Chapters 5.57

5.57 -Adoption of Sunflower for Smallholder Farmers Challenged by Climate Change

Hailey Budway , University of Guelph, Canada

Suggested citation for this chapter.

Budway,H. (2022)Adoption of Sunflower for Smallholder Farmers Challenged by Climate Change, In Farmpedia, The Encyclopedia for Small Scale Farmers. Editor, M.N. Raizada, University of Guelph, Canada. http://www.farmpedia.org

Background to Sunflower

Sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.) is an annual oilseed cash crop originating from central and north America (Hussain et al., 2018) which holds potential for smallholder farmers in moderately drought susceptible environments. As early as 2300 B.C., Native Americans began cultivating and improving the sunflower (Torimiro et al., 2014). It is mainly grown under rainfed conditions on a wide range of soils, with good growth temperatures between 18 to 25 degrees Celsius (FAO, n.d.). Under erratic and low rainfall, a rather deep soil with good water holding capacity is required (FAO, n.d.). As shown in Botswana and Nigeria, adoption of sunflower portends the potential for poverty alleviation specifically in changing climate conditions for rural farmers due to its high nutrient and economic value (Torimiro et al., 2014).

Adoption of the Sunflower and Farming Techniques

Seed availability for a new crop is a constraint throughout the developing world (Hamazakaza et al., 2002). In Zambia, a major problem rural farmers face is the non-availability of local sunflower seed (Hamazakaza et al., 2002). Nevertheless, Zambian farmers can acquire sunflower seeds through various channels, including their own harvest, fellow farmers, agro-dealers and seed companies (Lubungu et al., 2014). Out of the available sunflower varieties, namely Record, Milika, Saona, G101, G100, and Mutinta, farmers generally choose Record or Milika due to the softness of the seed to crush for oil extraction and the high oil content (Hamazakaza et al., 2002). This observation demonstrates the paramount importance of sunflower’s oil availability, even amongst smallholders, above other traits. Within Zambia’s Eastern province, the major commercial seed suppliers are Zamseed and Pannar in Chipata (Lubungu et al., 2014). In the Southern province, seed marketing companies can be located in rural development non-governmental organizations such as Africare (Hamazakaza et al., 2002). These examples illustrate the potential of the local private seed sector in supplying sunflower seeds.

Sunflower is an annual, seasonal crop that prefers temperate environments. For example, in Zambia, smallholder farmers plant sunflower seed following the onset of the rain season, around November onward to December (FAO, n.d.). When it comes to planting a sunflower crop, both direct seeding and transplantation are practiced globally (FAO, n.d.). The ideal plant density is approximately 60, 000 plants/ha with row spacing of about 0.9 m and a seed rate between 4 and 10 kg/ha (FAO, n.d.). One benefit to growing sunflower is that it is considered to grow well despite limited attention to input use, meaning that little weeding or fertilization, specifically nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, sulphur and boron, is necessary (Lubungu et al., 2014). Optimum soil pH is in the range of 6.0 to 7.5 (FAO, n.d.). This is a challenge in the subtropics, where many soils are acidic (“Sunflower Seed”, n.d.). Where soil acidity is an issue, liming is recommended between 500 and 2000 kg/ha depending on pH level and soil type (“Sunflower Seed”, n.d.). Due to sunflower’s growth rate and mature plant size, it is less vulnerable to competition from other crops and weeds (Lubungu et al., 2014). One benefit of this is that sunflower is suitable to be planted in rotation with maize, which is a primary staple crop for rural African farmers especially those residing in Kenya, Malawi, Tanzania, and Zimbabwe (Lubungu et al., 2014). Sunflower is also compatible with other cereal and legume crops globally (Lubungu et al., 2014). Moreover, as shown in Nigeria and Botswana, adding sunflower to an existing crop rotation can reduce pest problems such as corn borer or soybean cyst nematode (Torimiro et al., 2014). If weeds reach maturity before the sunflower crop, however, competition can result in substantial yield loss, which is why it is recommended to weed during the first four weeks after crop emergence (Lubungu et al., 2014). The sheer size of a mature sunflower means that harvesting and handling can impose exceptional labour and waste disposal demands (“Sunflower”, n.d.). Some recommendations include picking when the petals are perpendicular to the flower head and irrigating the land before picking to counteract any wilting (“Sunflower”, n.d.).

