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  <div class="title"><h1>5.7 - Foldable plastic tanks and tarpaulin to collect rainwater</h1><br><h3 class="ch-owner">Mitchell van Schepen, University of Guelph, Canada</h3></div>
  <div class="title"><h3>5.7 - Foldable plastic tanks and tarpaulin to collect rainwater</h3><br><h3 class="ch-owner">Joshua Callaghan, University of Guelph, Canada</h3></div>
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[[File:960px-Rainwater harvest.jpg|300px]]
<p><i>Source:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Rainwater_harvesting_tank_(5981896147).jpg</i></p>
<p>Suggested citation for this chapter.</p>
<p>Lanthier,C. (2022) Contour farming on hillsides to prevent erosion. In Farmpedia, The Encyclopedia for Small Scale Farmers. Editor, M.N. Raizada, University of Guelph, Canada. http://www.farmpedia.org</p>
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       <h3 class="title-bg">Background</h3>
       <h3 class="title-bg">Introduction</h3>
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           <p>The world’s 1 billion women and girls participating in subsistence farming pull weeds by hand to improve their crops and also collect firewood for cooking, resulting in their hands becoming rough and sore (Figure 1). This can be caused by wood splinters being lodged into their skin (Schaffner, 2013). Pulling weeds for hours on end can peel away layers of skin (Food and Agriculture Organization, 2016). The hands of those farmers can also become dirty and smelly from planting seeds in the soil or spreading manure by hand. To avoid the common aforementioned problems as well as hand injuries, such as cuts and scrapes, they could wear gloves on their hands, see the second picture, (Schaffner, 2013). Gloves are very common in the modern world and can be used for construction, farming, and medical practices. Gloves provide a durable layer between the skin on your hands and whatever you are working with (Espasandín-Arias & Goossens, 2014). There are a few different materials used to make gloves, along with different sizes and grips. With over one billion women and girls working on farms around the world, this grueling work can be made safer and more efficient when wearing gloves.</p>
           <p>Rainfall in the sub-tropics can be sporadic with much of it occurring in short bursts, that if collected can benefit smallholder farmers. This is creating a demand for cheap methods for collecting and storing water. Methods to collect rainwater include foldable plastic tanks, or pits at the base of hillsides lined with tarpaulin to collect surface run-off. They both have the potential to provide numerous benefits for smallholder farmers (Barron & Okwach, 2005).</p>
 
<p>A foldable plastic tank is designed to unfold and serve as a vessel for both water collection and storage. The light weight collapsible design allows it to fold up for transportation or storage when not in use, similar to an inflatable swimming pool. By contrast, as noted, the tarpaulin method uses a pit at the bottom of a hill, or slope, lined with a tarp or tarpaulin kit. The theory behind this practice is to use the runoff caused by a rain storm, and as the water flows downhill it will pool into the pit becoming readily available. Investigations have shown that 73% of households have potential to harvesting rainwater from iron roofed houses (Nanyeeya, Mutumba, & Wanyama, 2009). While there is concern over the taste and debris of the collected rainwater, local peoples seemed interested in harvesting it (Handia, Tembo, & Mwiindwa, 2003). These interventions provide all the benefits of a regular barrel, with the addition of being light weight and easy to relocate, however the costs of these systems may be their major constraint.</p>
          <p>Rubber and cloth are the two main kinds of gloves produced (Melco, 2016). They both have their own benefits and drawbacks respectively. A benefit from rubber gloves is their ability to resist water from coming in contact with a farmer's skin, see part two, (Espasandín-Arias & Goossens, 2014). While cloth gloves can be beneficial because they can draw moisture away from their hands and can be easily washed to be cleaned. Because rubber gloves are usually meant to be disposed of after single use they tend to be cheaper to make and thus cheaper to buy. Yet some rubber gloves can be made thicker to reuse and are slightly more durable (Melco, 2016). Cloth gloves are designed to be washed after being used and last a long time under normal working conditions.</p>
 
