Chapters 5.49: Difference between revisions

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(Created page with "<div> <div class="title"><h3>5.49 -Drought Tolerant Bean Varieties (Phaseolus vulgaris) Utilized to Overcome the Negative Effects of Climate Change </h3><br><h3 class="ch-owner">Jordan Candido, University of Guelph, Canada </h3></div> <div class="hero-img-2"> 300px <p>Suggested citation for this chapter.</p> <p>Candido,J. (2022) Drought Tolerant Bean Varieties (Phaseolus vulgaris) Utilized to Overcome the Negative Effects of Climate Change, In Farmpedia,...")
 
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  <div class="title"><h3>5.49 -Drought Tolerant Bean Varieties (Phaseolus vulgaris) Utilized to Overcome the Negative Effects of Climate Change </h3><br><h3 class="ch-owner">Jordan Candido, University of Guelph, Canada </h3></div>
  <div class="title"><h3>5.49 -Use of Alfalfa for Smallholder Farmers to Increase Resiliency to Climate Change </h3><br><h3 class="ch-owner">Meghan Glavin, University of Guelph, Canada </h3></div>
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<p>Suggested citation for this chapter.</p>
<p>Suggested citation for this chapter.</p>
<p>Candido,J. (2022) Drought Tolerant Bean Varieties (Phaseolus vulgaris) Utilized to Overcome the Negative Effects of Climate Change, In Farmpedia, The Encyclopedia for Small Scale Farmers. Editor, M.N. Raizada, University of Guelph, Canada. http://www.farmpedia.org</p>
<p>Glavin,M. (2022) Use of Alfalfa for Smallholder Farmers to Increase Resiliency to Climate Change, In Farmpedia, The Encyclopedia for Small Scale Farmers. Editor, M.N. Raizada, University of Guelph, Canada. http://www.farmpedia.org</p>
       <h3 class="title-bg">Background</h3>
       <h3 class="title-bg">Introduction to Alfalfa </h3>
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           <p>During the formation of the International Centre for Tropical Agriculture, or CIAT, in 1967, headquartered in Colombia, the vast majority of starving and malnourished people residing in tropical and sub-tropical regions were smallholder farmers (CIAT, 2017). Thus, the goal of increasing yield potential became a primary priority for CIAT (CIAT, 2017). The current areas of concern are in regard to common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) production systems, the landscapes where its production occurs, and its yield potential (CIAT, 2015). Millions of farmers within Africa and Latin America depend on high yield outcomes from their bean crops not only to provide food but also to provide an income for themselves and their families. However, due to the high demand of the crop and the drastic effects of climate change, farmers continue to struggle to meet the needs of consumers (CIAT, 2015).</p>  
           <p>Alfalfa (Medicago sativa, also known Lucerne) is a very well-known forage crop that is grown worldwide primarily for livestock and soil restoration, and has potential to help smallholder farmers combat climate change. Alfalfa is native to Southwestern Asia and was introduced into western Europe after the invasion of the Romans (Brough, 1977). Due to the crop’s popularity around the world today, there are a diversity of alfalfa varieties available including those with enhanced salt tolerance, drought tolerance, or soil acidity tolerance and/or resistance to disease and pests (Undersander, 2011).</p>
 