Drought Tolerance

With respect to total yield produced, water requirements of sunflower are somewhat high compared to other crops, needing between 600 to 1000 mm (FAO, n.d.). Despite its high-water use, sunflower can withstand short periods of severe soil water deficit, thus classifying it as a medium drought sensitive crop (FAO, n.d.). A downfall is that severe drought causes a reduction in oil and seed production depending on the crop’s growth stage and tolerance of the genotype (Hussain et al., 2018). When drought occurs during the reproductive stage, maximum reduction in yield, and thus quantity of oil, is experienced (Rauf, 2008). However, drought can be managed to minimize its detrimental effects amongst smallholder farmers. Agronomically, the best method to manage drought stress is to irrigate the field (Rauf, 2008). Other drought management techniques include crop rotations, weed control, and the use of mulches to limit evaporation losses, which can improve yields by 15-25% under drought conditions (Rauf, 2008). Although, these methods can increase costs and are dependent on market access, skills in crop and soil management, and infrastructure (Rauf, 2008). Therefore, adoption of sunflower in drier environments will require assistance from an agricultural extension officer.

Economic Benefit vs Cost Analysis

There are two main products that come from sunflower milling: sunflower oil and sunflower cake (Lubungu et al., 2014). Sunflower is fed into mills as whole grains, seed and husk, and cake is the solid remains after it has been ground and pressed (Lubungu et al., 2014). In Zambia, at a low cost, the Yenga oilseed press is most commonly used to extract oil (“piteba”, n.d.). While farmers still find it difficult to exploit the benefits of technologies such as the Yenga due to its price, investment in this machine is one form of adding value to raw produce which can increase household income levels and alleviate nutrition and food insecurity (Hamazakaza et al., 2002). High oil crop varieties such as Record or Milika, which yield an average of 15 liters/50 kg bag of sunflower seed, can allow a farmer to net a good income during peak periods (Hamazakaza et al., 2002). It is to be noted, however, that this income will decrease whether the farmer chooses to leave the cake along with the oil, which can reduce earnings by 20-25% (Lubungu et al., 2014). Though a smallholder farmer can reap economic benefits with an investment such as the Yenga press, the initial price and the lack of available and local oilseed press accessories and spare parts are a major deterrence to rural farmers (Hamazakaza et al., 2002).

Nutrition and Animal Feed

The adoption of sunflower also has enormous potential to enhance nutrition in rural areas and reduce the production gap between edible oil and protein, as shown in Zambia (Hussain et al., 2018). Specifically, sunflower protein is composed of water-soluble B vitamins and a good balance of essential amino acids including lysine, although this can be enhanced with breeding techniques (Adeleke & Barbalola, 2020). For rural people in Zambia, this is especially important as their diets consist mainly of maize (similar to much of East Africa) which lacks adequate amounts of lysine and tryptophan, as well as vitamin B (Nuss & Tanumihardjo, 2011). In addition, sunflower cake from an oilseed press such as Yenga can be used as a composite food source for livestock due to its fat, protein and mineral content (Adeleke & Barbalola, 2020). It is best stored in the dry season when cake is collected in abundance and can be kept in bags under cool and dry conditions to avoid rotting and overheating (Hamazakaza et al., 2002).

Recommendations

There are several constraints for smallholder farmers to grow sunflower in drought-prone environments tolerance. Particularly, as shown in Tanzania, limited technological advances mean that farmers have minimal seed processing capabilities within their individual production practices (Ugulumu & Inanga, 2013). It is also difficult to find and purchase oilseed when one has the money to do so, as producers are not only scattered but produce very little, as illustrated in Zambia (Hamazakaza et al., 2002). Thus, seeds with specific traits may not be available within the local market and from local seed suppliers (Hamazakaza et al., 2002). As shown in Kenya, sunflower agribusiness may be further developed with increased access to varieties and good quality seeds (Okoko et al., 2008). Farmers are encouraged to cost share in the purchase of various inputs, like seeds and fertilizers through cooperatives at the village level, and to form marketing associations to increase stock in the grain bank for ease of accessing these inputs and through sales of seed, cake and oil (Okoko et al., 2008).