<p>The costs of these systems range according to their specifications: foldable plastic tanks range from 60-5000 USD, while tarpaulin ranges from 0.5-2.5 USD per square foot (Alibaba.com, 2016). Thin material will be cheaper, while thick material will be less prone to abrasions or punctures. The life span of these systems is also dependent on the treatment of the system and how many patch kits can be made available. If these systems are damaged beyond repair, the material can be used for artificial mulch, a management technique that can increase moisture, decrease weeds, and ultimately increase the yield.</p>  
          <p>Along with the different materials gloves are made of, there are also different arm lengths. Some gloves are cut off just in front or around the wrist. While others can be up to and over the elbow and everywhere in between (Melco, 2016). The benefits of the shorter gloves is comfort, no bunching around wrist or elbow, and they can be quickly put on or removed. The benefits of the long gloves are more protection, the entire forearm will be covered. All the while there is less of a chance of getting debris in their gloves because the opening is farther away from what you are working with. Farmers can also work in deeper water or mud with the long rubber gloves without getting your hands wet.</p>
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          <p>When working with smooth items such as hoes and some fruits and vegetables they can be slippery (Food and Agriculture Organization, 2016). A way to help farmer's hold on to the tools is to get gloves with grips (Melco, 2016). Both rubber and cloth gloves can have grips. Rubber gloves will have ridges in the molds to form grips and granular materials can be added to the outside before drying (Melco, 2016). Another option is to make the rubber gloves out of a non-slip rubber (Melco, 2016). Because cloth alone does not provide grip, cloth gloves must be dipped in liquid rubber to be able to grip smooth objects. The rubber used for grips on cloth gloves can either be non-slip smooth rubber or be rigid (Melco, 2016). </p>
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       <h3 class="title-bg">How the practice is conducted</h3>
       <h3 class="title-bg">Physical Protection</h3>
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          <p>Protection is the main benefit from using gloves. Repetitive motions, such as when pounding grain, can cause irritation to the skin. When collecting firewood the sticks and logs can scratch or cut the skin (Food and Agriculture Organization, 2016). Weeds can be rough and by scratching their hands many times they can become cut and sore (Espasandín-Arias & Goossens, 2014). By lifting and pulling heavy items the top layer of your skin will separate from the next, causing a blister, by wearing gloves they now will prevent blistering because the glove will act as the top layer of skin and prevent the actual skin from separating (Schaffner, 2013). Manure has a lot of bacteria in it which are harmful if they are swallow, so keeping them away from the hands used to eat with is very beneficial (Furlong, et al., 2015). If farmers are working with firewood or in construction the cloth gloves will work better because they are more durable (Food and Agriculture Organization, 2016). The disposable rubber gloves would be the worst to use in this scenario because they are so thin, stick to jobs were the main goals are to keep hands dry and dirt free when using disposable rubber gloves.</p>
<p>To harvest the rainwater using a collapsible water tank, the tank should be placed beneath a drainage pipe or any funneling system, and as the rain flows down the drainage pipe the tank will fill, with water becoming available for multiple uses. Please note that if this system has the intended use of collecting potable water, it is vital to close the lid, or seal the top of the foldable plastic tank in order to discourage any buildup of microbes, disease or algae. A soft military bladder is a good substitute for a collapsible barrel as it is a sealed system that blocks sunlight and pathogens from entering. This system can also be used to collect grey water so long that it is used for irrigation and no other purpose (Van Staden, 2015). A link below will provide the rules and important information for harvesting grey water.</p>
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<p>To harvest rainwater using a tarpaulin system one must first located a proper slope that will provide the most efficient runoff. The next step is to dig a pit at the base and line the pit with the tarpaulin cover or a tarp. Properly undertaken, the water will run down the slope and pool into the pit conserving it for use later on. As mentioned before this system is considerably cheaper however environmental conditions must be considered when preparing this system.</p>  
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       <h3 class="title-bg">Major benefits of this system</h3>
       <h3 style="background: #FBB03B;padding: 15px;font-weight: 600;color: #000;font-size: 22px;margin:unset;text-align:center;">Defense Against Moisture and Chemicals</h3>
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<p>These systems have the potential to increase yields by not only providing the necessary water during critical plant stages, but can also be easily adapted to establish nurseries by using a simple tubing system that allows the tank to be directly connected to a drip irrigation system. This will effectively reduce weeding, extend the growing season, decrease competition for soil nutrients, and increase yields (Feijter, 2015). The harvested water can also be used as drinking water for cattle, that in turn contribute to food, income and social capital (Nanyeeya et al., 2009). Assuming the water can be treated and become available for consumption, this method of rain collection could mean a new source of drinking water in places like Zambia where only 43% of the urban population has access to potable water (Handia et al., 2003). In addition to access to potable water, these systems will also increase sanitation, as recent studies have shown that sanitation is directly related to quality and availability of water (Kahinda, Taigbenu, & Boroto, 2007). New water sources will effectively lower sickness caused by water borne disease, which in turn will increase labor availability for farming (Kahinda et al., 2007). Finally with regards to gender allocation, a analysis has shown that water collection is performed by 24% of boys, 15% of girls, and 13% of woman; 48% of these males used bicycles, while woman carried water on their heads 75% of the time. Hence, improving the availability of water and its storage will provide relief especially for girls and women (Nanyeeya et al., 2009).</p>
          <p>Moisture blocking is a way gloves can prevent your skin from drying out and from getting too wet and dehydrating farmer's hands. By keeping the moisture from the hands inside the gloves they will prevent the skin from cracking and becoming infected (Schaffner, 2013). As well when working in wet conditions your hands can shrivel and become dehydrated if they are constantly in contact with water.</p>
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          <p>Pesticides can be absorbed by your skin and become harmful to the body, gloves provide an extra barrier to block them from entering in a farmer's body (Furlong, et al., 2015). Fertilizers such as nitrogen can also be caustic, and these are usually spread through broadcasting by hand. Mud can get under your nails and into cracked or cut skin and can infect a farmer's hands. Gloves will keep the mud out and keep hands clean. Both liquid pesticides and dry fertilizers can irritate skin if they come into contact with it (Kim, et al., 2013). Wearing the proper gloves, rubber ones in this case, can save their hands from becoming itchy (Keeble et al., 1996). Human skin can also absorb the pesticides which are harmful to your body, wearing gloves would prevent the pesticides from ever touching your skin.</p>
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       <h3 class="title-bg">Challenges</h3>
       <h3 class="title-bg">Wearable</h3>
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          <p>Comfortable gloves help farmer's work longer because their hands will not hurt from completing your task. Sizing is very important when finding comfortable gloves (Melco, 2016). Make sure gloves are the proper length and width, as not to restrict movement. There will be less pain from pulling weeds and they will be able to pull more weeds because they would not have to wait a long for the pain to subside between pulling each weed, because there will be no pain if wearing gloves (Food and Agriculture Organization, 2016). If farmer's find they are working hard and their hands start to sweat the gloves should be removed , dry your hands, and put on a new pair. Cloth gloves are more breathable then rubber ones, using them is another way to prevent hands from getting sweaty. The cloth gloves can also be softer and easier to clean, but are more restricting to movement due to their durability and tougher material. Since children will also be farming, smaller glove sizes can be found. Gloves are designed to fit a farmer's hand snugly, so children should not wear adult sized gloves when working. </p>
<p>Although the foldable plastic tanks provide a number of benefits, the cost of the material is far from attainable for many subsistence farmers, and on top of this, a drainage system must be created and implemented into the roofing system. Further constraints of rainwater harvesting include the safety of using it for potable water. A team of researchers from Stellenbosh University investigated the potential for rainwater harvesting in Africa. Unfortunately although the chemical test results revealed the water qualified to be potable, the microbial test indicated that the water far exceeded recommended safe drinking water guidelines (Kalebaila, 2013). This study analyzed the results and revealed a number of bacteria, pathogens, and fecal coliforms were present from various sources including bird defecation on roof tops (Kalebaila, 2013). The study explained that without a pretreatment, such water would not be recommended for use except for agricultural purpose.</p>
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<p>The tarpaulin method also has its constraints, although the startup costs appears low, labor is required to dig the pit, and access to a pit is critical for this technology. This method is also far less likely to be able to provide potable water even when treated. </p>
<p>In summary, these systems enable harvesting of rainwater, making them available for agricultural purposes. The use of these systems for potable water may or may not be possible.</p>
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       <h1 class="title-bg">Picture Based Lesson to Train Farmers</h1>
       <h3 class="title-bg">Constraints To Adoption</h3>
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          <p>Gloves are very useful to farmers, but there can still be some drawbacks. Possible culturable taboos might vary from location to location. Gloves might seem feminine and not easily adopted by men in the community. Gloves act as a second, tougher skin, but they are not a farmer's skin and can slide around while working. This may feel odd and uncomfortable but farmers can get used to the new feeling over time. Gloves can come in many colours and thicknesses, which may make a farmer's hands look funny or larger. Human skin is very stretchy and flexible, while glove materials tend to be tougher than skin and will reduce movement, but not enough to hinder work. Rubber gloves can stretch well, but make hands sweat, while cloth gloves are breathable but reduce dexterity.</p>
[[Image:6.7.jpg|thumb|centre|Picture Based Lesson to Train Farmer|Click on the image to access a higher resolution image as well as lessons adapted for different geographic regions.]]</p>
          <p>Farmers can find gloves to use and get started from local vendors (European Commission For The Control Of Foot-And-Mouth Disease, 2016). Once you have completed your work for the day you can clean them are reuse them, or dispose of them if they were ripped or torn (Kim, et al., 2013). You can get gloves made of rubber and like materials as well as ones made of durable cloths. The thin rubber gloves tend to be made for a single use only. A trick that the European Commission For The Control Foot-And-Mouth Disease mentions that you can wear two pairs of rubber gloves at the same time for extra protection (European Commission For The Control Of Foot-And-Mouth Disease, 2016).</p>
<p><i>For the South Asian version (pictures only, text for you to insert), click this link for lesson 6.7:http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/6.7_south_asian.pdf.</i></p>
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<p><i>For the East/South Asian version (pictures only, text for you to insert), click this link for lesson 6.7:http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/6.7e.s.a.pdf</i></p>
<p><i>For the Sub-Saharan Africa/Caribbean version (pictures only, text for you to insert), click this link for lesson 6.7:http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/6.7subsaharan_africa_carribean.pdf</i></p>
<p><i>For the Latin-America version (pictures only, text for you to insert), click this link for lesson 6.7:http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/6.7latin_america.pdf</i></p>
<p><i>For North Africa And Middle East version (pictures only, text for you to insert), click this link for lesson Chapter 5. 5.6:http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/5.6n._africa_middleeast.pdf</i></p>
<p><i>Source: MN Raizada and LJ Smith (2016) A Picture Book of Best Practices for Subsistence Farmers:  eBook, University of Guelph Sustainable Agriculture Kit (SAK) Project, June 2016, Guelph, Canada. Available online at: www.SAKBooks.com</i></p>
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      <h3 class="title-bg">Where to buy</h3>
        <div class="cont-bg">
<p>There are a number or places to purchase rainwater harvesting equipment. Alibaba.com has a number of different styles of foldable tank designed to fit a customer’s specifications and budget. As for tarpaulin systems, the startup costs of the material is typically low and priced by the square foot and hence can accommodate different budgets. The following links can be used to purchase these materials:</p>
<p><b> Additional resources</p></b>
<p>Manual for rainwater harvest (note that this uses a normal barrel, simple replace it with a foldable tank)
http://www.sswm.info/category/implementation-tools/water-sources/hardware/precipitation-harvesting/rainwater-harvesting-r</p>
<p>Picture manual of collecting surface runoff
http://www.amshaafrica.org/projects/rainwaterharvesting/plasticlining_pan.jpg </p>
<p><b>Where to buy:</p></b>
<p>https://www.alibaba.com/showroom/agriculture-water-bladder-tank.html </p>
<p>https://www.asianproducts.com/hotproduct/manufacturer_Agriculture-water-bladder.htm</p>
<p>https://www.alibaba.com/trade/search?fsb=y&IndexArea=product_en&CatId=&SearchText=tarpaulin+covers </p>