<p>Throughout the previous several decades, the impacts of climate change have been worsening (IFPRI, 2009). Climate change projections state that regions in Sub-Saharan Africa, Latin America, and the Caribbean will be greatly affected by an increase of drought conditions and a rise in average annual temperatures. Due to these conditions, the threats to agricultural production within these land areas are escalating (IFPRI, 2009). Within these regions, the common bean is a staple crop; beans are often referred to as “the meat of the poor” (CIAT, 2016). They contain high levels of protein, fibre, vitamins and micronutrients. An estimated 400 million people residing in the tropics consume beans in their daily diet due to their high nutritional content (CIAT, 2016).</p>
<p>Alfalfa see can be obtained from commercial seed companies, with detailed varietal information available from commodity organizations in different countries (e.g. U.S. National Alfalfa and Forage Alliance). Alfalfa does best on well-drained soil, heavy clay soils and requires a neutral pH ranging from 6.5 to 7.0 (Undersander, 2011). Seedling establishment is very critical; poor timing and conditions can lead to low yields, shorter stand life, weed pressure and reduced forage quality (Mueller, 2005). Alfalfa germinates best in a soil temperature between 18 and 29°C and experiences optimum growth during the first month when temperature ranges between 20 and 24°C (Mueller, 2005). In regard to rainfall requirements, once again it is highly dependent on the variety, as some can survive droughts and some yield higher in wetter conditions (especially disease tolerant varieties). In general, however, alfalfa requires 800-1600 mm/growing period; the variation of water requirements depends on the cutting interval – the crop requires more water with more cuttings (FAO, 2020).</p>  
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<p>Weed management can be a challenge when growing alfalfa, however, there are many solutions. Alfalfa can be companion cropped, with crops such as annual ryegrass, oats, and spring barley; together these can reduce weeds, help control erosion, reduce seedling damage and minimize weed competition (Undersander, 2011). Although weeds are not typically a problem if the stand’s foliage is dense enough, Roundup Ready alfalfa is another tool that can be used in order to fight a weed problem without sacrificing the crop (Undersander, 2011). Many farmers choose to integrate alfalfa into their crop rotations due to its benefits on the fertility of the soil. Alfalfa is typically cut mid-bud and is cut multiple times in a growing season. As a result, growing alfalfa can be very labour extensive. Alfalfa is typically baled using twine for storage; however, the moisture content of the alfalfa should be around 20% so farmers should be careful when they harvest.</p>  
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       <h3 class="title-bg">Benefits of Drought Tolerant Bean Varieties to Small Scale Farmers </h3>
       <h3 class="title-bg">Nutrients </h3>
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<p>The nutrient composition of Alfalfa can vary depending on the variety and when the alfalfa is cut. Early cut alfalfa can vary from 16 to 20 percent crude protein as compared to late cut alfalfa which typically contains 12 to 15 percent crude protein (Foster, 2009). Alfalfa is high in the amino acids Lysine, Leucine, Valine, and Arginine, but deficient in Methionine, Tryptophan and Cysteine (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 2012). The fiber content ranges from 20 to 28 percent in alfalfa hay. In the case of beef cattle, one pound of alfalfa per 100 pounds of bodyweight, will supply the animal’s daily requirement for calcium, magnesium, potassium, sulfur, iron and zinc (Foster, 2009).</p>  
<p>The world’s largest and most diverse collection of beans is preserved by CIAT (CIAT, 2015). Beans were domesticated within the neo-tropics thousands of years ago, which is where the majority of CIAT’s germplasm originated. With such an extensive range of beans available, the seed bank contains many options for farmers; a variety of colours, nutritional content, and production requirements can be found within these different strains (CIAT, 2015).</p>
<p>Within the previous 15 years, researchers at the Consortium of International Agricultural Research Centres (CGIAR), CIAT’s umbrella organization, have created incredible advances towards solving issues surrounding drought, and increasing the heat-tolerance and nutritional content levels within common bean varieties (CIAT, 2015). CIAT researchers have been able to identify lines that display a tolerance to a 3˚C increase in temperature. These lines derive from a variety of crosses between common and tepary bean species (Phaseolus acutifolius). Currently cultivated traditional bean varieties have been projected to suffer a 20-50% loss by 2050, whereas heat-tolerant bred beans are projected to suffer minimal losses within that same time period (CIAT, 2015).</p>
 
<p>In order for the new bean varieties to have drought resistant qualities, different traits from different genetic groups were required (Beebe, 2014). Many of the traits which are linked to drought resistance were found within both bean roots and shoots. In order to guarantee a higher success rate of the bean plant, a lengthy root system was required. Additionally, early maturation of the bean crops was a common tactic to combat drought tolerance. A total of 36 genotypes were tested in 2009 during a growing season with significant drought stress. Table 1 shows the field trial results of 5 genotypes grown under different field conditions (Beebe, 2014).</P>
 
<p>Table 1. Drought associated traits associated with improved bean genotypes </p>
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<p>The crops were managed by the irrigation systems for up to 25 days following planting. In order to induce drought stress, the crops were fed a total of 105 mm of water initially followed by an allotted amount of 59 mm of rainwater. An analysis of these trials recommended that the most elite drought tolerant lines expressed heightened stomatal control of transpiration and contained Mexican genetics (Beebe, 2014).</p>
 
<p>Since 1996, The Pan-Africa Bean Research Alliance (PABRA) has released over 550 new drought resistant bean varieties to many of the countries within Africa in co-ordination with assistance from CIAT (CIAT, 2016). Utilizing germplasm available, the new varieties of beans (known as BIO101 and BIO107) contain 60% more iron and 50% more zinc than those of traditional bean crops. Following the creation of these specially bred beans, a trial with pregnant and young women in Rwanda discovered that the new varieties of beans reduced iron-deficiency and increased immune system strength in each of the women (CIAT, 2016). With these new advances, PABRA will assist future production by making the crops more resilient to climate change threats while simultaneously targeting direct effects on the human population (CIAT, 2015).</p>
 
