dips and washes can be applied and best practices for teat dip: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FhEEY0pOGMg&list=WL&index=1</p>
<p>How iodine kills bacteria and prevents mastitis: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=295xJ_G9xZM&list=WL&index=6</p>
<p>Best practices for hand milking dairy cows (available in multiple languages): https://www.accessagriculture.org/hand-milking-dairy-cows</p>
<p>Best practices for keeping milk clean and fresh (available in multiple languages): https://www.accessagriculture.org/keeping-milk-clean-and-fresh</p>
<p>Udder Hygiene Guidebook: https://www.yumpu.com/en/document/view/21451842/udder-hygiene-guidebook-gea-farm-technologies</p>
<p>Iodine teat dip for sale $11.62USD for 21 litres: https://www.alibaba.com/product-detail/HIGH-QUALITY-TEAT-DIP-VIFILM50-1_1600195695253.html?spm=a2700.galleryofferlist.normal_offer.d_image.8a2b59768F6Cpq</p>
<p>Iodine udder wash (needs to be diluted) for $12.99USD – 1 gallon makes 384 gallons: https://www.theisens.com/products/controlled-iodine-udder-wash-concentrate/50030460/</p>
<p>Teat dip cups $1.04USD per piece: https://www.alibaba.com/product-detail/300ml-PP-Plastic-Teat-Dip-Cup_62004828532.html?spm=a2700.galleryofferlist.normal_offer.d_title.47534aeac0IilZ</p>
<p>Teat dip cups for bulk wholesale (min order 1000 pieces at $0.78USD per piece): https://www.alibaba.com/product-detail/Foaming-Teat-Dippers-Return-VTN004-Medicated_1600112153607.html?spm=a2700.galleryofferlist.normal_offer.d_title.6eaa4aea0y5YuV</p>
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      <h3 class="title-bg">References</h3>
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      <p>1. Adamu, H. O., Hussaini, R. O., Obasuyi, C., Anagha, L. I., Okoduwa, G. O. (2020). Prevalence of mastitis in Nigerian livestock: a Review. Open Veterinary Science, 2020(1), 20-29. https://doi.org/10.1515/ovs-2020-0101</p>
<p>2. Alibaba. (2021a). Foaming Teat Dippers Return VTN004 Medicated bath cup Not Reflowable Teat Dip Cup. Alibaba. https://www.alibaba.com/product-detail/Foaming-Teat-Dippers- Return-VTN004- Medicated_1600112153607.html?spm=a2700.galleryofferlist.normal_offer.d_title.6eaa4a ea0y5YuV</p>
<p>3. Alibaba. (2021b). Good quality Non Return Teat Dip Cup. Alibaba. https://www.alibaba.com/product-detail/Good-quality-Non-Return-Teat- Dip_60282723569.html?spm=a2700.galleryofferlist.normal_offer.d_title.6eaa4aea0y5Yu V&s=p</p>
<p>4. Alibaba. (2021c). High Quality Teat Dip - VIFILM50 - 1 KG. Alibaba. https://www.alibaba.com/product-detail/HIGH-QUALITY-TEAT-DIP-VIFILM50- 1_1600195695253.html?spm=a2700.galleryofferlist.normal_offer.d_image.8a2b59768F6 Cpq </p>
<p>5. Baumberger, C., Guarin, J. F., & Ruegg, P. L. (2016). Effect of 2 different premilking teat sanitation routines on reduction of bacterial counts on teat skin of cows on commercial dairy farms. Journal of Dairy Science, 99(4), 2915-2929. http://dx.doi.org/10.3168/jds.2015-10003</p>
<p>6. Borucki Castro, S. I., Berthiaume, R., Robichaud, A., & Lacasse, P. (2012). Effects of iodine intake and teat-dipping practices on milk iodine concentrations in dairy cows. Journal of Dairy Science, 95(1), 213-220. https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.2011-4679</p>
<p>7. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2017). Raw Milk Questions and Answers. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. https://www.cdc.gov/foodsafety/rawmilk/raw-milk- questions-and-answers.html</p>
<p>8. Devkota, R., Odame, H. H., Fitzsimons, J., Pudasaini, R., Raizada, M. N. (2020). Evaluating the Effectiveness of Picture-Based Agricultural Extension Lessons Developed Using Participatory Testing and Editing with Smallholder Women Farmers in Nepal. Sustainability, 12(22), Article 9699. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12229699</p>