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<p><b>Harvesting grey water:</p></b>
      <h3 class="title-bg">Helpful Links To Get Started </h3>
<p>http://www.waterwise.co.za/export/sites/water-wise/gardening/water-your-garden/downloads/Greywater_pamphlet.pdf </p>
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          <p>Here are websites to find more information about how to obtain gloves:</p>
          <p>[https://www.alibaba.com/ Alibaba]</p>
          <p>[https://www.indiamart.com/ Indiamart]</p>
          <p>[http://www.store.nzfarmsource.co.nz/ Store Nzfarmsource]</p>
          <p>[https://www.adenna.com Adenna]</p>
          <p>[https://www.farmcity.co.za/ Farmcity]</p>
          <p>[https://www.crazystore.co.za/ Crazystore]</p>
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       <h3 class="title-bg">References</h3>
       <h3 class="title-bg">References</h3>
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           <p>Espasandín-Arias, M., & Goossens, A. (2014). Natural rubber gloves might not protect against skin penetration of methylisothiazolinone. Contact Dermatitis, 70(4), 249-251. doi:10.1111/cod.12221</p>
           <p>1. Alibaba. (2016a). Collapsible Flexible Agriculture Water Storage Tanks Bladders - Buy Agriculture Water Storage Tank,Flexible Water Tank,Collapsible Water Tank Product on Alibaba.com. Retrieved November 19, 2016, from //www.alibaba.com/product-detail/Collapsible-Flexible-Agriculture-Water-Storage-Tanks_60479142931.html</p>
          <p>European Commission For The Control Of Foot-And-Mouth Disease. Suggested FMD PPE guidelines - Food and Agriculture, (2016)  
 