<p>The regions within Latin America, Oceania and Sub-Saharan Africa contain the highest percentage of women participating in the agricultural sector. It is within these regions that 60% of the total agricultural production is completed by women (Huyer, 2016). In the world’s least developed regions, 79% of the women contributing to their national economy report that they work in the agriculture sector (Huyer, 2016). When women engage in the agricultural production (with new technologies such as heat-tolerant bean varieties) it creates a sense of empowerment and thus builds essential assets, which the women are then able to use in all other aspects of their lives (Muriel, 2019). With the climate change innovations available within common bean variety crops, female farmers are considered to be important influences (Huyer, 2016). When the women’s knowledge of available innovative resources and access to information increases, it establishes an increase in food supply as well as a more resilient community. Likewise, an attempt is made to close the gender gap, thus providing a higher chance for equal opportunities between both men and women (Huyer, 2016), which would in turn help to positively shape the future of those regions affected.</p>  
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       <h3 class="title-bg">Gender Issues Associated with Production of Drought Tolerant Bean Varieties </h3>
       <h3 class="title-bg">Uses of Alfalfa  </h3>
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<p>If the farmers, though especially female farmers, are not able to utilize and benefit from these new seed varieties, the food supply decreases and the gender gap increases, which diminishes the resiliency of the community (Huyer, 2016). Additionally, since very little information is available with regards to how poor regions with higher gender discrepancy respond to the threats and impacts of climate change within agricultural production, it is difficult to forecast results for future decades (Huyer, 2016).</p>
<p>Alfalfa is an important forage for livestock due to its high nutritional value and protein content. Alfalfa is able to support livestock, which benefits smallholder farmers in terms of high value meat or milk, labour and as a source of manure (source of nitrogen, potassium, phosphorus, soil organic matter) (Shirani, 2002). In the absence of feed, such as in the dry season, many farmers are forced to sell/slaughter their livestock at a low cost (Government of Western Austrialia, 2019). Because alfalfa feed can be dried and stored at room temperature while retaining nutrients, it has the potential to be useful during extended dry seasons when livestock are most vulnerable to hunger.</p>
<p>Alfalfa also has many benefits in regards to soil health. Alfalfa roots associate with rhizobia bacteria that convert atmospheric nitrogen gas into nitrogen fertilizer which can be deposited into the soil or boost the protein content of the plant (Doran, 2002). A key aspect to nitrogen fixation is ensuring the rhizobacteria in the soil is compatible to alfalfa. If the crop has not been grown in the region before, there may be incompatible rhizobia bacteria in the soil, preventing alfalfa from adding nitrogen to the soil. A solution to this would be to introduce the bacteria to the soil prior to the planting of the alfalfa such as by purchasing rhizobacteria-coated seeds (Martínez-Viveros, 2010). Alfalfa can be a useful tool in the prevention of land degradation, which has shown to be major issue in developing nations.</p>  
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       <h3 class="title-bg">Production of Drought Tolerant Beans (Phaseolus Vulgaris) in Arid Regions </h3>
       <h3 class="title-bg">Critical Analysis</h3>
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<p>It is necessary that farmers are equipped with all of the relevant information required to achieve the highest quality results from their newly adapted bean varieties (PABRA, 2016). Becoming knowledgeable about land preparation, crop management and harvesting is vital to ensuring success within production systems. Integrated crop management (ICM) is a holistic approach utilized by PABRA that assists farmers throughout their cultivation. The desired outcome from ICM is to give smallholder farmers access to cost-effective, climate change resistant crops. This is achieved by working with many international partners. Multiple techniques exist within ICM such as pest management, soil quality, planting and intercropping. With such techniques, approximately six million farmers have been able to improve their bean yields. The ICM research encompasses a variety of areas:</p>
<p>Alfalfa seed value is highly dependent on the type of variety and the traits it possesses. Varieties that have been bred to survive drought (such as Longzhong and Longdong) would be beneficial, however, such varieties will likely cost more in terms of seed. Drought tolerant varieties typically have longer root systems. The price of alfalfa seed generally ranges from $1 to $4 per pound, and it is recommended that pure alfalfa stands should be seeded at 12 to 16 pounds of seed per acre if it is planted conventionally; if the seed is broadcasted, it should be seeded at 14 to 20 pounds per acre (Undersander, 2011). Therefore, depending on the size of the field, alfalfa can have a large upfront cost, especially for subsistence farmers.</p>
<p>-    Cropping systems: Assessing the different varieties of beans while comparing the benefits of intercropping and rotation.</p>
 
<p>-    Inputs: Evaluating the varieties of fertilisers available which are best suitable for the farmer’s chosen bean variety.</p>
<p>Depending on the soil pH, it may be very beneficial to apply lime to the field, especially if it is the first-time growing alfalfa in the area. Soil acidity can greatly affect alfalfa production and the ability for the plant to fix nitrogen; when the pH of a soil is 6.2 or lower, alfalfa plants tend to not grow as well (Undersander, 2011). Liming the soil raises the pH, and therefore, can increase alfalfa yield and stand quality. Bagged lime costs between $12-25 per acre, and there can be a large amount of labour associated with the application of the lime because it must be integrated into the soil below the A horizon in order to have the greatest effects (Smith, 2020).</p>  
<p>-    Water Management: In order to combat the negative effects of climate change and drought, improved practices regarding irrigation and water conservation are fundamental. </p>
 