<p>9. Erskine, R. J. (2020). Mastitis in Cattle. In Merck Veterinary Manual (11th ed.). Kenilworth, N.J.: Merck & Co. https://www.merckvetmanual.com/reproductive-system/mastitis-in-large- animals/mastitis-in-cattle</p>
<p>10. Foran, M. (n.d.). Milking Procedure Tips - Good Practices Produce Good Results. Ontario Goat. https://ontariogoat.ca/goat-gazette/milking-tips/</p>
<p>11. Kakati, S., Talukdar, A., Hazarika, R. A., Raquib, M., Laskar, S. K., Saikia, G. K., Hussein, Z. (2021). Bacteriological quality of raw milk marketed in and around Guwahati city, Assam, India. Veterinary World, 14(3), 656-660. https://www.doi.org/10.14202/vetworld.2021.656-660</p>
<p>12. Kamal, R. M., & Bayoumi, M. A. (2015). Efficacy of premilking and postmilking teat dipping as a control of subclinical mastitis in Egyptian Dairy cattle. International Food Research Journal, 22(3), 1037-1042. https://www.proquest.com/docview/1692251104/fulltextPDF/58D4AA475D924484PQ/1 ?accountid=11233</p>
<p>13. Karimuribo, E. D., Fitzpatrick, J. L., Bell, C. E., Swai, E. S., Kambarage, D. M., Ogden, N. H., Bryant, M. J., & French, N. P. (2006). Clinical and subclinical mastitis in smallholder dairy farms in Tanzania: Risk, intervention and knowledge transfer. Preventive Veterinary Medicine, 74(1), 84-98. https://doi- org.subzero.lib.uoguelph.ca/10.1016/j.prevetmed.2006.01.009</p>
<p>14. Krekelberg, E. (2020). Timing the milking procedure. University of Minnesota Extension. https://extension.umn.edu/dairy-milking-cows/timing-milking</p>
<p>15. Mdegala, R. H., Ryoba, R., Karimuribo, E. D., Phiri, E. J., Loken, T., Reksen, O., Mtengeti, E., & Urio, N. A. (2009). Prevalence of clinical and subclinical mastitis and quality of milk on smallholder dairy farms in Tanzania. Journal of the South African Veterinary Association, 80(3), 163-168. https://doi:10.1016/j.idairyj.2021.105144</p>
<p>16. Omondi, I., Baltenweck, I., Kinuthia, E., Kirui, L., Njoroge-Wamwere, G., Bett, B., Munene, A., Onle, S., Dida, D., Kiara, H. (2021). Mobile veterinary clinics in the drylands of Kenya: securing pastoralists’ livelihoods by bringing services close. Development in Practice, 31(5), 561-579. https://doi.org/10.1080/09614524.2020.1863917</p>
<p>17. Romero, J., Benavides, E., & Meza, C. (2018). Assessing Financial Impacts of Subclinical Mastitis on Colombian Dairy Farms. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 5, 273. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2018.00273</p>
<p>18. Ruegg, P. L. (2015). Diseases of Bovine Teats and Skin. In Merck Veterinary Manual (11th ed.). Kenilworth, N.J.: Merck & Co. https://www.merckvetmanual.com/reproductive-system/udder- diseases/diseases-of-bovine-teats-and-skin</p>
<p>19. Taylor, V. (2021). The Warning Signs of Mastitis - Analyzing a Combination of Factors to Decide When to Treat Dairy Cows. Ontario Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Rural Affairs, Canada. http://www.omafra.gov.on.ca/english/livestock/dairy/facts/06-049.htm</p>
<p>20. Theisen's Home Farm Auto. (2021). Dairyland Brand Controlled Iodine Udder Wash Concentrate. Theisen's Home Farm Auto. https://www.theisens.com/products/controlled- iodine-udder-wash-concentrate/50030460/</p>
<p>21. VanLeeuwen, J., A., Mellish, T., Walton, C., Kaniaru, A., Gitau, R., Mellish, K., Maina, B., & Wichtel, J. (2012). Management, productivity and livelihood effects on Kenyan smallholder dairy farms from interventions addressing animal health and nutrition and milk quality. Tropical Animal Health and Production, 44(2), 231-238. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11250-011-0003-2</p>
<p>22. Williamson, J. H., & Lacy-Hulbert, S. J. (2013). Effect of disinfecting teats post-milking or pre- and post-milking on intramammary infection and somatic cell count. New Zealand Veterinary Journal, 61(5), 262-268. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00480169.2012.751576</p>

