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  <div class="title"><h1>5.11 - Treddle and bicycle irrigation pumps</h1><br><h3 class="ch-owner">Mitchell van Schepen, University of Guelph, Canada</h3></div>
  <div class="title"><h3>5.11 -Mung Bean and its Effectiveness in Combatting Climate Change for Subsistence Farmers</h3><br><h3 class="ch-owner">Emma Ohirko, University of Guelph, Canada </h3></div>
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<p>Suggested citation for this chapter.</p>
       <h3 class="title-bg">Background</h3>
<p>Ohirko,E. (2022) Mung Bean and its Effectiveness in Combatting Climate Change for Subsistence Farmers, In Farmpedia, The Encyclopedia for Small Scale Farmers. Editor, M.N. Raizada, University of Guelph, Canada. http://www.farmpedia.org</p>
       <h3 class="title-bg">Crop Information</h3>
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           <p>The world’s 1 billion women and girls participating in subsistence farming pull weeds by hand to improve their crops and also collect firewood for cooking, resulting in their hands becoming rough and sore (Figure 1). This can be caused by wood splinters being lodged into their skin (Schaffner, 2013). Pulling weeds for hours on end can peel away layers of skin (Food and Agriculture Organization, 2016). The hands of those farmers can also become dirty and smelly from planting seeds in the soil or spreading manure by hand. To avoid the common aforementioned problems as well as hand injuries, such as cuts and scrapes, they could wear gloves on their hands, see the second picture, (Schaffner, 2013). Gloves are very common in the modern world and can be used for construction, farming, and medical practices. Gloves provide a durable layer between the skin on your hands and whatever you are working with (Espasandín-Arias & Goossens, 2014). There are a few different materials used to make gloves, along with different sizes and grips. With over one billion women and girls working on farms around the world, this grueling work can be made safer and more efficient when wearing gloves.</p>
           <p><b>Basic Crop Information</b></p>
 
<p>Mung bean is an annual crop which has many branches and typically grows to be between 60 and 76 centimeters tall (RSA, 2010). It looks very similar to the garden common bean plant. Mung bean is a dicot plant belonging to the legume family. The plant forms long, skinny pods which vary from green to brown in colour. The mung bean is considered a deep-rooted plant which grows both upright and vine-like (RSA, 2010). A typical mung bean plant flowers at the top in groups of twelve to fifteen flowers and is self-pollinating (RSA, 2010).</p>
          <p>Rubber and cloth are the two main kinds of gloves produced (Melco, 2016). They both have their own benefits and drawbacks respectively. A benefit from rubber gloves is their ability to resist water from coming in contact with a farmer's skin, see part two, (Espasandín-Arias & Goossens, 2014). While cloth gloves can be beneficial because they can draw moisture away from their hands and can be easily washed to be cleaned. Because rubber gloves are usually meant to be disposed of after single use they tend to be cheaper to make and thus cheaper to buy. Yet some rubber gloves can be made thicker to reuse and are slightly more durable (Melco, 2016). Cloth gloves are designed to be washed after being used and last a long time under normal working conditions.</p>
<p>Mung bean is believed to have been domesticated in South Asia, however, the exact location is unknown (Isemura et al., 2012). Many wild versions of the mung bean exist in Myanmar and Thailand (Isemura et al., 2012).  As much as 90% of the world’s present mung bean production occurs in Asia, with India being the largest producer (Isemura et al., 2012). Pakistan, China and Thailand are also important producers (Isemura et al., 2012). Most genetic improvements made to the mung bean are done at the World Vegetable Center (WVC) located in Tainan, Taiwan; this seedbank has released over 110 mung bean varieties around the world and holds over 6700 landraces (Isemura et al., 2012: Schafleitner et al., 2015).</p> 
 