<p>-    Soil Fertility: By working with the technologies available within the private sector, this promotes biological nitrogen fixation capabilities which increases yield potential.</p>
<p>Similar to agricultural lime, fertilizer can provide great benefits to the quality of an alfalfa stand. Fertilizer requirements are dependent on the soil and the nutrients that are available prior to the fertilizer. Nitrogen fertilizer is not required for alfalfa due to the nitrogen that it adds to the soil via microbial nitrogen fixation. However, newly seeded alfalfa may require some nitrogen fertilizer for its first year in soils that are composed of sand or have very little organic matter (Nebraska Institute of Agriculture and Natural Resources, 2020). The application of phosphorus and potassium are necessary in some soils for a well producing alfalfa stand. Fertilizer prices are highly dependent on the global price of natural gases, so fertilizer costs may vary year to year. Fertilizer that is high in potassium and phosphorus roughly costs $2.00 per lb, however, there are many factors that can alter the price of the fertilizer (Flynn, 2017).</p>  
<p>-    Pest and Disease Management: Bean varieties are frequently affected by an array of pests and diseases which have very negative effects on crop yields. PABRA analyses integrated pest management systems with utilization of both biological and chemical methods (PABRA, 2016).</p>  
 
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</p>Humidity has also been shown to create challenges in the growing and storage of alfalfa. During the growing period, high humidity for long periods can allow disease to flourish in the alfalfa stand. Diseases such as anthracnose, bacterial wilt, and root rot can greatly affect the success of the stand (Undersander, 2011). Furthermore, humidity such be considered when harvesting alfalfa to ensure good quality hay. Alfalfa should be baled at 13-16% moisture; hay baled with a higher moisture has a high probability of developing fungal mold, which will decrease its nutritional value (Undersander, 2011).</p>
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       <h3 class="title-bg">Helpful Links to Get Started </h3>
       <h3 class="title-bg">Links to Useful Resources</h3>
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<p>Resource for Requesting Seeds:</p>
<p>https://ciat.cgiar.org/ciat-projects/adapting-agriculture-to-climate-change-collecting-protecting-and-preparing-crop-wild-relatives/
<p>https://genebank.ciat.cgiar.org/genebank/inforequestmaterial.do</p>
- Seed Bank and Information regarding adapting agriculture to climate change</p>
<p>CIAT innovations on heat-tolerant beans:</p>
<p>https://blog.ciat.cgiar.org/heat-tolerant-wild-beans-tapped-to-breed-commercial-beans-for-hotter-climates/</p>
<p>https://www.agronomy.org/files/publications/alfalfa-management-guide.pdf
<p>What is ‘Seed Security’?</p>
- Link to Alfalfa Management Guide</p>
<p>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xvqSaw49wnE</p>
 
<p>Agricultural Business Skills for seed-producers:</p>
<p>http://www.fao.org/land-water/databases-and-software/crop-information/alfalfa/en/
<p>https://cgspace.cgiar.org/bitstream/handle/10568/54569/handbook_3_english.pdf</p>
- Link to FAO info page on Alfalfa </p>
<p>Crop Management:</p>
 
<p>https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/detail/national/newsroom/features/?&cid=nrcs143_023350</p>
<p>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=y9EBsD1BfXQ
<p>Smallholder Farmers Stories Who Have Adopted Drought Tolerant Bean Varieties:</p>
- YouTube video on how to start a good alfalfa stand from the University of Wisconsin</p>  
<p>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=O2UqFbnOc6U</p>
 
<p>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=x3D3DiZ4I-8</p>
<p>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bViTQWZ_QLQ 
<p>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Qd4RS66FMJM&t=8s</p>
- YouTube video on how to harvest alfalfa using scythe</p>
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<p>https://www.hubbardfeeds.com/blog/preparing-alfalfa-harvest
- Link to article on preparing for alfalfa harvest</p>
 
