Chapters 5.37: Difference between revisions

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(Created page with "<div> <div class="title"><h3>5.37 -Drought Tolerant Bean Varieties (Phaseolus vulgaris) Utilized to Overcome the Negative Effects of Climate Change </h3><br><h3 class="ch-owner">Jordan Candido, University of Guelph, Canada </h3></div> <div class="hero-img-2"> 300px <p>Suggested citation for this chapter.</p> <p>Candido,J. (2022) Drought Tolerant Bean Varieties (Phaseolus vulgaris) Utilized to Overcome the Negative Effects of Climate Change, In Farmpedia,...")
 
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  <div class="title"><h3>5.37 -Drought Tolerant Bean Varieties (Phaseolus vulgaris) Utilized to Overcome the Negative Effects of Climate Change </h3><br><h3 class="ch-owner">Jordan Candido, University of Guelph, Canada </h3></div>
  <div class="title"><h3>5.37 -How Pigeon Peas can Combat Drought </h3><br><h3 class="ch-owner">Connor Watson, University of Guelph, Canada </h3></div>
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<p>Suggested citation for this chapter.</p>
<p>Suggested citation for this chapter.</p>
<p>Candido,J. (2022) Drought Tolerant Bean Varieties (Phaseolus vulgaris) Utilized to Overcome the Negative Effects of Climate Change, In Farmpedia, The Encyclopedia for Small Scale Farmers. Editor, M.N. Raizada, University of Guelph, Canada. http://www.farmpedia.org</p>
<p>Watson,C. (2022) How Pigeon Peas can Combat Drought, In Farmpedia, The Encyclopedia for Small Scale Farmers. Editor, M.N. Raizada, University of Guelph, Canada. http://www.farmpedia.org</p>
      <h3 class="title-bg">Issues we are facing today in agriculture </h3>
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          <p>Low-medium income countries experiencing higher air temperatures and more severe/ more frequent droughts associated with climate change are located in the Middle East, Asia, and Africa (IPCC, 2018). Over sixty percent of the world’s population relies on agriculture for survival (FAO, 2014). Without water, crops cannot survive. There are some crops that require less water and can survive these increased temperatures (Grayson, 2013). One crop in particular that can survive these harsh growing conditions is pigeon pea (Cajanus Cajun).</p>
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       <h3 class="title-bg">Background</h3>
       <h3 class="title-bg">Background</h3>
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          <p>During the formation of the International Centre for Tropical Agriculture, or CIAT, in 1967, headquartered in Colombia, the vast majority of starving and malnourished people residing in tropical and sub-tropical regions were smallholder farmers (CIAT, 2017). Thus, the goal of increasing yield potential became a primary priority for CIAT (CIAT, 2017). The current areas of concern are in regard to common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) production systems, the landscapes where its production occurs, and its yield potential (CIAT, 2015). Millions of farmers within Africa and Latin America depend on high yield outcomes from their bean crops not only to provide food but also to provide an income for themselves and their families. However, due to the high demand of the crop and the drastic effects of climate change, farmers continue to struggle to meet the needs of consumers (CIAT, 2015).</p>  
<p>Pigeon pea is a perennial shrub originating in India thousands of years ago; the shrub grows from 0.5 to 4 meters in size and its lifespan consists of about 5 years (ICRISAT, 2017). The shrub comes from a small seed and usually requires 4-8 months before harvest. The pigeon pea is a very special plant because it can grow in diverse environments, is very drought tolerant, high in protein/nutrients, and hence holds promise for wider adoption by farmers jeopardized by increasing drought. The International Crops Research Institute for the Semi- Arid Tropics (ICRISAT) in India is a global breeding institute for pigeon pea and has 13783 different seed accessions in its seedbank from which public organizations can request seed (ICRISAT, 2017).</p>
   