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          <p>Along with the different materials gloves are made of, there are also different arm lengths. Some gloves are cut off just in front or around the wrist. While others can be up to and over the elbow and everywhere in between (Melco, 2016). The benefits of the shorter gloves is comfort, no bunching around wrist or elbow, and they can be quickly put on or removed. The benefits of the long gloves are more protection, the entire forearm will be covered. All the while there is less of a chance of getting debris in their gloves because the opening is farther away from what you are working with. Farmers can also work in deeper water or mud with the long rubber gloves without getting your hands wet.</p>
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          <p>When working with smooth items such as hoes and some fruits and vegetables they can be slippery (Food and Agriculture Organization, 2016). A way to help farmer's hold on to the tools is to get gloves with grips (Melco, 2016). Both rubber and cloth gloves can have grips. Rubber gloves will have ridges in the molds to form grips and granular materials can be added to the outside before drying (Melco, 2016). Another option is to make the rubber gloves out of a non-slip rubber (Melco, 2016). Because cloth alone does not provide grip, cloth gloves must be dipped in liquid rubber to be able to grip smooth objects. The rubber used for grips on cloth gloves can either be non-slip smooth rubber or be rigid (Melco, 2016). </p>
      <h3 class="title-bg">Nutritional Information</h3>
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<p>Mung bean can be considered to be a fairly nutritious legume.  It is a good source of the essential amino acids phenylalanine and leucine; it is also high in tyrosine (Yi-Shen, 2018). However, it is deficient in methionine and cysteine (Yi-Shen, 2018). Mung bean is generally a poor source of vitamins A and C but is rich in many minerals; overall this is considered an area for genetic improvement (Yang and Tsou, 1998). Mung bean is noted as a wonderful source of protein and starch (Yang and Tsou, 1998). Mung bean sprouts (the most common way of consuming mung beans) contain approximately 2 grams of protein per 100 grams, 3.6 grams of carbs per 100 grams, 0.65 milligrams of iron per 100 grams, 0.47 milligrams of zinc per 100 grams, 29 nanograms of folate per 100 grams and 0.09 grams of fat per 100 grams (USDA, 2019).</p>
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       <h3 class="title-bg">Growing Conditions</h3>
       <h3 class="title-bg">Physical Protection</h3>
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          <p>Protection is the main benefit from using gloves. Repetitive motions, such as when pounding grain, can cause irritation to the skin. When collecting firewood the sticks and logs can scratch or cut the skin (Food and Agriculture Organization, 2016). Weeds can be rough and by scratching their hands many times they can become cut and sore (Espasandín-Arias & Goossens, 2014). By lifting and pulling heavy items the top layer of your skin will separate from the next, causing a blister, by wearing gloves they now will prevent blistering because the glove will act as the top layer of skin and prevent the actual skin from separating (Schaffner, 2013).  Manure has a lot of bacteria in it which are harmful if they are swallow, so keeping them away from the hands used to eat with is very beneficial (Furlong, et al., 2015). If farmers are working with firewood or in construction the cloth gloves will work better because they are more durable (Food and Agriculture Organization, 2016). The disposable rubber gloves would be the worst to use in this scenario because they are so thin, stick to jobs were the main goals are to keep hands dry and dirt free when using disposable rubber gloves.</p>
<p>Mung bean crops are best grown in the warm season as they require 90 to 120 frost-free days (RSA, 2010). The ideal temperature range for growing mung bean is 27 to 30 degrees Celsius, with planting being suitable at temperatures of at least 15 degrees Celsius (RSA, 2010).  Therefore, mung bean is typically grown in the summer and is considered to be a heat and drought tolerant crop (RSA, 2010). In order to get the highest yields, mung bean crops should receive moderate rainfall during the flowering to late pod fill period (RSA, 2010).  High temperatures and low rainfall during mung bean flowering amount to lower yields (RSA, 2010). Mung bean plants are well adapted to sandy loam soils and drought-prone soils (Myers, 2003). Conversely, mung beans do poorly on heavy clay and/or saline soils, with the former limiting root growth (RSA, 2010).  Mung beans are suited to well-drained soil with a pH of 6.3 to 7.2, requiring slightly acidic soils for the best growth (RSA, 2010).</p> 
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<p>Mung bean seeds should be planted 5 to 10 centimeters apart at a depth of 4 centimeters (RSA, 2010).  Seedlings should then be thinned out to 15 centimetres apart (RSA, 2010).  Row spacing is most successful at 75 centimeters to 1.2 meters apart (RSA, 2010).  Mung bean seeds have a somewhat lower germination rate of about 50-60% (RSA, 2010).  Planting equipment for soybeans and cowpeas is appropriate for seeding mung beans but it must be adjusted in order to account for its small seed size (RSA, 2010).  Nitrogen fertiliser is generally not required for mung bean growth however, the use of Rhizobium inoculums is generally advised (RSA, 2010). In addition to this, mung bean also has phosphorus, calcium, magnesium and sulphur requirements (RSA, 2010). These fertiliser requirements are comparable to the needs of other legumes (RSA, 2010). About 5 to 10 kilograms per hectare of phosphorus fertiliser should be applied to dry-land mung bean crops (RSA, 2010).  Furthermore, mung beans are sensitive to zinc deficiency and may require a post-emergence application of zinc sulphate, depending on the soil (RSA, 2010).</p>
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       <h3 class="title-bg">Weeding Requirements</h3>
       <h3 style="background: #FBB03B;padding: 15px;font-weight: 600;color: #000;font-size: 22px;margin:unset;text-align:center;">Defense Against Moisture and Chemicals</h3>
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<p>Mung beans are not very competitive with weeds thus, adequate weeding is necessary to ensure proper yields (RSA, 2010).  To combat this there are only a few herbicides registered for mung beans however, hand weeding mung bean crops 40 days after seeding can be highly advantageous (RSA, 2010). Additionally, inter-tillage is recommended once or twice a growing season and rotary hoeing should be done when necessary until flowers emerge (RSA, 2010). Weeding of damp plants is not recommended as this may spread bacterial and fungal disease to the crop (RSA, 2010).</p> 