<p>https://aces.nmsu.edu/pubs/_circulars/CR668/welcome.html
- Link to article on reducing harvest and post-harvest losses of alfalfa</p>
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       <h3 class="title-bg">References </h3>
       <h3 class="title-bg">References </h3>
         <div class="cont-bg">
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<p>1. FAO. (2020). Alfalfa. Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations. FAO, Rome. Retrieved from http://www.fao.org/land-water/databases-and-software/crop-information/alfalfa/en/ </p>
<p>2. Bellague, D., M’Hammedi-Bouzina, M., & Abdelguerfi, A. (2016). Measuring the Performance of Perennial Alfalfa with Drought Tolerance Indices. Chilean Journal of Agricultural Research, 76(3), 273-284.</p>
<p>3. Brough, R. C., Robison, L. R., & Jackson, R. H. (1977). The Historical Diffusion of Alfalfa. Journal of Agronomic Education, 6(1), 13-19. Retrieved from https://www.agronomy.org/files/publications/nse/pdfs/jnr006/006-01-0013.pdf</p> 
<p>4. Doran, J. W. (2002). Soil health and global sustainability: translating science into practice. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, 88(2), 119-127. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1016/S0167-8809(01)00246-8 </p>
<p>5. Flynn, R. (2017). Calculating Fertilizer Costs. New Mexico State University.  Retrieved from https://aces.nmsu.edu/pubs/_a/A133/welcome.html </p>
<p>6. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (2012). Alfalfa Hay: Nutrient Analysis. Retrieved from https://www.feedipedia.org/node/11743</p> 
<p>7. Foster, S., Nelson, D., & McCuin, G. (2009). Alfalfa for Beef Cows. University of Nevada, Reno.  Retrieved from https://extension.unr.edu/publication.aspx?PubID=2228</p>
<p>8. Government of Western Australia: Agriculture and Food. (2019). To hold or sell breeding cattle. Retrieved from https://www.agric.wa.gov.au/dry-seasons and-drought/hold-or-sell-breeding-cattle</p>
<p>9. Martin, N. P., Mertens, D., Hatfield, R., & Jung, H. (2008). Alfalfa: Forage Crop of the Future. University of Kentucky, USA. Retrieved from https://uknowledge.uky.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1072&context=ky_alfalfa </p>
<p>10. Martínez-Viveros, O., Jorquera, M. A., Crowley, D. E., Gajardo, G. M. L. M., & Mora, M. L. (2010). Mechanisms and Practical Considerations Involved in Plant Growth Promotion by Rhizobacteria. Journal of Soil Science and Plant Nutrition, 10(3), 293-319. Retrieved from https://scielo.conicyt.cl/scielo.php?pid=S0718-95162010000100006&script=sci_arttext</p> 
<p>11. Morton, J. (2007). The Impact of Climate Change on Smallholder and Subsistence Agriculture. U.S. National Academy of Sciences.104 (50), 19680-19685
Retrieved from https://www.pnas.org/content/104/50/19680</p>
<p>12. Mueller, S. (2005). Considerations for Successful Alfalfa Stand Establishment in the Central San Joaquin Valley. In Proceeding California Alfalfa and Forage Symposium (pp. 12-14). Retrieved from https://alfalfa.ucdavis.edu/+symposium/proceedings/2005/05-263.pdf </p>


<p>1. Beebe, S.E., et al. (2014) Common beans, biodiversity, and multiple stresses:
<p>13. Shirani, H., Hajabbasi, M. A., Afyuni, M., & Hemmat, A. (2002). Effects of Farmyard Manure and Tillage Systems on Soil Physical Properties and Corn Yield in Central Iran. Soil and Tillage Research, 68(2), 101-108. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1016/S0167-1987(02)00110-1 </p>  
a. challenges of drought resistance in tropical soils. Crop and Pasture Science 65, 667-675. Retrieved from https://www.publish.csiro.au/cp/cp13303</p>
<p>14. Smith, D. (2020). Dial in Soil pH. The Indiana Aglime Council. Retrieved from https://aglime.org/resources/dial-in-soil-ph/ </p>  
<p>2. Buruchara, R. (2011). Development and Delivery of Bean Varieties in Africa: The Pan-
<p>15. Sofi, J. A., Rattan, R. K., Wani, A. A., Mir, S. A., Dar, I. H., & Sofi, K. A. (2018). Nitrogen-Fixing Cover Crops and Chronosequential Effects on Fertility of Apple Orchard Soils. Agricultural Research, 7(1), 51-60. Retrieved from https://idp.springer.com/authorize/casa?redirect_uri=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40003-018-0290-1&casa_token=HGmVIB6nHF8AAAAA:4r2Bz0lyaPSKH2Svp_DXSO9KeZBA8rmrpuKhWdcAe0pmAkcb0Y7ONG2Spkbf4SCdgc_wEv-Icf7krWMfUQ </p>  
a. African Bean Research Alliance (PABRA) Model, p.227-245. African Crop Science Journal. Retrieved from https://www.ajol.info/index.php/acsj/article/view/74168/64827</p>
<p>16. Soil Management to Optimize Alfalfa Production. Nebraska Institute of Agriculture and Natural Resources. (2019). Retrieved from https://cropwatch.unl.edu/forages/soils </p>  
<p>3. Huyer, S, et al. (2016). CCAFS Gender and Social Inclusion Strategy, p.8-11. The  
<p>17. Undersander, D., Cosgrove, D., Cullen, E., Grau, C. (2011). Alfalfa Management Guide. American Society of Agronomy. 3-54. Retrieved from https://www.agronomy.org/files/publications/alfalfa-management-guide.pdf</p>
a. Consortium of International Agricultural Research Centres. Retrieved from https://cgspace.cgiar.org/handle/10568/72900</p>
<p>4. International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI). (2009). Climate Change: Impact
a. on Agriculture and Costs of Adaptation. Retrieved from https://books.google.ca/books?hl=en&lr=&id=1Vpe0JvYTJYC&oi=fnd&pg=PR7&ots=Xmu2c8Swla&sig=GX4sDC1DiDa7I5408r0a3nz2sJo&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false</p>
<p>5. Muriel, J., et al. (2019). The Abbreviated Women’s Empowerment in Agriculture Index
a. (A-WEIA). Project Results for ‘His and Hers, Time and Income: How Intra Household Dynamics Impact Nutrition in Agricultural Households’. The International Centre for Tropical Agriculture. Retrieved from https://cgspace.cgiar.org/handle/10568/101141</p>
<p>6. The International Centre for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT). (2015). Developing Beans that
a. Can Beat the Heat. The Consortium of International Agricultural Research Centres. Retrieved from https://ciat-library.ciat.cgiar.org/articulos_ciat/biblioteca/DEVELOPING_BEANS_THAT_CAN_BEAT_THE_HEAT_lowres%20(2).pdf</p>
<p>7. The International Centre for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT). (2016). Beans. Retrieved from  
a. https://ciat.cgiar.org/what-we-do/breeding-better-crops/beans/.</p>
<p>8. The International Centre for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT). (2017). Fifty Years and Fifty
a. Wins, p.4-18. The Consortium of International Agricultural Research Centres. Retrieved from https://cgspace.cgiar.org/bitstream/handle/10568/89145/50_WINS_WEB02.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y</p>