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<p>Throughout the previous several decades, the impacts of climate change have been worsening (IFPRI, 2009). Climate change projections state that regions in Sub-Saharan Africa, Latin America, and the Caribbean will be greatly affected by an increase of drought conditions and a rise in average annual temperatures. Due to these conditions, the threats to agricultural production within these land areas are escalating (IFPRI, 2009). Within these regions, the common bean is a staple crop; beans are often referred to as “the meat of the poor” (CIAT, 2016). They contain high levels of protein, fibre, vitamins and micronutrients. An estimated 400 million people residing in the tropics consume beans in their daily diet due to their high nutritional content (CIAT, 2016).</p>
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      <h3 class="title-bg">Growing Pigeon Peas </h3>
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<p>Pigeon pea will grow in diverse environments with little water and in poor nutrient soils (ICRISAT, 2017). A special feature of pigeon pea is that it is a legume which can associate with nitrogen-fixing rhizobia bacteria to convert atmospheric nitrogen gas into ammonia fertilizer, thus reducing nitrogen fertilizer input requirements.  A second feature is that pigeon pea roots are deep and secrete organic acids to solubilize rock phosphate. These two traits result in pigeon pea being able to grow on degraded soils (ICRISAT, 2017). Pigeon pea grows from seeds, making it very cheap to purchase, and little to no experience is necessary. Because of its versatility, the planting depth of the seed is very flexible; the seeds usually take about 2 to 3 weeks to germinate (FAO, 2019). However, growth will not be evident for about 3 months; growth during the first 3 months is rather slow but then will accelerate. Although pigeon pea is very versatile, the optimal growing conditions consist of soil with a neutral pH range from 5 to 7. Optimal soil also includes the presence of organic matter, 10-13 kg of urea and 40-45 kg of phosphate per acre. Generally, pigeon pea likes a moist soil profile for the first 8 weeks; after that, the legume requires drier conditions through the stages of pod development and flowering. The average rainfall for growing pigeon pea ranges from 600 to 650 mm. Too much rainfall through the flowering stage can result in poor pollination resulting in a possible reduction in crop yields. The ideal temperature for growth ranges from 25 to 35 degrees Celsius, but it can survive as low as 15 degrees Celsius and as high as 40 degrees Celsius. Controlling weeds improves growth especially before planting and 3 weeks after planting to minimize competition for nutrients (FAO, 2019).</p>
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       <h3 class="title-bg">Benefits of Drought Tolerant Bean Varieties to Small Scale Farmers </h3>
       <h3 class="title-bg">Harvest </h3>
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<p>The first harvest ranges from 4-8 months depending on the variety and growing environment (Greenlife Crop Protection Africa, 2018). Pigeon pea plants are short-day plants, requiring 12.5 hours of sunlight per day to produce flowers and hence seeds (Plant guide, 2012). When the plants have green colored leaves and pods. the farmer can harvest them for use as vegetables. If the farmer chooses to use the peas as grain, the pods must be brown and dry to harvest. Heavy clusters form at the end of the branches allowing the farmer to either pick the clusters green or let them hang for a longer duration to dry the peas. In small scale production, harvesting can be done by hand. Yields of pigeon peas average about 700 kg per hectare (ICRISAT, 2017).</p>
<p>The world’s largest and most diverse collection of beans is preserved by CIAT (CIAT, 2015). Beans were domesticated within the neo-tropics thousands of years ago, which is where the majority of CIAT’s germplasm originated. With such an extensive range of beans available, the seed bank contains many options for farmers; a variety of colours, nutritional content, and production requirements can be found within these different strains (CIAT, 2015).</p>
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<p>Within the previous 15 years, researchers at the Consortium of International Agricultural Research Centres (CGIAR), CIAT’s umbrella organization, have created incredible advances towards solving issues surrounding drought, and increasing the heat-tolerance and nutritional content levels within common bean varieties (CIAT, 2015). CIAT researchers have been able to identify lines that display a tolerance to a 3˚C increase in temperature. These lines derive from a variety of crosses between common and tepary bean species (Phaseolus acutifolius). Currently cultivated traditional bean varieties have been projected to suffer a 20-50% loss by 2050, whereas heat-tolerant bred beans are projected to suffer minimal losses within that same time period (CIAT, 2015).</p>  
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      <h3 class="title-bg">Plant Preparation </h3>
<p>In order for the new bean varieties to have drought resistant qualities, different traits from different genetic groups were required (Beebe, 2014). Many of the traits which are linked to drought resistance were found within both bean roots and shoots. In order to guarantee a higher success rate of the bean plant, a lengthy root system was required. Additionally, early maturation of the bean crops was a common tactic to combat drought tolerance. A total of 36 genotypes were tested in 2009 during a growing season with significant drought stress. Table 1 shows the field trial results of 5 genotypes grown under different field conditions (Beebe, 2014).</P>
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<p>In order to prepare the plant for the next harvest, one must prune the branches back to strengthen and encourage new growth within the plant. One pigeon pea plant usually lasts 5 years before new seeds have to be planted, bringing many nutritious meals at a very low cost.  
<p>Table 1. Drought associated traits associated with improved bean genotypes </p>
(ICRISAT, 2017).</p>
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<p>The crops were managed by the irrigation systems for up to 25 days following planting. In order to induce drought stress, the crops were fed a total of 105 mm of water initially followed by an allotted amount of 59 mm of rainwater. An analysis of these trials recommended that the most elite drought tolerant lines expressed heightened stomatal control of transpiration and contained Mexican genetics (Beebe, 2014).</p>
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<p>Since 1996, The Pan-Africa Bean Research Alliance (PABRA) has released over 550 new drought resistant bean varieties to many of the countries within Africa in co-ordination with assistance from CIAT (CIAT, 2016). Utilizing germplasm available, the new varieties of beans (known as BIO101 and BIO107) contain 60% more iron and 50% more zinc than those of traditional bean crops. Following the creation of these specially bred beans, a trial with pregnant and young women in Rwanda discovered that the new varieties of beans reduced iron-deficiency and increased immune system strength in each of the women (CIAT, 2016). With these new advances, PABRA will assist future production by making the crops more resilient to climate change threats while simultaneously targeting direct effects on the human population (CIAT, 2015).</p>
      <h3 class="title-bg">Health Benefits and Nutritional Facts  </h3>
 