          <p>Moisture blocking is a way gloves can prevent your skin from drying out and from getting too wet and dehydrating farmer's hands. By keeping the moisture from the hands inside the gloves they will prevent the skin from cracking and becoming infected (Schaffner, 2013). As well when working in wet conditions your hands can shrivel and become dehydrated if they are constantly in contact with water.</p>
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          <p>Pesticides can be absorbed by your skin and become harmful to the body, gloves provide an extra barrier to block them from entering in a farmer's body (Furlong, et al., 2015). Fertilizers such as nitrogen can also be caustic, and these are usually spread through broadcasting by hand. Mud can get under your nails and into cracked or cut skin and can infect a farmer's hands. Gloves will keep the mud out and keep hands clean. Both liquid pesticides and dry fertilizers can irritate skin if they come into contact with it (Kim, et al., 2013). Wearing the proper gloves, rubber ones in this case, can save their hands from becoming itchy (Keeble et al., 1996). Human skin can also absorb the pesticides which are harmful to your body, wearing gloves would prevent the pesticides from ever touching your skin.</p>
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      <h3 class="title-bg">Pest and Disease Control</h3>
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<p>Mung beans secrete a sweet, sticky substance which attracts many insects, thus causing insect pest control issues (RSA, 2010). Monocrotophus, omethoate or dimethoate should be sprayed at a minimum on 3, 7- and 14-days post-emergence (RSA, 2010). To avoid post-harvest pests, proper sanitation of storage facilities, total dry-down of seed and the application of vegetable oils to the seed is vital (RSA, 2010).</p> 
<p>Mung bean may face pressure from various leaf and stem diseases, but this results in little damage to yields (RSA, 2010). The mung bean Yellow Mosaic Virus has the largest potential to damage mung bean crops in the Indian subcontinent (RSA, 2010). Most diseases and viruses facing mung bean crops are controlled through the use of disease-resistant seed varieties (RSA, 2010). Another important factor in controlling diseases is the removal of crop and weed debris at the time of seeding as these may be hosts of disease (RSA, 2010).</p>
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       <h3 class="title-bg">Smallholder Farmer Adoption Benefits</h3>
       <h3 class="title-bg">Wearable</h3>
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          <p>Comfortable gloves help farmer's work longer because their hands will not hurt from completing your task. Sizing is very important when finding comfortable gloves (Melco, 2016). Make sure gloves are the proper length and width, as not to restrict movement. There will be less pain from pulling weeds and they will be able to pull more weeds because they would not have to wait a long for the pain to subside between pulling each weed, because there will be no pain if wearing gloves (Food and Agriculture Organization, 2016). If farmer's find they are working hard and their hands start to sweat the gloves should be removed , dry your hands, and put on a new pair. Cloth gloves are more breathable then rubber ones, using them is another way to prevent hands from getting sweaty. The cloth gloves can also be softer and easier to clean, but are more restricting to movement due to their durability and tougher material. Since children will also be farming, smaller glove sizes can be found. Gloves are designed to fit a farmer's hand snugly, so children should not wear adult sized gloves when working. </p>
<p><b>Mung Bean Drought Tolerance</b></p>
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<p>Mung bean is believed to do very well under drought conditions; however, some varieties perform better in drought conditions than others (Bangar et al., 2019).  Optimally, mung bean should receive 350-600 mm of rain per month, however, at minimum it only requires 50 to 200 mm of rain per month (Purwoko, 2014). Mung bean is most tolerant of drought conditions during the reproductive and vegetative phases and some mung bean varieties have been shown to produce higher protein content during drought stress (Bangar et al., 2019).  This drought tolerance is achieved through tight regulation of leaf stomates -- pores that permit carbon dioxide input/oxygen release but also cause significant plant water loss known as transpiration (Pataczek, 2018). The fastest maturing varieties are ready for harvest 90 days after planting.  Mung beans are competitive over other legumes in droughty soils (Myers, 2003).</p> 
<p><b>Other Benefits from Growing Mung Beans</b></p>
<p>On the world market, mung beans may fetch a price which is double that of soybeans (Myers, 2003).  Split, cracked, and otherwise damaged seeds, along with any other residual crop material can be fed to livestock (Myers, 2003).  Because mung beans require a relatively short maturity period (sometimes as low as 60 days depending on the region), they can easily be double cropped after cereals or successfully intercropped with cereals (Myers, 2003; Bangar et al., 2019).  This may allow mung beans to grow successfully alongside cereals without the need for any additional fertilizer inputs (Myers, 2003).  Since mung bean is a food crop and drought tolerant, it has the potential to act as an “economic buffer” in the face of weather challenges and low world commodity prices when compared with other legumes (Myers, 2003).  Mung bean leaves can be fed to cattle as forage (Myers, 2003). It can be grown for silage and chicken feed as well (RSA, 2010).</p>
<p>Mung bean also does well as a green manure, adding significant nitrogen and other nutrients to the soil. Mung bean is highly beneficial for its capacity to form a symbiotic relationship with root microbes that convert atmospheric nitrogen gas into ammonia fertilizer, a process termed biological nitrogen fixation. It is estimated that after cultivation, the nitrogen residue added by mung bean plants can be 36 to 52 kg of urea N ha-1, without the incorporation of residues.  If residues are incorporated, mung beans can add 74 to 94 kg of urea N ha-1.  This is particularly useful in conservation agriculture, and sustainable intensification of agriculture (Pataczek et al., 2018). If used in tandem with conservation tillage practices, growing mung bean can help increase biomass productivity of the soil, improve energy and water-efficiency and has the potential to increase profitability (Pataczek et al., 2018). The improvements that mung beans offer to the soil can have positive impacts which outlast the growing and harvesting of the mung bean plants themselves.</p>