          Food and Agriculture Organization. Rural women in household production: Increasing contributions and persisting drudgery. (2016).
<p>2. Alibaba. (2016b). Tarpaulin Covers-Tarpaulin Covers Manufacturers, Suppliers and Exporters on Alibaba.com100% Polyester Fabric. Retrieved November 20, 2016, from https://www.alibaba.com/trade/search?fsb=y&IndexArea=product_en&CatId=&SearchText=tarpaulin+covers</p>
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          <p>Furlong, M., Tanner, C. M., Goldman, S. M., Bhudhikanok, G. S., Blair, A., Chade, A., . . . Kamel, F. (2015). Protective glove use and hygiene habits modify the associations of specific pesticides with Parkinson's disease. Environment International, 75, 144-150. doi:10.1016/j.envint.2014.11.002</p>
<p>3. Barron, J., & Okwach, G. (2005). Run-off water harvesting for dry spell mitigation in maize (Zea mays L.): results from on-farm research in semi-arid Kenya. Agricultural Water Management, 74(1), 1–21. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agwat.2004.11.002</p>
          <p>Keeble, V. B., Correll, L., & Ehrich, M. (1996). Effect of Laundering on Ability of Glove Fabrics to Decrease the Penetration of Organophosphate Insecticides Through in vitro Epidermal Systems. J. Appl. Toxicol. Journal of Applied Toxicology, 16(5), 401-406. doi:10.1002/(sici)1099-1263(199609)16:53.3.co;2-6</p>
 