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<p>The regions within Latin America, Oceania and Sub-Saharan Africa contain the highest percentage of women participating in the agricultural sector. It is within these regions that 60% of the total agricultural production is completed by women (Huyer, 2016). In the world’s least developed regions, 79% of the women contributing to their national economy report that they work in the agriculture sector (Huyer, 2016). When women engage in the agricultural production (with new technologies such as heat-tolerant bean varieties) it creates a sense of empowerment and thus builds essential assets, which the women are then able to use in all other aspects of their lives (Muriel, 2019). With the climate change innovations available within common bean variety crops, female farmers are considered to be important influences (Huyer, 2016). When the women’s knowledge of available innovative resources and access to information increases, it establishes an increase in food supply as well as a more resilient community. Likewise, an attempt is made to close the gender gap, thus providing a higher chance for equal opportunities between both men and women (Huyer, 2016), which would in turn help to positively shape the future of those regions affected.</p>  
<p>There are many benefits that pigeon peas have on the human body upon consumption. Pigeon peas are high in potassium which dilates blood allowing it to flow more easily throughout the body resulting in reduced blood pressure. The legume is also very high in protein content (22.4 g/100 g) that is required for growth and development, contributing to the formation of bones, cells, tissues, and muscles (Talari and Shakappa, 2018). Pigeon peas can also prevent anemia by providing an adequate amount of iron (5.37±1.36 g/100 g) found in just a single serving (Talari, Shakappa, 2018). Due to the low number of calories (120 g/100 g), cholesterol (0 g/100 g), saturated fats (0.06 g/100 g) and the presence of dietary fiber (6.5 g/100 g) that keeps the body full for long periods, pigeon peas have been to help with weight loss (USDA, 2016) which is an increasing problem in South Asia. Other nutritional facts include: potassium (0.38 g/100 g), Vitamin A (0.1%), iron (10%) and calcium (7.2%) (USDA, 2016).  
*All percentages are based on a 2000 calorie diet.</p>
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      <h3 class="title-bg">Consumption  </h3>
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<p>Around the world, pigeon peas are consumed in different ways; In India, for example, pigeon peas are used as dhal, a traditional soup-like dish made from various split legumes. In Indonesia, the pigeon peas are combined with spices, shrimp paste, lemongrass and other ingredients forming a soup called Jukut Undis. (FAO, 2016). Throughout Africa many dishes are made using pigeon peas and seem to be quite easy to prepare to an extent. The first one is called Mchuzi wa Mbaaz or “pigeon pea stew” and is eaten with starchy meals such as Ugali, rice or chapatti (FAO, 2018). Kimanga cha Mihogo (mashed Cassava and pigeon peas) is a traditional dish of the Kimanga among the lowland Taita community and other drier parts of the Taita bordering the Kamba community (Kenya). This meal is enjoyed throughout the drought seasons because it is filling (FAO, 2018). Nyenyi (Mashed Pigeon Peas & Green Maize) is a traditional delicacy among the Embu community (Kenya).  It consists of mashed potatoes, green maize, and pigeon peas and is served as lunch or dinner. Traditionally the dish is eaten dry, however, in modern times it is eaten as stews (FAO, 2018).</p>
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      <h3 class="title-bg">Global Market</h3>
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<p>From 2012-2014. global production of pigeon peas stood at 4.4 million tonnes; this consisted of about 5.8% of pulse production in the world (FAO, 2019). Over the last 4 decades, pigeon pea production has been rather slow, being grown only in Asia, southeast Africa, and the Caribbean. Currently, there are roughly 19 different varieties of pigeon peas in eastern and southern Africa alone. ICRISAT has recently released 57 new pigeon pea varieties including various high yielding hybrid varieties (FAO, 2019). Each variety varies for crop duration, seed color, disease/pest resistance, and pod load. The development of short-duration varieties has made it possible to include pigeon pea in crop cycles with two crops in a year. Examples of this are found through intercropping with crops such as sorghum, maize, millets, and pulses like mung bean and urd bean (FAO, 2019).</p>
<p>Pigeon peas are traded on the global market with the leading producer being India with 3 million tonnes annually (FAO, 2019). Pigeon pea seeds can be purchased for $11.30/kg USD in India (India Mart, 2019). The average sales price for pigeon pea seeds in India in 2019 was Rs 140/kg which is $1.94/kg USD (India Mart, 2019).</p>  
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      <h3 class="title-bg">Profit for Farmers and Government Marketing Strategy </h3>
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<p>Government-regulated contract farming is a strategy currently being performed in Malawi in East Africa to ensure that farmers have a market for their crops before planting which is critical to wider adoption of any crop. This strategy is allowing farmers to negotiate with producers for better prices with the support of the government as a controller. The issue that many farmers have raised before this program is that middlemen were purchasing the crops and taking a large percentage of the profits, leaving the farmer with less money compared to selling direct (Phiri, 2015). A 2012 study performed in Tanzania, in East Africa, showed that farmers made between 25 to 40 Tshs/kg (0.011- 0.017 USD/kg) for pigeon pea grain (ICRISAT, 2013). Farmers are often times not maximizing their profits, however, because of middlemen. Farmers should be encouraged to maximize incomes through value addition of pigeon pea, because the real profit in agriculture is not from primary production but from post- harvest processing (value addition).</p>
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       <h3 class="title-bg">Gender Issues Associated with Production of Drought Tolerant Bean Varieties </h3>
       <h3 class="title-bg">Other Uses of Pigeon Peas </h3>
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<p>If the farmers, though especially female farmers, are not able to utilize and benefit from these new seed varieties, the food supply decreases and the gender gap increases, which diminishes the resiliency of the community (Huyer, 2016). Additionally, since very little information is available with regards to how poor regions with higher gender discrepancy respond to the threats and impacts of climate change within agricultural production, it is difficult to forecast results for future decades (Huyer, 2016).</p>
<p>Although pigeon peas are very high in protein and are a great source of nutrients, they also have many other uses besides human consumption (ICRISAT, 2010). During the stage of plant preparation, the pigeon pea shrubs are pruned back aggressively to encourage new growth; when this happens the pruning’s fall to the ground where they are a very good source of organic nitrogen fertilizer following decomposition. The leaves that fall are also a very good way to feed livestock, high in nutrients and only costing the farmer time. The pigeon pea shrub is also a great source of firewood: the sticks and brush can be used for cooking and hold heat well, producing energy at the rate of 4350 Kcal/hour (ICRISAT, 2010).</p>
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       <h3 class="title-bg">Production of Drought Tolerant Beans (Phaseolus Vulgaris) in Arid Regions </h3>
       <h3 class="title-bg">Critical analysis </h3>
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<p>It is necessary that farmers are equipped with all of the relevant information required to achieve the highest quality results from their newly adapted bean varieties (PABRA, 2016). Becoming knowledgeable about land preparation, crop management and harvesting is vital to ensuring success within production systems. Integrated crop management (ICM) is a holistic approach utilized by PABRA that assists farmers throughout their cultivation. The desired outcome from ICM is to give smallholder farmers access to cost-effective, climate change resistant crops. This is achieved by working with many international partners. Multiple techniques exist within ICM such as pest management, soil quality, planting and intercropping. With such techniques, approximately six million farmers have been able to improve their bean yields. The ICM research encompasses a variety of areas:</p>
<p>A few common diseases that affect pigeon pea include collar rot, Phytophthora Blight, Fusarium Wilt, Dry Root Rot and Phoma Stem Canker. Below is a link to the “Handbook of Pigeon Pea Diseases” which provides a full description of every disease discovered by man in pigeon peas as well as the underlying pathogen and where they are most likely found (ICRISAT, 1993). Another issue surrounding the crop includes timely cooking; when a woman begins to cook for her family, she must first make a fire using wood which must be collected, potentially from great distances, especially in the very dry subtropics. One solution to this challenge is to encourage cooking using pressure cookers. In South Asia, for example, many people have adopted this practice, saving them time as well as the ability to keep food warm for long periods of time (Marcus, 2013).</p>  
<p>-    Cropping systems: Assessing the different varieties of beans while comparing the benefits of intercropping and rotation.</p> 
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<p>-    Inputs: Evaluating the varieties of fertilisers available which are best suitable for the farmer’s chosen bean variety.</p>
<p>-    Water Management: In order to combat the negative effects of climate change and drought, improved practices regarding irrigation and water conservation are fundamental. </p>
<p>-    Soil Fertility: By working with the technologies available within the private sector, this promotes biological nitrogen fixation capabilities which increases yield potential.</p> 
<p>-    Pest and Disease Management: Bean varieties are frequently affected by an array of pests and diseases which have very negative effects on crop yields. PABRA analyses integrated pest management systems with utilization of both biological and chemical methods (PABRA, 2016).</p>  
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       <h3 class="title-bg">Helpful Links to Get Started </h3>
       <h3 class="title-bg">Helpful Videos and Links </h3>
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<p>Resource for Requesting Seeds:</p>
<p>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hpd_7JNiWkM
<p>https://genebank.ciat.cgiar.org/genebank/inforequestmaterial.do</p>
Above is a link to a YouTube video with some addition information from a young farmer.</p>
<p>CIAT innovations on heat-tolerant beans:</p>
 