Latest revision as of 14:43, 5 September 2024

10.5 - Sheep and Goat Pox Vaccines


Mark Shorter, University of Guelph, Canada

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Suggested citation for this chapter.

Shorter,M. (2022) Sheep and Goat Pox Vaccines, The Encyclopedia for Small Scale Farmers. Editor, M.N. Raizada, University of Guelph, Canada. http://www.farmpedia.org

Background on Sheep and Goat Pox disease

Sheep Poxvirus (SPV) and Goat Poxvirus (GPV) are diseases that affect small ruminate animals such as sheep and goats (Rao and Bandyopadhyay, 2000, p 127). These diseases are from the genus Capri poxvirus and belong to the family of Poxviridae (Rao and Bandyopadhyay, 2000, p 127). Both are DNA viruses and have at least 147 genes (Rao and Bandyopadhyay, 2000, p 127). These diseases in small ruminates cause several detrimental health affects including pyrexia (fever), lymphadenopathy (enlarged lymph nodes), and skin/internal lesions (Rao and Bandyopadhyay, 2000, p 127). These diseases spread easily in crowded livestock populations, and transmission occurs through contact with the affected skin, inhalation, and through common carrier species like flies and mosquitoes (Rao and Bandyopadhyay, 2000, p 127).

Who does this disease affect

Although these diseases are considered ancient in many areas of the world, they are still actively being transmitted and detrimentally affecting several areas across the globe. To this day, both poxviruses for sheep and goats are considered endemics in several regions including India, the Middle East, in Northern and Central Africa (Rao and Bandyopadhyay, 2000, p 127). Both diseases do not affect all small ruminants equally, as health and age (infant ruminants are considered more at risk than adults) affects the likelihood of more severe disease (Rao and Bandyopadhyay, 2000, p 127). The virulence and strain of Sheep and Goat Pox have been found to also vary drastically between different livestock populations (Rao and Bandyopadhyay, 2000, p 127). Due to the mitigating factors above, there is no all-encompassing fatality rate accepted by researchers of these diseases, however the death rate has been found in studies to vary from 10%-85% (Aregahagn and Tadesse, 2021, p 1). The lower end mortality rate is still very consequential to the economic situation of struggling farmers, and on the high end can destroy a farmer’s vital livestock herd.

Impact these diseases have on small holder farmers in Africa

The detrimental impact of these diseases on small holder farmers in Africa cannot be understated. In many wealthy nations, small ruminant livestock are often overlooked as they do not play a significant role in their economies or population’s food infrastructure. However, in Africa, these livestock have several beneficial attributes that make them vital for small holder farmers. They are crucial as small ruminants “require a smaller investment, have faster growth rates, shorter production cycles, and greater environmental adaptability” (Yune and Abdela, 2017, p 1). These animals also play crucial roles in feeding smallholder farmers and their families as they provide an excellent source of protein and provide important extra income for these farmers to sell their extra meat to local populations (Yune and Abdela, 2017, p 1). These diseases have devastating economic effects due to both their high mortality rates and the damage these diseases cause to the health of animals (Yune and Abdela, 2017, p 1). Especially in sheep, the poxvirus can cause long-lasting damage to their wool, which is a precious economic item that these animals provide for these smallholder farmers (Yune and Abdela, 2017, p 1). A case study in Ethiopia demonstrates the impact these diseases have had on smallholder farmers in Africa. Ethiopia has the largest population of small ruminant livestock in Africa with nearly 49 million of these animals in the nation. A study of a livestock market in Ethiopia found that of the 1432 sheep and 1128 goats tested, over 18% of all sheep and 22% of goats, had been infected and were carrying their respective poxviruses (Yune and Abdela, 2017, p 1-2). These numbers showcase just how prevalent these diseases are among livestock in certain regions in Africa. Another case study showcases just how devastating these diseases can be, as one farmer’s outbreak led to a 49% mortality rate among their livestock and took the farm over 6 years to reach pre-outbreak levels of livestock populations (Yune and Abdela, 2017, p 4). Overall livestock diseases including SPV and GPV result in nearly 25% of all livestock in Africa perishing each year. Studies have also shown infection by either SPV or GPV have been found to reduce milk yield by 30%, and decrease contraception by 32% (IDRC, 2016, p 22). It is estimated that yearly Sheep and Goat Pox disease results in over 479 million USD in losses for smallholder farmers in Africa (IDRC, 2016, p 23).