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      <h3 class="title-bg">Smallholder Farmer Adoption Challenges</h3>
       <h3 class="title-bg">Constraints To Adoption</h3>
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<p>Growing mung bean has some constraints, the first of which being that mung beans are generally low yielding and have significant need and capacity for genetic development (AVRDC, 2016).  This being said, some recent breeding collections have helped in the discovery of mung bean’s potential for salt and heat tolerance and yellow mosaic virus resistance (AVRDC, 2016).  Mung bean could be bred for greater drought tolerance, improved nutritional profile and higher yields.  Costs of producing mung bean are largely comparable to those of producing soybeans however they may be subject to higher transport and cleaning costs (RSA, 2010).  As mentioned above, the germination rate of mung beans is also poor which may cause additional challenges considering mung bean is mainly grown for sprouts (RSA, 2010).  It may be more difficult to find a buyer for mung bean seeds compared to other legumes therefore it is recommended that the farmer finds a buyer before seeding (RSA, 2010; Myers, 2003).  There seems to be no reliable statistics available as to how much mung bean is grown and cultivated in Africa.  Its growth may be limited by the fact that it may not be a culturally important food in some countries.</p> 
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       <h3 class="title-bg"> Further Critical Analysis</h3>
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          <p>Gloves are very useful to farmers, but there can still be some drawbacks. Possible culturable taboos might vary from location to location. Gloves might seem feminine and not easily adopted by men in the community. Gloves act as a second, tougher skin, but they are not a farmer's skin and can slide around while working. This may feel odd and uncomfortable but farmers can get used to the new feeling over time. Gloves can come in many colours and thicknesses, which may make a farmer's hands look funny or larger. Human skin is very stretchy and flexible, while glove materials tend to be tougher than skin and will reduce movement, but not enough to hinder work. Rubber gloves can stretch well, but make hands sweat, while cloth gloves are breathable but reduce dexterity.</p>
<p>As stated above, producing mung beans is comparable to the production of soybeans in factors such as cost and inputs, but it provides up to double the price on the market. However, mung beans have lower yields than soybeans and do not have the same capacity to be used as animal feed. The drought tolerance of mung bean makes it more appealing as this may offer a stable income in time of weather variability. When compared to the cowpea, mung bean is the more competitive crop only in dry soils and areas more prone to drought, as is the same when compared to soybeans (Boe et al., 1991).</p>
          <p>Farmers can find gloves to use and get started from local vendors (European Commission For The Control Of Foot-And-Mouth Disease, 2016). Once you have completed your work for the day you can clean them are reuse them, or dispose of them if they were ripped or torn (Kim, et al., 2013). You can get gloves made of rubber and like materials as well as ones made of durable cloths. The thin rubber gloves tend to be made for a single use only. A trick that the European Commission For The Control Foot-And-Mouth Disease mentions that you can wear two pairs of rubber gloves at the same time for extra protection (European Commission For The Control Of Foot-And-Mouth Disease, 2016).</p>
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       <h3 class="title-bg"> Conclusions</h3>
       <h3 class="title-bg">Helpful Links To Get Started </h3>
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          <p>Here are websites to find more information about how to obtain gloves:</p>
<p>Overall, mung bean is a viable crop option for those with sandy loam, well-drained soil types which may experience seasonal drought before the flowering period of plant growth. It has a strong nutrient content and can easily be intercropped and double cropped making it a good additional source of income without requiring additional inputs. It is somewhat limited by the need for pest control, particularly weed control as it is not a very competitive crop. </p>
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      <h3 class="title-bg">Helpful resources to get started </h3>
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<p>https://avrdc.org/intl-mungbean-network/
This link provides access to mung bean workshops and is a connection to potential future development projects involving mung bean.  It also includes basic information about the crop and its genetic breeding.</p> 
<p>https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24438453
This link provides useful information about mung bean as medicine as well as information on its nutritional content.</p> 
<p>https://homeguides.sfgate.com/plant-mung-bean-56151.html
This link details basic, manual planting steps for the mung bean.</p> 
<p>https://www.gardeningknowhow.com/edible/vegetables/beans/how-to-grow-mung-beans.htm
This link provides useful information on growing mung bean and also provides tips for growing mung beans indoors.</p> 
<p>https://indiaphile.info/a-healthy-snack-and-meal-sprouted-mung-beans-and-a-simple-saute/
This link features a simple way of preparing mung beans.</p> 
<p>https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlelanding/1997/ja/a701610g#!divAbstract
This links discusses the use mung bean seedlings as bio-indicators of Arsenic contamination.</p> 
<p>https://www.researchgate.net/publication/286306858_Use_of_raw_and_heat-treated_mung_bean_seeds_phaseolus_aureus_as_replacement_for_soybean_meal_protein_in_the_diets_for_sea_bass_lates_calcarifer_fingerlings_in_tanks_Effects_on_growth_performance_nutri
This article discusses the use of treated mung bean meal as a replacement food source for sea bass.</p> 
<p>https://onlinelibrary-wiley-com.subzero.lib.uoguelph.ca/doi/full/10.1111/jpn.12611
This links provides information on the use of fermented mung bean as feed for weaned pigs to improve their immunity.</p>