<p>https://blog.ciat.cgiar.org/heat-tolerant-wild-beans-tapped-to-breed-commercial-beans-for-hotter-climates/</p>
<p>https://www.roysfarm.com/growing-pigeon-pea/
<p>What is ‘Seed Security’?</p>
Attached above is a link to a full beginner’s guide showing step by step instructions on the basics of growing, planting, requirements for survival, and fun facts about the crop.</p>
<p>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xvqSaw49wnE</p>
 
<p>Agricultural Business Skills for seed-producers:</p>
<p>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=g_gRHbWuVNQ&t=174s
<p>https://cgspace.cgiar.org/bitstream/handle/10568/54569/handbook_3_english.pdf</p>
This YouTube link was a great tutorial/ visual for the harvesting of pigeon peas.</p>  
<p>Crop Management:</p>
 
<p>https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/detail/national/newsroom/features/?&cid=nrcs143_023350</p>
<p>http://www.fao.org/3/I9056EN/i9056en.pdf
<p>Smallholder Farmers Stories Who Have Adopted Drought Tolerant Bean Varieties:</p>
Above is a link to a great recipe book with several pigeon pea recipes, enjoy!</p>  
<p>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=O2UqFbnOc6U</p>
 
<p>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=x3D3DiZ4I-8</p>
<p>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=APnsunmDbwM
<p>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Qd4RS66FMJM&t=8s</p>
Short, easy recipe to a pigeon pea stew</p>  
 