About the vaccines, are they effective? And what are the costs?

Several different companies produce their own vaccines for both sheep and goat pox, including institutions in Africa, like the National Veterinary Institute in Ethiopia and Animal Health and Veterinary Biologicals, which produce their own vaccines for their nations (Hurisa and Jing, 2018, p 1; Barman and Catterjee, 2010, p 76). As little as one dose of these approved vaccines have been shown in some studies to provide strong lifelong protection against these poxviruses. (Hurisa and Jing, 2018, p 2.). However, some studies have found the opposite, and in certain countries, with evolving strains, a yearly vaccine is needed to keep up strong enough levels of immunity (IDRC, 2016, p 30). One study found that these vaccines provided 90% protection from all illness in the first 12 months and within that time had 100% protection from severe illness (Ammanova, 2021, p 15). Although certain studies have contradicted themselves on the duration of the immunity created by these vaccines, no studies have shown these vaccines being ineffective in protecting these herds from severe outcomes even when immunity wains after the initial year (IDRC, 2016, p 30). Despite these vaccines not being 100% effective, studies have shown that vaccinating an entire farmer’s livestock does provide enough herd immunity to limit and control outbreaks of these diseases (Hurisa and Jing, 2018, p 2). It has been found that the minimum vaccination rate to have strong enough herd immunity to prevent severe outbreaks is 75% (IDRC, 2016, p 24). In one study in Nigeria the economic benefits of vaccination outweighed the costs (in pounds by sterling) “by £372.87 and £42.46 in sedentary herds and £1752.79 and £180.10 in transhumance herds at 50 % subsidy levels” (Rawlins, 2021, p 16). Therefore, if governments provided farmers with as little as a 50% subsidy to provide access to these vaccines, the economic benefits far outweigh the costs of these vaccines.

Issues in the African Vaccination Effort

There are several issues in the current rollout and application of Sheep and Goat Pox vaccines throughout Africa. In many nations in Africa, including Ethiopia, the rollout and application of these precious vaccines are controlled by governments. In a case study in Ethiopia, this caused several problems in the nation’s vaccine effort. Several times these officials have been found to neglect farms that were a longer distance away, and instead only vaccinated local farms near their clinic (Aregahagn and Tadesse, 2021, p 5). There also have been several instances in Ethiopia where vaccinated livestock populations on farms have been found to have been given ineffective vaccines, which has been attributed to poor training in administrating the vaccine and faulty cold storage systems in the nation (Aregahagn and Tadesse, 2021, p 5). Another issue facing these vaccination efforts is the fact that in several nations in Africa, local smallholder farmers are ignored by their governments and not provided with programs to pay or provide them with these vaccines (IDRC, 2016, p 39). This is shown by the differing levels of vaccination across Africa. In 1997, Morocco achieved a sheep pox vaccination rate of 80%, while Tunisia and Algeria reached rates below 50% (Chehida, 2017). This causes several issues as eradication cannot be achieved without a continent-wide effort in Africa.

Solutions Today and Conclusion

Despite the vast number of issues facing these vaccination efforts, there are several workable solutions to help mitigate these issues. First, the desire for these sheep and goat pox vaccines is very high (surveys found it to be at least 97%), which means the first barrier of farmer’s consent is nearly negligible (IDRC, 2020, p 1). The Canadian International Food Security Research Fund based in Ottawa, Canada, did a research project on the issue around Sheep and Goat Pox vaccines and created several solutions to the main problems they found. They created a single-dose vaccine, that was heat stable, and did not require refrigeration, which would be ideal for smallholder farmers in Africa (IDRC, 2020 p 1). They found a local South African company to produce this vaccine in the continent as well, which will make it more localized and cheaper for many African nations (IDRC, 2020, p 1). This project also acknowledged the issue of training and educating local officials and farmers who would be responsible for vaccinating these animals. They created a program and directly trained 288 farmers and healthcare officials to use the vaccine properly, with thousands more trained indirectly through literature and remote learning (IDRC, 2020, p 2). This program and many others like it are investing money in creating solutions for improving vaccine rates in Africa. However, as will be seen in the charts below, this problem is not improving over time. As seen in the information throughout this paper, there needs to be more effort to reach smallholder farmers and eliminate government corruption and ineffectiveness which has plagued these efforts.