Revision as of 11:56, 4 July 2022

5.49 -Use of Alfalfa for Smallholder Farmers to Increase Resiliency to Climate Change


Meghan Glavin, University of Guelph, Canada

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Suggested citation for this chapter.

Glavin,M. (2022) Use of Alfalfa for Smallholder Farmers to Increase Resiliency to Climate Change, In Farmpedia, The Encyclopedia for Small Scale Farmers. Editor, M.N. Raizada, University of Guelph, Canada. http://www.farmpedia.org

Introduction to Alfalfa

Alfalfa (Medicago sativa, also known Lucerne) is a very well-known forage crop that is grown worldwide primarily for livestock and soil restoration, and has potential to help smallholder farmers combat climate change. Alfalfa is native to Southwestern Asia and was introduced into western Europe after the invasion of the Romans (Brough, 1977). Due to the crop’s popularity around the world today, there are a diversity of alfalfa varieties available including those with enhanced salt tolerance, drought tolerance, or soil acidity tolerance and/or resistance to disease and pests (Undersander, 2011).

Alfalfa see can be obtained from commercial seed companies, with detailed varietal information available from commodity organizations in different countries (e.g. U.S. National Alfalfa and Forage Alliance). Alfalfa does best on well-drained soil, heavy clay soils and requires a neutral pH ranging from 6.5 to 7.0 (Undersander, 2011). Seedling establishment is very critical; poor timing and conditions can lead to low yields, shorter stand life, weed pressure and reduced forage quality (Mueller, 2005). Alfalfa germinates best in a soil temperature between 18 and 29°C and experiences optimum growth during the first month when temperature ranges between 20 and 24°C (Mueller, 2005). In regard to rainfall requirements, once again it is highly dependent on the variety, as some can survive droughts and some yield higher in wetter conditions (especially disease tolerant varieties). In general, however, alfalfa requires 800-1600 mm/growing period; the variation of water requirements depends on the cutting interval – the crop requires more water with more cuttings (FAO, 2020).

Weed management can be a challenge when growing alfalfa, however, there are many solutions. Alfalfa can be companion cropped, with crops such as annual ryegrass, oats, and spring barley; together these can reduce weeds, help control erosion, reduce seedling damage and minimize weed competition (Undersander, 2011). Although weeds are not typically a problem if the stand’s foliage is dense enough, Roundup Ready alfalfa is another tool that can be used in order to fight a weed problem without sacrificing the crop (Undersander, 2011). Many farmers choose to integrate alfalfa into their crop rotations due to its benefits on the fertility of the soil. Alfalfa is typically cut mid-bud and is cut multiple times in a growing season. As a result, growing alfalfa can be very labour extensive. Alfalfa is typically baled using twine for storage; however, the moisture content of the alfalfa should be around 20% so farmers should be careful when they harvest.

Nutrients

The nutrient composition of Alfalfa can vary depending on the variety and when the alfalfa is cut. Early cut alfalfa can vary from 16 to 20 percent crude protein as compared to late cut alfalfa which typically contains 12 to 15 percent crude protein (Foster, 2009). Alfalfa is high in the amino acids Lysine, Leucine, Valine, and Arginine, but deficient in Methionine, Tryptophan and Cysteine (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 2012). The fiber content ranges from 20 to 28 percent in alfalfa hay. In the case of beef cattle, one pound of alfalfa per 100 pounds of bodyweight, will supply the animal’s daily requirement for calcium, magnesium, potassium, sulfur, iron and zinc (Foster, 2009).