          <p>Kim, J., Kim, J., Cha, E., Ko, Y., Kim, D., & Lee, W. (2013). Work-Related Risk Factors by Severity for Acute Pesticide Poisoning Among Male Farmers in South Korea. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 10(3), 1100-1112. doi:10.3390/ijerph10031100</p>
<p>4. MPC. (2016, November 22). Collapsible Storage Systems. Retrieved November 16, 2016, from http://www.mpccontainment.com/millitary-applications-pages-41.php</p>
          <p>Melco, M. (2016). Gardening Gloves. Retrieved from [http://garden.lovetoknow.com/wiki/Gardening_Gloves Garden Lovetoknow]</p>
 
          <p>Schaffner, A. D. (2013). Minimizing Surgical Skin Incision Scars with a Latex Surgical Glove. Aesthetic Plastic Surgery, 37(2), 463-463. doi:10.1007/s00266-013-0071-y</p>
<p>5. Feijter, A. (2015, 11). Importance of nursery raising in vegetable productions. Retrieved from http://agriprofocus.com/upload/Session2_SNV_Importance_nurseryraising1454326737.pdf</p>
 
<p>6. Handia, L., Tembo, J. M., & Mwiindwa, C. (2003). Potential of rainwater harvesting in urban Zambia. Physics and Chemistry of the Earth, Parts A/B/C, 28(20–27), 893–896. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pce.2003.08.016</p>
 
<p>7. Kahinda, J. M., Taigbenu, A. E., & Boroto, J. R. (2007). Domestic rainwater harvesting to improve water supply in rural South Africa. Physics and Chemistry of the Earth, Parts A/B/C, 32(15–18), 1050–1057. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pce.2007.07.007</p>
 
<p>8. Kalebaila, N. (2013, August 30). Rainwater harvest from tanks. South African Water Research Commission. Retrieved from http://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Rainwaterharvestfromtanks%E2%80%93Usefulyes,butcanyoudrinkit.aspx</p>
<p>9. Kummu, M., Ward, P. J., Moel, H. de, & Varis, O. (2010). Is physical water scarcity a new phenomenon? Global assessment of water shortage over the last two millennia. Environmental Research Letters, 5(3), 34006. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/5/3/034006</p>
 