Additional Information to Get Started

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nQwfcufDtS4 This video shows the process of how smallholder farmers receive vaccinations for their small ruminate animals in India. It follows one worker’s average day providing both vaccinations and education to farmers.

https://www.idrc.ca/es/node/28084 This is a report on the IDRC’s single dose vaccine project and its expected outcomes for smallholder farmers in Africa and across the globe

https://idl-bnc-idrc.dspacedirect.org/bitstream/handle/10625/2727/41470.pdf?sequence=3&isAllowed=y This is a full report by the IDRC on sheep production throughout Asia. It examines numerous countries and the issues they are facing, including lots of information on sheep pox in those nations.

https://agriculturepost.com/icar-ivri-transfers-technology-csf-sheep-pox-vaccine-to-hester-biosciences/ This is an article about a new sheep pox vaccine made at ICAR-Indian Veterinary Research Institute. They believe this new vaccine will increase protection over a longer period and be affordable enough for lower income farmers.

https://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/81537 This is a good guide for smallholder farmers in Africa that must deal with Sheep and Goat Pox. This provides a detailed guide on the symptoms, ways to mitigate spread, prevent outbreaks, and why vaccinations are beneficial and needed.

https://www.libyanvet.com/Books/10%20Poxviridae.pdf This is a scientific virology review of all poxviruses including Sheep and Goat Pox. This is a good read for those scientifically inclined and wanting to know more about these two viruses’ genetics.

https://www.oie.int/fileadmin/Home/eng/Health_standards/tahm/2.07.13_S_POX_G_POX.pdf This is the World Organization for Animal Health manual for diagnostic tests and vaccines for all livestock. Within this manual is information on both tests and vaccines for Sheep and Goat Pox

Figure 1. This picture shows the first reported occurrences of Sheep and Goat Pox throughout the globe (Chehida, 2017).

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Figure 2. This chart shows the fatality rate of sheep and goat pox over a 16-year period from 1999-2015. (Chehida, 2017)

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References

1. Aregahagn, S. and Belege, T. (2021) Spatiotemporal Distributions of Sheep and Goat Pox Disease Outbreaks in the Period 2013-2019 in Eastern Amhara Region, Ethiopia. Veterinary Medicine International, 2021. 1-7.

2. Amanova, Z. Zhuguissov, K. Barakbayev, K. (2021) Duration of Protective Immunity in Sheep Vaccinated with a Combined Vaccine against Peste des Petisis Ruminants and Sheep Pox. Vaccines. 9. 1-18.

3. Barman, D. And A. Catterjee, C. Guha, U. Biswas, J. Sakar, T.K Roy, B Roy, S. Baidya (2010). Estimation of post vaccination antibody titre against goat pox and determination of protective antibody titre. Small Ruminant Research, 93. 76-78.

4. Chehida, B.F. and E. Ayari-Fakhfakh (2017). Sheep Pox in Tunisia: Current Status and Perspectives. Transboundary and Emerging Diseases, 65, 50-63.

5. Hurisa, T.T. And Zhizhong, J. Guohua, C. Xiao-Bing, H. (2018). A Review on Sheep pox and Goat pox: Insight of Epidemiology, Diagnosis, Treatment and Control Measures in Ethiopia. Journal of Infectious Diseases and Epidemiology, 4. 1-8.

6. International Development Research Centre (2020). Improving Food Security in Africa with Novel Livestock Vaccines. International Development Research Centre (IDRC). Ottawa. 1-3. https://idl-bnc-idrc.dspacedirect.org/handle/10625/58597

7. International Development Research Centre (2016). Sheep and Goat Pox: Disease Monograph Series 22. International Development Research Centre (IDRC), Ottawa. 1-44. https://idl-bnc-idrc.dspacedirect.org/handle/10625/58272

8. Rao, T.V.S. and S.K Bandyopadhyay (2000). A comprehensive review of goat and sheep pox and their diagnosis. Animal Health Research Reviews, 1, 127-136.

9. Rawlins, M.E. Limon, G. Abedeji, A.J. Ijoma, S.I. (2021) Finial Impact of Sheeppox and Goatpox and Estimated Profitability of Vaccination for Substinance Farmers in Selected Northern States of Nigeria. Preventive Veterinary Medicine, 198. 1-17.

10. Yune, N. And Nejash, A. (2017). Epidemiology and Economic Importance of Sheep and Goat Pox: A Review on Past and Current Aspects. Journal of Veterinary Science and Technology, 8. 1-5.

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