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<p>https://search-proquest-com.subzero.lib.uoguelph.ca/docview/1491989865?rfr_id=info%3Axri%2Fsid%3Aprimo
       <h3 class="title-bg">Usefull Images</h3>
This link provides additional information about fermented mung bean as an additive to animal feed.</p> 
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       <h3 class="title-bg">References </h3>
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<p>1. AVRDC. (2019, November 5). International Mungbean Improvement Network. Retrieved
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a. November 27, 2019, from https://avrdc.org/intl-mungbean-network/.</p>
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<p>2. Bangar, P., Chaudhury, A., Tiwari, B., Kumar, S., Kumari, R., & Bhat, K. V. (2019, February 7).
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a. Morphophysiological and biochemical response of mungbean [Vigna radiata (L.)
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b. Wilczek] varieties at different developmental stages under drought stress. Turkish Journal of Biology, 43(1), 58-69. Retrieved from
c. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6426646/.</p>
 
<p>3. Boe, A., Twidwell, E. K., & Rephart, K. D. (1991). Growth and forage yield of cowpea and
a. mungbean in the northern Great Plains. Canadian Journal of Plant Science, 71(3), 709–715. doi: 10.4141/cjps91-104</p>
 
<p>4. Isemura, T., Kaga, A., Tabata, S., Somta, P., Srinives, P., Shimizu, T., … Tomooka, N. (2012,
a. August 2). Construction of a Genetic Linkage Map and Genetic Analysis of Domestication Related Traits in Mungbean (Vigna radiata). PLoS ONE, 7(8). doi: <p>10.1371/journal.pone.0041304</p>
 