<p>10. Li, Z., Boyle, F., & Reynolds, A. (2010). Rainwater harvesting and greywater treatment systems for domestic application in Ireland. Desalination, 260(1–3), 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2010.05.035</p>
 
<p>11. Nanyeeya, W. N., Mutumba, C., & Wanyama, J. (2009). Farm resource, gender and water use practices in livestock-based livelihood systems of Kirhura dirstrict, South western Uganda. Journal of Animal and Plant Science, 4(1), 304–310.</p>
 
<p>12. Oweis, T., & Hachum, A. (2006). Water harvesting and supplemental irrigation for improved water productivity of dry farming systems in West Asia and North Africa. Agricultural Water Management, 80(1–3), 57–73. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agwat.2005.07.004</p>
 
<p>13. RELMA, & UNEP. (2005). Potential for Rainwater Harvesting in Africa: A GIS Overview (Vol. 1). Retrieved from http://www.unep.org/pdf/RWH_in_Africa-final.pdf</p>
 
<p>14. Amsha Africa. (2010). Runoff Rainwater Harvesting in Rural Africa. Retrieved November 22, 2016, from https://www.amshaafrica.org/projects-and-clients/projects-pipeline/runoff-rainwater-harvesting.html</p>
 
<p>15. Van Staden, E. (2015). Greywater guidlines for home gardens in Gauten. Water wise- Rand Water. Retrieved from http://www.waterwise.co.za/export/sites/water-wise/gardening/water-your-garden/downloads/Greywater_pamphlet.pdf</p>
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Latest revision as of 13:53, 18 August 2022

5.7 - Foldable plastic tanks and tarpaulin to collect rainwater


Joshua Callaghan, University of Guelph, Canada

960px-Rainwater harvest.jpg

Source:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Rainwater_harvesting_tank_(5981896147).jpg

Suggested citation for this chapter.

Lanthier,C. (2022) Contour farming on hillsides to prevent erosion. In Farmpedia, The Encyclopedia for Small Scale Farmers. Editor, M.N. Raizada, University of Guelph, Canada. http://www.farmpedia.org

Introduction

Rainfall in the sub-tropics can be sporadic with much of it occurring in short bursts, that if collected can benefit smallholder farmers. This is creating a demand for cheap methods for collecting and storing water. Methods to collect rainwater include foldable plastic tanks, or pits at the base of hillsides lined with tarpaulin to collect surface run-off. They both have the potential to provide numerous benefits for smallholder farmers (Barron & Okwach, 2005).

A foldable plastic tank is designed to unfold and serve as a vessel for both water collection and storage. The light weight collapsible design allows it to fold up for transportation or storage when not in use, similar to an inflatable swimming pool. By contrast, as noted, the tarpaulin method uses a pit at the bottom of a hill, or slope, lined with a tarp or tarpaulin kit. The theory behind this practice is to use the runoff caused by a rain storm, and as the water flows downhill it will pool into the pit becoming readily available. Investigations have shown that 73% of households have potential to harvesting rainwater from iron roofed houses (Nanyeeya, Mutumba, & Wanyama, 2009). While there is concern over the taste and debris of the collected rainwater, local peoples seemed interested in harvesting it (Handia, Tembo, & Mwiindwa, 2003). These interventions provide all the benefits of a regular barrel, with the addition of being light weight and easy to relocate, however the costs of these systems may be their major constraint.

The costs of these systems range according to their specifications: foldable plastic tanks range from 60-5000 USD, while tarpaulin ranges from 0.5-2.5 USD per square foot (Alibaba.com, 2016). Thin material will be cheaper, while thick material will be less prone to abrasions or punctures. The life span of these systems is also dependent on the treatment of the system and how many patch kits can be made available. If these systems are damaged beyond repair, the material can be used for artificial mulch, a management technique that can increase moisture, decrease weeds, and ultimately increase the yield.

How the practice is conducted

To harvest the rainwater using a collapsible water tank, the tank should be placed beneath a drainage pipe or any funneling system, and as the rain flows down the drainage pipe the tank will fill, with water becoming available for multiple uses. Please note that if this system has the intended use of collecting potable water, it is vital to close the lid, or seal the top of the foldable plastic tank in order to discourage any buildup of microbes, disease or algae. A soft military bladder is a good substitute for a collapsible barrel as it is a sealed system that blocks sunlight and pathogens from entering. This system can also be used to collect grey water so long that it is used for irrigation and no other purpose (Van Staden, 2015). A link below will provide the rules and important information for harvesting grey water.