Additional practical Links to Get Started

https://projectblue.blob.core.windows.net/media/Default/Imported%20Publication%20Docs/Sunflowers%20as%20a%20field%20and%20tunnel%20grown%20cut%20flower%20crop.pdf • Detailed sunflower manual and information guide

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YfG6hRLhtq8 • Process of sunflower cake and oil extraction (disclaimer: it is with an automatic machine, as there is a lack of manual press videos)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nKeJz8E2QoY • When and how to harvest sunflower seed heads

https://www.theprairiehomestead.com/2019/10/how-to-harvest-and-roast-sunflower-seeds.html • How to harvest and roast sunflower seeds

https://www.sunflowernsa.com/wholeseed/sunflower-as-a-feed/ • Guide to using sunflower as an animal feed

References

1. Adeleke, B. S., & Babalola, O. O. (2020). Oilseed crop sunflower (Helianthus annuus) as a source of food: Nutritional and health benefits. Food Science & Nutrition, 8(9), 4666–4684. https://doi.org/10.1002/fsn3.1783

2. FAO. (n.d.). Land & water. Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations, Rome. Retrieved from http://www.fao.org/land-water/databases-and-software/crop-information/sunflower/en/.

3. Hamazakaza, P., Hamusimbi, C., Kadimba, N., Kapunda, C., & Ndambo, N. (2002). Oilseed processing technologies adoption survey: Case of Yenga oil press technology in Southern Province. Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations, Rome. Retrieved from http://www.fao.org/fileadmin/templates/esw/esw_new/documents/IP/3_zam_yenga_press02.pdf

4. Hussain, M., Farooq, S., Hasan, W., Ul-Allah, S., Tanveer, M., Farooq, M., & Nawaz, A. (2018). Drought stress in sunflower: Physiological effects and its management through breeding and agronomic alternatives. Agricultural Water Management, 201, 152-166. doi:10.1016/j.agwat.2018.01.028

5. Lubungu, M., Burke, W. J., & Sitko, N. J. (2014). Analysis of the sunflower value chain in Zambia’s Eastern province. Indaba Agricultural Policy Research Institute. Retrieved from http://www.aec.msu.edu/fs2/zambia/index.htm

6. Nuss, T., & Tanumihardjo S. (2011). Quality protein maize for Africa: Closing the protein inadequacy gap in vulnerable populations. Advances in Nutrition, 2(3), 217-224. Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3090170/

7. Okoko, N., Mahasi, M. J., & Kidula, N. (2008). Participatory sunflower production, technology dissemination and value addition in Southwest Kenya. African Journal of Agricultural Research, 3(6), 396-398. Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/237785552_Participatory_sunflower_production_technology_dissemination_and_value_addition_in_Southwest_Kenya

8. Piteba. (n.d.). Piteba in the tropics. Retrieved from https://piteba.com/en/content/18-piteba-in-the-tropics.

9. Rauf, S. (2008). Breeding sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.) for drought tolerance. International Journal of the Faculty of Agriculture and Biology, 3(1), 29–44. Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/26514707_Breeding_sunflower_Helianthus_annuus_L_for_drought_tolerance

10. Sunflowers (Helianthus annuus cultivars) as a field- and tunnel-grown cut flower crop. (n.d.). In National Cut Flower Centre. Retrieved from https://projectblue.blob.core.windows.net/media/Default/Imported%20Publication%20Docs/Sunflowers%20as%20a%20field%20and%20tunnel%20grown%20cut%20flower%20crop.pdf

11. Torimiro, D. O., Yusuf, O. J., Subair, S. K., Amujoyegbe, B. J., Tselaesele, N., & Ayinde, J. O. (2014). Utilisation of sunflower crop among smallholder farmers in sub-Saharan Africa: Evidence from Nigeria and Botswana. Journal of Agricultural Extension and Rural Development, 6(9), 298-304. doi:10.5897/jaerd2014.0579

12. Ugulumu, E. S., & Inanga, E. L. (2013). Tanzania's small-scale sunflower farmers: Upgrading the value chain. International Journal of Sciences: Basic and Applied Research, 1, 126-140. Retrieved from https://www.mendeley.com/guides/apa-citation-guide

13. Zamseed. (n.d.). Sunflower seed. Retrieved from https://www.zamseed.co.zm/index.php/agricultural-seed/sunflower-seed