<p>http://oar.icrisat.org/1245/1/HandbookOfPigeonpeaDiseases.pdf
A complete guide for pigeon pea diseases and viruses. </p>  
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       <h3 class="title-bg">References </h3>
       <h3 class="title-bg">References </h3>
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<p>1. Indiamart (2019) Online retailer. Pigeon pea seeds. Available at: https://dir.indiamart.com/search.mp?ss=pigeon+peas&prdsrc=1&search_type=p [Accessed November 11, 2019]</p>
<p>2. Grayson, M. (2013) Agriculture and drought. Nature 501 (7468): S1. Available at: https://www.nature.com/articles/501S1a.pdf [Accessed November 7, 2019]</p>
<p>3. ICRISAT (2013) A Value Chain Analysis for Pigeon Pea in the Southern Regions of Tanzania. ICRISAT, Hyderabad, India.
Available at: http://oar.icrisat.org/7955/1/ISEDPS_17.pdf [Accessed November 7, 2019]</p>
<p>4. FAO (2019) The Global Economy of Pulses. FAO, Rome. Available at: http://www.fao.org/3/i7108en/I7108EN.pdf [Accessed November 10, 2019]</p>
<p>5. FAO (2018) Kenya Food Recipes. FAO, Rome. Available at: http://www.fao.org/3/I9056EN/i9056en.pdf [Accessed November 10, 2019]</p>
<p>6. ICRISAT (2010) Pigeon pea A Resilient crop for the Philippine Drylands. Role of pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan L.) in human nutrition and health ICRISAT, Hyderabad, India. Available at : http://oar.icrisat.org/3557/1/Pigeonpea-resilient-crop.pdf [Accessed November 7, 2019]</p>
<p>7. ICRISAT (2017) Pigeonpea Dashboard. Role of pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan L.) in human nutrition and health. ICRISAT, Hyderabad, India.  Available at: http://genebank.icrisat.org/IND/Dashboard?Crop=Pigeonpea [Accessed November 13, 2019]</p>
<p>8. Talari, A. and Shakappa, D. (2018) Role of pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan L.) in human nutrition and health: A review. Asian Journal Of Dairy and Food Research.2018.(37):212-220 Available at: https://www-cabdirect-org.subzero.lib.uoguelph.ca/cabdirect/FullTextPDF/2018/20183343354.pdf [Accessed November 13, 2019]</p>
<p>9. Grace Phiri (2015) Govt in contract farming strategy for pigeon peas. Available at: https://mwnation.com/govt-in-contract-farming-strategy-for-pigeon-peas/ [Accessed November 20, 2019]</p>
<p>10. FAO (2016) Jukut Undis (Black Pigeon peas Soup). RAO, Rome. Available at: http://www.fao.org/3/a-bl901e.pdf [Accessed November 20, 2019]</p>
<p>11. USDA (2016) Pigeon peas (red gram), mature seeds, cooked, boiled, without salt - 1 cup. Available at: https://www.nutritionix.com/i/usda/pigeon-peas-red-gram-mature-seeds-cooked-boiled-without-salt-1-cup/513fceb675b8dbbc2100220f [Accessed November 20, 2019]</p>
<p>12. Greenlife Crop Protection Africa (2018). Available at: https://www.greenlife.co.ke/pigeon-peas-production/ [Accessed November 20, 2019]</p>
<p>13. Plant Guide (2012) Pigeonpea Plant Guide. Available at: https://plants.usda.gov/plantguide/pdf/pg_caca27.pdf  [Accessed November 11, 2019]</p>
<p>14. IPCC (2018) Impacts of 1.5 degrees Celsius global warming on natural and human systems. Available at: https://www.ipcc.ch/sr15/chapter/chapter-3/ [Accessed November 11, 2019]</p>
<p>15. FAO (2014) Agriculture Remains Central to the World Economy. 60% of the Population Depends on Agriculture for Survival. FAO, Rome. Available at: http://www.expo2015.org/magazine/en/economy/agriculture-remains-central-to-the-world-economy.html [Accessed November 11, 2019]</p>