To harvest rainwater using a tarpaulin system one must first located a proper slope that will provide the most efficient runoff. The next step is to dig a pit at the base and line the pit with the tarpaulin cover or a tarp. Properly undertaken, the water will run down the slope and pool into the pit conserving it for use later on. As mentioned before this system is considerably cheaper however environmental conditions must be considered when preparing this system.

Major benefits of this system

These systems have the potential to increase yields by not only providing the necessary water during critical plant stages, but can also be easily adapted to establish nurseries by using a simple tubing system that allows the tank to be directly connected to a drip irrigation system. This will effectively reduce weeding, extend the growing season, decrease competition for soil nutrients, and increase yields (Feijter, 2015). The harvested water can also be used as drinking water for cattle, that in turn contribute to food, income and social capital (Nanyeeya et al., 2009). Assuming the water can be treated and become available for consumption, this method of rain collection could mean a new source of drinking water in places like Zambia where only 43% of the urban population has access to potable water (Handia et al., 2003). In addition to access to potable water, these systems will also increase sanitation, as recent studies have shown that sanitation is directly related to quality and availability of water (Kahinda, Taigbenu, & Boroto, 2007). New water sources will effectively lower sickness caused by water borne disease, which in turn will increase labor availability for farming (Kahinda et al., 2007). Finally with regards to gender allocation, a analysis has shown that water collection is performed by 24% of boys, 15% of girls, and 13% of woman; 48% of these males used bicycles, while woman carried water on their heads 75% of the time. Hence, improving the availability of water and its storage will provide relief especially for girls and women (Nanyeeya et al., 2009).

Challenges

Although the foldable plastic tanks provide a number of benefits, the cost of the material is far from attainable for many subsistence farmers, and on top of this, a drainage system must be created and implemented into the roofing system. Further constraints of rainwater harvesting include the safety of using it for potable water. A team of researchers from Stellenbosh University investigated the potential for rainwater harvesting in Africa. Unfortunately although the chemical test results revealed the water qualified to be potable, the microbial test indicated that the water far exceeded recommended safe drinking water guidelines (Kalebaila, 2013). This study analyzed the results and revealed a number of bacteria, pathogens, and fecal coliforms were present from various sources including bird defecation on roof tops (Kalebaila, 2013). The study explained that without a pretreatment, such water would not be recommended for use except for agricultural purpose.

The tarpaulin method also has its constraints, although the startup costs appears low, labor is required to dig the pit, and access to a pit is critical for this technology. This method is also far less likely to be able to provide potable water even when treated.

In summary, these systems enable harvesting of rainwater, making them available for agricultural purposes. The use of these systems for potable water may or may not be possible.

Picture Based Lesson to Train Farmers

Click on the image to access a higher resolution image as well as lessons adapted for different geographic regions.

For the South Asian version (pictures only, text for you to insert), click this link for lesson 6.7:http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/6.7_south_asian.pdf.

For the East/South Asian version (pictures only, text for you to insert), click this link for lesson 6.7:http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/6.7e.s.a.pdf

For the Sub-Saharan Africa/Caribbean version (pictures only, text for you to insert), click this link for lesson 6.7:http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/6.7subsaharan_africa_carribean.pdf

For the Latin-America version (pictures only, text for you to insert), click this link for lesson 6.7:http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/6.7latin_america.pdf

For North Africa And Middle East version (pictures only, text for you to insert), click this link for lesson Chapter 5. 5.6:http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/5.6n._africa_middleeast.pdf

Source: MN Raizada and LJ Smith (2016) A Picture Book of Best Practices for Subsistence Farmers: eBook, University of Guelph Sustainable Agriculture Kit (SAK) Project, June 2016, Guelph, Canada. Available online at: www.SAKBooks.com

Where to buy

There are a number or places to purchase rainwater harvesting equipment. Alibaba.com has a number of different styles of foldable tank designed to fit a customer’s specifications and budget. As for tarpaulin systems, the startup costs of the material is typically low and priced by the square foot and hence can accommodate different budgets. The following links can be used to purchase these materials:

Additional resources

Manual for rainwater harvest (note that this uses a normal barrel, simple replace it with a foldable tank) http://www.sswm.info/category/implementation-tools/water-sources/hardware/precipitation-harvesting/rainwater-harvesting-r