Uses of Alfalfa

Alfalfa is an important forage for livestock due to its high nutritional value and protein content. Alfalfa is able to support livestock, which benefits smallholder farmers in terms of high value meat or milk, labour and as a source of manure (source of nitrogen, potassium, phosphorus, soil organic matter) (Shirani, 2002). In the absence of feed, such as in the dry season, many farmers are forced to sell/slaughter their livestock at a low cost (Government of Western Austrialia, 2019). Because alfalfa feed can be dried and stored at room temperature while retaining nutrients, it has the potential to be useful during extended dry seasons when livestock are most vulnerable to hunger.

Alfalfa also has many benefits in regards to soil health. Alfalfa roots associate with rhizobia bacteria that convert atmospheric nitrogen gas into nitrogen fertilizer which can be deposited into the soil or boost the protein content of the plant (Doran, 2002). A key aspect to nitrogen fixation is ensuring the rhizobacteria in the soil is compatible to alfalfa. If the crop has not been grown in the region before, there may be incompatible rhizobia bacteria in the soil, preventing alfalfa from adding nitrogen to the soil. A solution to this would be to introduce the bacteria to the soil prior to the planting of the alfalfa such as by purchasing rhizobacteria-coated seeds (Martínez-Viveros, 2010). Alfalfa can be a useful tool in the prevention of land degradation, which has shown to be major issue in developing nations.

Critical Analysis

Alfalfa seed value is highly dependent on the type of variety and the traits it possesses. Varieties that have been bred to survive drought (such as Longzhong and Longdong) would be beneficial, however, such varieties will likely cost more in terms of seed. Drought tolerant varieties typically have longer root systems. The price of alfalfa seed generally ranges from $1 to $4 per pound, and it is recommended that pure alfalfa stands should be seeded at 12 to 16 pounds of seed per acre if it is planted conventionally; if the seed is broadcasted, it should be seeded at 14 to 20 pounds per acre (Undersander, 2011). Therefore, depending on the size of the field, alfalfa can have a large upfront cost, especially for subsistence farmers.

Depending on the soil pH, it may be very beneficial to apply lime to the field, especially if it is the first-time growing alfalfa in the area. Soil acidity can greatly affect alfalfa production and the ability for the plant to fix nitrogen; when the pH of a soil is 6.2 or lower, alfalfa plants tend to not grow as well (Undersander, 2011). Liming the soil raises the pH, and therefore, can increase alfalfa yield and stand quality. Bagged lime costs between $12-25 per acre, and there can be a large amount of labour associated with the application of the lime because it must be integrated into the soil below the A horizon in order to have the greatest effects (Smith, 2020).

Similar to agricultural lime, fertilizer can provide great benefits to the quality of an alfalfa stand. Fertilizer requirements are dependent on the soil and the nutrients that are available prior to the fertilizer. Nitrogen fertilizer is not required for alfalfa due to the nitrogen that it adds to the soil via microbial nitrogen fixation. However, newly seeded alfalfa may require some nitrogen fertilizer for its first year in soils that are composed of sand or have very little organic matter (Nebraska Institute of Agriculture and Natural Resources, 2020). The application of phosphorus and potassium are necessary in some soils for a well producing alfalfa stand. Fertilizer prices are highly dependent on the global price of natural gases, so fertilizer costs may vary year to year. Fertilizer that is high in potassium and phosphorus roughly costs $2.00 per lb, however, there are many factors that can alter the price of the fertilizer (Flynn, 2017).

Humidity has also been shown to create challenges in the growing and storage of alfalfa. During the growing period, high humidity for long periods can allow disease to flourish in the alfalfa stand. Diseases such as anthracnose, bacterial wilt, and root rot can greatly affect the success of the stand (Undersander, 2011). Furthermore, humidity such be considered when harvesting alfalfa to ensure good quality hay. Alfalfa should be baled at 13-16% moisture; hay baled with a higher moisture has a high probability of developing fungal mold, which will decrease its nutritional value (Undersander, 2011).