<p>1. Beebe, S.E., et al. (2014) Common beans, biodiversity, and multiple stresses:
<p>16. ICRISAT (1993) Handbook of Pigeonpea Diseases. ICRISAT, Hyderabad, India. Available at: https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/food-science/pressure-cooking [Accessed November 11, 2019]</p>
a. challenges of drought resistance in tropical soils. Crop and Pasture Science 65, 667-675. Retrieved from https://www.publish.csiro.au/cp/cp13303</p>
<p>2. Buruchara, R. (2011). Development and Delivery of Bean Varieties in Africa: The Pan-
a. African Bean Research Alliance (PABRA) Model, p.227-245. African Crop Science Journal. Retrieved from https://www.ajol.info/index.php/acsj/article/view/74168/64827</p>
<p>3. Huyer, S, et al. (2016). CCAFS Gender and Social Inclusion Strategy, p.8-11. The
a. Consortium of International Agricultural Research Centres. Retrieved from https://cgspace.cgiar.org/handle/10568/72900</p>
<p>4. International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI). (2009). Climate Change: Impact
a. on Agriculture and Costs of Adaptation. Retrieved from https://books.google.ca/books?hl=en&lr=&id=1Vpe0JvYTJYC&oi=fnd&pg=PR7&ots=Xmu2c8Swla&sig=GX4sDC1DiDa7I5408r0a3nz2sJo&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false</p>
<p>5. Muriel, J., et al. (2019). The Abbreviated Women’s Empowerment in Agriculture Index
a. (A-WEIA). Project Results for ‘His and Hers, Time and Income: How Intra Household Dynamics Impact Nutrition in Agricultural Households’. The International Centre for Tropical Agriculture. Retrieved from https://cgspace.cgiar.org/handle/10568/101141</p>
<p>6. The International Centre for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT). (2015). Developing Beans that
a. Can Beat the Heat. The Consortium of International Agricultural Research Centres. Retrieved from https://ciat-library.ciat.cgiar.org/articulos_ciat/biblioteca/DEVELOPING_BEANS_THAT_CAN_BEAT_THE_HEAT_lowres%20(2).pdf</p>
<p>7. The International Centre for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT). (2016). Beans. Retrieved from
a. https://ciat.cgiar.org/what-we-do/breeding-better-crops/beans/.</p>
<p>8. The International Centre for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT). (2017). Fifty Years and Fifty
a. Wins, p.4-18. The Consortium of International Agricultural Research Centres. Retrieved from https://cgspace.cgiar.org/bitstream/handle/10568/89145/50_WINS_WEB02.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y</p>

Revision as of 11:46, 2 July 2022

5.37 -How Pigeon Peas can Combat Drought


Connor Watson, University of Guelph, Canada

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Suggested citation for this chapter.

Watson,C. (2022) How Pigeon Peas can Combat Drought, In Farmpedia, The Encyclopedia for Small Scale Farmers. Editor, M.N. Raizada, University of Guelph, Canada. http://www.farmpedia.org

Issues we are facing today in agriculture

Low-medium income countries experiencing higher air temperatures and more severe/ more frequent droughts associated with climate change are located in the Middle East, Asia, and Africa (IPCC, 2018). Over sixty percent of the world’s population relies on agriculture for survival (FAO, 2014). Without water, crops cannot survive. There are some crops that require less water and can survive these increased temperatures (Grayson, 2013). One crop in particular that can survive these harsh growing conditions is pigeon pea (Cajanus Cajun).

Background

Pigeon pea is a perennial shrub originating in India thousands of years ago; the shrub grows from 0.5 to 4 meters in size and its lifespan consists of about 5 years (ICRISAT, 2017). The shrub comes from a small seed and usually requires 4-8 months before harvest. The pigeon pea is a very special plant because it can grow in diverse environments, is very drought tolerant, high in protein/nutrients, and hence holds promise for wider adoption by farmers jeopardized by increasing drought. The International Crops Research Institute for the Semi- Arid Tropics (ICRISAT) in India is a global breeding institute for pigeon pea and has 13783 different seed accessions in its seedbank from which public organizations can request seed (ICRISAT, 2017).

Growing Pigeon Peas

Pigeon pea will grow in diverse environments with little water and in poor nutrient soils (ICRISAT, 2017). A special feature of pigeon pea is that it is a legume which can associate with nitrogen-fixing rhizobia bacteria to convert atmospheric nitrogen gas into ammonia fertilizer, thus reducing nitrogen fertilizer input requirements. A second feature is that pigeon pea roots are deep and secrete organic acids to solubilize rock phosphate. These two traits result in pigeon pea being able to grow on degraded soils (ICRISAT, 2017). Pigeon pea grows from seeds, making it very cheap to purchase, and little to no experience is necessary. Because of its versatility, the planting depth of the seed is very flexible; the seeds usually take about 2 to 3 weeks to germinate (FAO, 2019). However, growth will not be evident for about 3 months; growth during the first 3 months is rather slow but then will accelerate. Although pigeon pea is very versatile, the optimal growing conditions consist of soil with a neutral pH range from 5 to 7. Optimal soil also includes the presence of organic matter, 10-13 kg of urea and 40-45 kg of phosphate per acre. Generally, pigeon pea likes a moist soil profile for the first 8 weeks; after that, the legume requires drier conditions through the stages of pod development and flowering. The average rainfall for growing pigeon pea ranges from 600 to 650 mm. Too much rainfall through the flowering stage can result in poor pollination resulting in a possible reduction in crop yields. The ideal temperature for growth ranges from 25 to 35 degrees Celsius, but it can survive as low as 15 degrees Celsius and as high as 40 degrees Celsius. Controlling weeds improves growth especially before planting and 3 weeks after planting to minimize competition for nutrients (FAO, 2019).

Harvest

The first harvest ranges from 4-8 months depending on the variety and growing environment (Greenlife Crop Protection Africa, 2018). Pigeon pea plants are short-day plants, requiring 12.5 hours of sunlight per day to produce flowers and hence seeds (Plant guide, 2012). When the plants have green colored leaves and pods. the farmer can harvest them for use as vegetables. If the farmer chooses to use the peas as grain, the pods must be brown and dry to harvest. Heavy clusters form at the end of the branches allowing the farmer to either pick the clusters green or let them hang for a longer duration to dry the peas. In small scale production, harvesting can be done by hand. Yields of pigeon peas average about 700 kg per hectare (ICRISAT, 2017).