<p>5. Myers, R. L. (2003, November). Alternative Crop Guide Mungbeans. Iowa State University.
a. Retrieved from https://www.extension.iastate.edu/alternativeag/cropproduction/pdf/mungbean_crop_guide.pdf.</p>


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<p>6. Pataczek, L., Zahir, Z. A., Ahmad, M., Rani, S., Nair, R., Schafleitner, R., … Hilger, T. (2018).
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a. Beans with Benefits—The Role of Mungbean (Vigna radiate) in a Changing Environment. American Journal of Plant Sciences, 09(07), 1577–1600. doi: 10.4236/ajps.2018.97115</p>
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<p>7. Purwoko, D. (2014). Using climate information for supporting mung bean
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a. plantation over Sumbawa region. Retrieved November 27, 2019, from https://www.weadapt.org/knowledge-base/climate-adaptation-training/using-climate-information-for-supporting-mung-bean-plantation-over-sumbawa-region.</p>
                  <div class="fakeimg fakeimg-use">[[File:3.jpg]]</div>
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<p>8. Republic of South Africa (RSA). Directorate Plant Production. Mung Bean Production
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a. Guideline. (2010). Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, Pretoria. Retrieved from https://www.daff.gov.za/docs/Brochures/MbeanpGUDELINS.pdf</p>
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<p>9. Schafleitner, R., Nair, R. M., Rathore, A., Wang, Y.-W., Lin, C.-Y., Chu, S.-H., … Ebert, A. W.
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a. (2015). The AVRDC – The World Vegetable Center mungbean (Vigna radiata) core and mini core collections. BMC Genomics, 16: 344. doi: 10.1186/s12864-015-1556-7</p>
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<p>11. Yang, R.Y. & Tsou, S.C.S. (n.d., 1998). Mungbean as a Potential Iron Source in South Asian
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<p>12. Yi-Shen, Z., Shuai, S., & Fitzgerald, R. (2018). Mung bean proteins and peptides: nutritional,  
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          <p>Keeble, V. B., Correll, L., & Ehrich, M. (1996). Effect of Laundering on Ability of Glove Fabrics to Decrease the Penetration of Organophosphate Insecticides Through in vitro Epidermal Systems. J. Appl. Toxicol. Journal of Applied Toxicology, 16(5), 401-406. doi:10.1002/(sici)1099-1263(199609)16:53.3.co;2-6</p>
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Revision as of 15:51, 30 June 2022