Picture manual of collecting surface runoff http://www.amshaafrica.org/projects/rainwaterharvesting/plasticlining_pan.jpg

Where to buy:

https://www.alibaba.com/showroom/agriculture-water-bladder-tank.html

https://www.asianproducts.com/hotproduct/manufacturer_Agriculture-water-bladder.htm

https://www.alibaba.com/trade/search?fsb=y&IndexArea=product_en&CatId=&SearchText=tarpaulin+covers

Harvesting grey water:

http://www.waterwise.co.za/export/sites/water-wise/gardening/water-your-garden/downloads/Greywater_pamphlet.pdf

References

1. Alibaba. (2016a). Collapsible Flexible Agriculture Water Storage Tanks Bladders - Buy Agriculture Water Storage Tank,Flexible Water Tank,Collapsible Water Tank Product on Alibaba.com. Retrieved November 19, 2016, from //www.alibaba.com/product-detail/Collapsible-Flexible-Agriculture-Water-Storage-Tanks_60479142931.html

2. Alibaba. (2016b). Tarpaulin Covers-Tarpaulin Covers Manufacturers, Suppliers and Exporters on Alibaba.com100% Polyester Fabric. Retrieved November 20, 2016, from https://www.alibaba.com/trade/search?fsb=y&IndexArea=product_en&CatId=&SearchText=tarpaulin+covers

3. Barron, J., & Okwach, G. (2005). Run-off water harvesting for dry spell mitigation in maize (Zea mays L.): results from on-farm research in semi-arid Kenya. Agricultural Water Management, 74(1), 1–21. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agwat.2004.11.002

4. MPC. (2016, November 22). Collapsible Storage Systems. Retrieved November 16, 2016, from http://www.mpccontainment.com/millitary-applications-pages-41.php

5. Feijter, A. (2015, 11). Importance of nursery raising in vegetable productions. Retrieved from http://agriprofocus.com/upload/Session2_SNV_Importance_nurseryraising1454326737.pdf

6. Handia, L., Tembo, J. M., & Mwiindwa, C. (2003). Potential of rainwater harvesting in urban Zambia. Physics and Chemistry of the Earth, Parts A/B/C, 28(20–27), 893–896. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pce.2003.08.016

7. Kahinda, J. M., Taigbenu, A. E., & Boroto, J. R. (2007). Domestic rainwater harvesting to improve water supply in rural South Africa. Physics and Chemistry of the Earth, Parts A/B/C, 32(15–18), 1050–1057. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pce.2007.07.007

8. Kalebaila, N. (2013, August 30). Rainwater harvest from tanks. South African Water Research Commission. Retrieved from http://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Rainwaterharvestfromtanks%E2%80%93Usefulyes,butcanyoudrinkit.aspx

9. Kummu, M., Ward, P. J., Moel, H. de, & Varis, O. (2010). Is physical water scarcity a new phenomenon? Global assessment of water shortage over the last two millennia. Environmental Research Letters, 5(3), 34006. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/5/3/034006

10. Li, Z., Boyle, F., & Reynolds, A. (2010). Rainwater harvesting and greywater treatment systems for domestic application in Ireland. Desalination, 260(1–3), 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2010.05.035

11. Nanyeeya, W. N., Mutumba, C., & Wanyama, J. (2009). Farm resource, gender and water use practices in livestock-based livelihood systems of Kirhura dirstrict, South western Uganda. Journal of Animal and Plant Science, 4(1), 304–310.

12. Oweis, T., & Hachum, A. (2006). Water harvesting and supplemental irrigation for improved water productivity of dry farming systems in West Asia and North Africa. Agricultural Water Management, 80(1–3), 57–73. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agwat.2005.07.004

13. RELMA, & UNEP. (2005). Potential for Rainwater Harvesting in Africa: A GIS Overview (Vol. 1). Retrieved from http://www.unep.org/pdf/RWH_in_Africa-final.pdf

14. Amsha Africa. (2010). Runoff Rainwater Harvesting in Rural Africa. Retrieved November 22, 2016, from https://www.amshaafrica.org/projects-and-clients/projects-pipeline/runoff-rainwater-harvesting.html

15. Van Staden, E. (2015). Greywater guidlines for home gardens in Gauten. Water wise- Rand Water. Retrieved from http://www.waterwise.co.za/export/sites/water-wise/gardening/water-your-garden/downloads/Greywater_pamphlet.pdf

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