Links to Useful Resources

https://ciat.cgiar.org/ciat-projects/adapting-agriculture-to-climate-change-collecting-protecting-and-preparing-crop-wild-relatives/ - Seed Bank and Information regarding adapting agriculture to climate change

https://www.agronomy.org/files/publications/alfalfa-management-guide.pdf - Link to Alfalfa Management Guide

http://www.fao.org/land-water/databases-and-software/crop-information/alfalfa/en/ - Link to FAO info page on Alfalfa

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=y9EBsD1BfXQ - YouTube video on how to start a good alfalfa stand from the University of Wisconsin

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bViTQWZ_QLQ - YouTube video on how to harvest alfalfa using scythe

https://www.hubbardfeeds.com/blog/preparing-alfalfa-harvest - Link to article on preparing for alfalfa harvest

https://aces.nmsu.edu/pubs/_circulars/CR668/welcome.html - Link to article on reducing harvest and post-harvest losses of alfalfa

References

1. FAO. (2020). Alfalfa. Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations. FAO, Rome. Retrieved from http://www.fao.org/land-water/databases-and-software/crop-information/alfalfa/en/

2. Bellague, D., M’Hammedi-Bouzina, M., & Abdelguerfi, A. (2016). Measuring the Performance of Perennial Alfalfa with Drought Tolerance Indices. Chilean Journal of Agricultural Research, 76(3), 273-284.

3. Brough, R. C., Robison, L. R., & Jackson, R. H. (1977). The Historical Diffusion of Alfalfa. Journal of Agronomic Education, 6(1), 13-19. Retrieved from https://www.agronomy.org/files/publications/nse/pdfs/jnr006/006-01-0013.pdf

4. Doran, J. W. (2002). Soil health and global sustainability: translating science into practice. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, 88(2), 119-127. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1016/S0167-8809(01)00246-8

5. Flynn, R. (2017). Calculating Fertilizer Costs. New Mexico State University. Retrieved from https://aces.nmsu.edu/pubs/_a/A133/welcome.html

6. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (2012). Alfalfa Hay: Nutrient Analysis. Retrieved from https://www.feedipedia.org/node/11743

7. Foster, S., Nelson, D., & McCuin, G. (2009). Alfalfa for Beef Cows. University of Nevada, Reno. Retrieved from https://extension.unr.edu/publication.aspx?PubID=2228

8. Government of Western Australia: Agriculture and Food. (2019). To hold or sell breeding cattle. Retrieved from https://www.agric.wa.gov.au/dry-seasons and-drought/hold-or-sell-breeding-cattle

9. Martin, N. P., Mertens, D., Hatfield, R., & Jung, H. (2008). Alfalfa: Forage Crop of the Future. University of Kentucky, USA. Retrieved from https://uknowledge.uky.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1072&context=ky_alfalfa

10. Martínez-Viveros, O., Jorquera, M. A., Crowley, D. E., Gajardo, G. M. L. M., & Mora, M. L. (2010). Mechanisms and Practical Considerations Involved in Plant Growth Promotion by Rhizobacteria. Journal of Soil Science and Plant Nutrition, 10(3), 293-319. Retrieved from https://scielo.conicyt.cl/scielo.php?pid=S0718-95162010000100006&script=sci_arttext

11. Morton, J. (2007). The Impact of Climate Change on Smallholder and Subsistence Agriculture. U.S. National Academy of Sciences.104 (50), 19680-19685 Retrieved from https://www.pnas.org/content/104/50/19680

12. Mueller, S. (2005). Considerations for Successful Alfalfa Stand Establishment in the Central San Joaquin Valley. In Proceeding California Alfalfa and Forage Symposium (pp. 12-14). Retrieved from https://alfalfa.ucdavis.edu/+symposium/proceedings/2005/05-263.pdf

13. Shirani, H., Hajabbasi, M. A., Afyuni, M., & Hemmat, A. (2002). Effects of Farmyard Manure and Tillage Systems on Soil Physical Properties and Corn Yield in Central Iran. Soil and Tillage Research, 68(2), 101-108. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1016/S0167-1987(02)00110-1

14. Smith, D. (2020). Dial in Soil pH. The Indiana Aglime Council. Retrieved from https://aglime.org/resources/dial-in-soil-ph/

15. Sofi, J. A., Rattan, R. K., Wani, A. A., Mir, S. A., Dar, I. H., & Sofi, K. A. (2018). Nitrogen-Fixing Cover Crops and Chronosequential Effects on Fertility of Apple Orchard Soils. Agricultural Research, 7(1), 51-60. Retrieved from https://idp.springer.com/authorize/casa?redirect_uri=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40003-018-0290-1&casa_token=HGmVIB6nHF8AAAAA:4r2Bz0lyaPSKH2Svp_DXSO9KeZBA8rmrpuKhWdcAe0pmAkcb0Y7ONG2Spkbf4SCdgc_wEv-Icf7krWMfUQ

16. Soil Management to Optimize Alfalfa Production. Nebraska Institute of Agriculture and Natural Resources. (2019). Retrieved from https://cropwatch.unl.edu/forages/soils

17. Undersander, D., Cosgrove, D., Cullen, E., Grau, C. (2011). Alfalfa Management Guide. American Society of Agronomy. 3-54. Retrieved from https://www.agronomy.org/files/publications/alfalfa-management-guide.pdf

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