Plant Preparation

In order to prepare the plant for the next harvest, one must prune the branches back to strengthen and encourage new growth within the plant. One pigeon pea plant usually lasts 5 years before new seeds have to be planted, bringing many nutritious meals at a very low cost. (ICRISAT, 2017).

Health Benefits and Nutritional Facts

There are many benefits that pigeon peas have on the human body upon consumption. Pigeon peas are high in potassium which dilates blood allowing it to flow more easily throughout the body resulting in reduced blood pressure. The legume is also very high in protein content (22.4 g/100 g) that is required for growth and development, contributing to the formation of bones, cells, tissues, and muscles (Talari and Shakappa, 2018). Pigeon peas can also prevent anemia by providing an adequate amount of iron (5.37±1.36 g/100 g) found in just a single serving (Talari, Shakappa, 2018). Due to the low number of calories (120 g/100 g), cholesterol (0 g/100 g), saturated fats (0.06 g/100 g) and the presence of dietary fiber (6.5 g/100 g) that keeps the body full for long periods, pigeon peas have been to help with weight loss (USDA, 2016) which is an increasing problem in South Asia. Other nutritional facts include: potassium (0.38 g/100 g), Vitamin A (0.1%), iron (10%) and calcium (7.2%) (USDA, 2016).

  • All percentages are based on a 2000 calorie diet.

Consumption

Around the world, pigeon peas are consumed in different ways; In India, for example, pigeon peas are used as dhal, a traditional soup-like dish made from various split legumes. In Indonesia, the pigeon peas are combined with spices, shrimp paste, lemongrass and other ingredients forming a soup called Jukut Undis. (FAO, 2016). Throughout Africa many dishes are made using pigeon peas and seem to be quite easy to prepare to an extent. The first one is called Mchuzi wa Mbaaz or “pigeon pea stew” and is eaten with starchy meals such as Ugali, rice or chapatti (FAO, 2018). Kimanga cha Mihogo (mashed Cassava and pigeon peas) is a traditional dish of the Kimanga among the lowland Taita community and other drier parts of the Taita bordering the Kamba community (Kenya). This meal is enjoyed throughout the drought seasons because it is filling (FAO, 2018). Nyenyi (Mashed Pigeon Peas & Green Maize) is a traditional delicacy among the Embu community (Kenya). It consists of mashed potatoes, green maize, and pigeon peas and is served as lunch or dinner. Traditionally the dish is eaten dry, however, in modern times it is eaten as stews (FAO, 2018).

Global Market

From 2012-2014. global production of pigeon peas stood at 4.4 million tonnes; this consisted of about 5.8% of pulse production in the world (FAO, 2019). Over the last 4 decades, pigeon pea production has been rather slow, being grown only in Asia, southeast Africa, and the Caribbean. Currently, there are roughly 19 different varieties of pigeon peas in eastern and southern Africa alone. ICRISAT has recently released 57 new pigeon pea varieties including various high yielding hybrid varieties (FAO, 2019). Each variety varies for crop duration, seed color, disease/pest resistance, and pod load. The development of short-duration varieties has made it possible to include pigeon pea in crop cycles with two crops in a year. Examples of this are found through intercropping with crops such as sorghum, maize, millets, and pulses like mung bean and urd bean (FAO, 2019).

Pigeon peas are traded on the global market with the leading producer being India with 3 million tonnes annually (FAO, 2019). Pigeon pea seeds can be purchased for $11.30/kg USD in India (India Mart, 2019). The average sales price for pigeon pea seeds in India in 2019 was Rs 140/kg which is $1.94/kg USD (India Mart, 2019).

Profit for Farmers and Government Marketing Strategy

Government-regulated contract farming is a strategy currently being performed in Malawi in East Africa to ensure that farmers have a market for their crops before planting which is critical to wider adoption of any crop. This strategy is allowing farmers to negotiate with producers for better prices with the support of the government as a controller. The issue that many farmers have raised before this program is that middlemen were purchasing the crops and taking a large percentage of the profits, leaving the farmer with less money compared to selling direct (Phiri, 2015). A 2012 study performed in Tanzania, in East Africa, showed that farmers made between 25 to 40 Tshs/kg (0.011- 0.017 USD/kg) for pigeon pea grain (ICRISAT, 2013). Farmers are often times not maximizing their profits, however, because of middlemen. Farmers should be encouraged to maximize incomes through value addition of pigeon pea, because the real profit in agriculture is not from primary production but from post- harvest processing (value addition).

Other Uses of Pigeon Peas

Although pigeon peas are very high in protein and are a great source of nutrients, they also have many other uses besides human consumption (ICRISAT, 2010). During the stage of plant preparation, the pigeon pea shrubs are pruned back aggressively to encourage new growth; when this happens the pruning’s fall to the ground where they are a very good source of organic nitrogen fertilizer following decomposition. The leaves that fall are also a very good way to feed livestock, high in nutrients and only costing the farmer time. The pigeon pea shrub is also a great source of firewood: the sticks and brush can be used for cooking and hold heat well, producing energy at the rate of 4350 Kcal/hour (ICRISAT, 2010).

Critical analysis

A few common diseases that affect pigeon pea include collar rot, Phytophthora Blight, Fusarium Wilt, Dry Root Rot and Phoma Stem Canker. Below is a link to the “Handbook of Pigeon Pea Diseases” which provides a full description of every disease discovered by man in pigeon peas as well as the underlying pathogen and where they are most likely found (ICRISAT, 1993). Another issue surrounding the crop includes timely cooking; when a woman begins to cook for her family, she must first make a fire using wood which must be collected, potentially from great distances, especially in the very dry subtropics. One solution to this challenge is to encourage cooking using pressure cookers. In South Asia, for example, many people have adopted this practice, saving them time as well as the ability to keep food warm for long periods of time (Marcus, 2013).

Helpful Videos and Links

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hpd_7JNiWkM Above is a link to a YouTube video with some addition information from a young farmer.

https://www.roysfarm.com/growing-pigeon-pea/ Attached above is a link to a full beginner’s guide showing step by step instructions on the basics of growing, planting, requirements for survival, and fun facts about the crop.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=g_gRHbWuVNQ&t=174s This YouTube link was a great tutorial/ visual for the harvesting of pigeon peas.

http://www.fao.org/3/I9056EN/i9056en.pdf Above is a link to a great recipe book with several pigeon pea recipes, enjoy!

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=APnsunmDbwM Short, easy recipe to a pigeon pea stew

http://oar.icrisat.org/1245/1/HandbookOfPigeonpeaDiseases.pdf A complete guide for pigeon pea diseases and viruses.

References

1. Indiamart (2019) Online retailer. Pigeon pea seeds. Available at: https://dir.indiamart.com/search.mp?ss=pigeon+peas&prdsrc=1&search_type=p [Accessed November 11, 2019]

2. Grayson, M. (2013) Agriculture and drought. Nature 501 (7468): S1. Available at: https://www.nature.com/articles/501S1a.pdf [Accessed November 7, 2019]

3. ICRISAT (2013) A Value Chain Analysis for Pigeon Pea in the Southern Regions of Tanzania. ICRISAT, Hyderabad, India. Available at: http://oar.icrisat.org/7955/1/ISEDPS_17.pdf [Accessed November 7, 2019]

4. FAO (2019) The Global Economy of Pulses. FAO, Rome. Available at: http://www.fao.org/3/i7108en/I7108EN.pdf [Accessed November 10, 2019]

5. FAO (2018) Kenya Food Recipes. FAO, Rome. Available at: http://www.fao.org/3/I9056EN/i9056en.pdf [Accessed November 10, 2019]

6. ICRISAT (2010) Pigeon pea A Resilient crop for the Philippine Drylands. Role of pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan L.) in human nutrition and health ICRISAT, Hyderabad, India. Available at : http://oar.icrisat.org/3557/1/Pigeonpea-resilient-crop.pdf [Accessed November 7, 2019]

7. ICRISAT (2017) Pigeonpea Dashboard. Role of pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan L.) in human nutrition and health. ICRISAT, Hyderabad, India. Available at: http://genebank.icrisat.org/IND/Dashboard?Crop=Pigeonpea [Accessed November 13, 2019]

8. Talari, A. and Shakappa, D. (2018) Role of pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan L.) in human nutrition and health: A review. Asian Journal Of Dairy and Food Research.2018.(37):212-220 Available at: https://www-cabdirect-org.subzero.lib.uoguelph.ca/cabdirect/FullTextPDF/2018/20183343354.pdf [Accessed November 13, 2019]

9. Grace Phiri (2015) Govt in contract farming strategy for pigeon peas. Available at: https://mwnation.com/govt-in-contract-farming-strategy-for-pigeon-peas/ [Accessed November 20, 2019]

10. FAO (2016) Jukut Undis (Black Pigeon peas Soup). RAO, Rome. Available at: http://www.fao.org/3/a-bl901e.pdf [Accessed November 20, 2019]

11. USDA (2016) Pigeon peas (red gram), mature seeds, cooked, boiled, without salt - 1 cup. Available at: https://www.nutritionix.com/i/usda/pigeon-peas-red-gram-mature-seeds-cooked-boiled-without-salt-1-cup/513fceb675b8dbbc2100220f [Accessed November 20, 2019]

12. Greenlife Crop Protection Africa (2018). Available at: https://www.greenlife.co.ke/pigeon-peas-production/ [Accessed November 20, 2019]

13. Plant Guide (2012) Pigeonpea Plant Guide. Available at: https://plants.usda.gov/plantguide/pdf/pg_caca27.pdf [Accessed November 11, 2019]

14. IPCC (2018) Impacts of 1.5 degrees Celsius global warming on natural and human systems. Available at: https://www.ipcc.ch/sr15/chapter/chapter-3/ [Accessed November 11, 2019]

15. FAO (2014) Agriculture Remains Central to the World Economy. 60% of the Population Depends on Agriculture for Survival. FAO, Rome. Available at: http://www.expo2015.org/magazine/en/economy/agriculture-remains-central-to-the-world-economy.html [Accessed November 11, 2019]

16. ICRISAT (1993) Handbook of Pigeonpea Diseases. ICRISAT, Hyderabad, India. Available at: https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/food-science/pressure-cooking [Accessed November 11, 2019]

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