5.11 -Mung Bean and its Effectiveness in Combatting Climate Change for Subsistence Farmers


Emma Ohirko, University of Guelph, Canada

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Suggested citation for this chapter.

Ohirko,E. (2022) Mung Bean and its Effectiveness in Combatting Climate Change for Subsistence Farmers, In Farmpedia, The Encyclopedia for Small Scale Farmers. Editor, M.N. Raizada, University of Guelph, Canada. http://www.farmpedia.org

Crop Information

Basic Crop Information

Mung bean is an annual crop which has many branches and typically grows to be between 60 and 76 centimeters tall (RSA, 2010). It looks very similar to the garden common bean plant. Mung bean is a dicot plant belonging to the legume family. The plant forms long, skinny pods which vary from green to brown in colour. The mung bean is considered a deep-rooted plant which grows both upright and vine-like (RSA, 2010). A typical mung bean plant flowers at the top in groups of twelve to fifteen flowers and is self-pollinating (RSA, 2010).

Mung bean is believed to have been domesticated in South Asia, however, the exact location is unknown (Isemura et al., 2012). Many wild versions of the mung bean exist in Myanmar and Thailand (Isemura et al., 2012). As much as 90% of the world’s present mung bean production occurs in Asia, with India being the largest producer (Isemura et al., 2012). Pakistan, China and Thailand are also important producers (Isemura et al., 2012). Most genetic improvements made to the mung bean are done at the World Vegetable Center (WVC) located in Tainan, Taiwan; this seedbank has released over 110 mung bean varieties around the world and holds over 6700 landraces (Isemura et al., 2012: Schafleitner et al., 2015).

Nutritional Information

Mung bean can be considered to be a fairly nutritious legume. It is a good source of the essential amino acids phenylalanine and leucine; it is also high in tyrosine (Yi-Shen, 2018). However, it is deficient in methionine and cysteine (Yi-Shen, 2018). Mung bean is generally a poor source of vitamins A and C but is rich in many minerals; overall this is considered an area for genetic improvement (Yang and Tsou, 1998). Mung bean is noted as a wonderful source of protein and starch (Yang and Tsou, 1998). Mung bean sprouts (the most common way of consuming mung beans) contain approximately 2 grams of protein per 100 grams, 3.6 grams of carbs per 100 grams, 0.65 milligrams of iron per 100 grams, 0.47 milligrams of zinc per 100 grams, 29 nanograms of folate per 100 grams and 0.09 grams of fat per 100 grams (USDA, 2019).

Growing Conditions

Mung bean crops are best grown in the warm season as they require 90 to 120 frost-free days (RSA, 2010). The ideal temperature range for growing mung bean is 27 to 30 degrees Celsius, with planting being suitable at temperatures of at least 15 degrees Celsius (RSA, 2010). Therefore, mung bean is typically grown in the summer and is considered to be a heat and drought tolerant crop (RSA, 2010). In order to get the highest yields, mung bean crops should receive moderate rainfall during the flowering to late pod fill period (RSA, 2010). High temperatures and low rainfall during mung bean flowering amount to lower yields (RSA, 2010). Mung bean plants are well adapted to sandy loam soils and drought-prone soils (Myers, 2003). Conversely, mung beans do poorly on heavy clay and/or saline soils, with the former limiting root growth (RSA, 2010). Mung beans are suited to well-drained soil with a pH of 6.3 to 7.2, requiring slightly acidic soils for the best growth (RSA, 2010).

Mung bean seeds should be planted 5 to 10 centimeters apart at a depth of 4 centimeters (RSA, 2010). Seedlings should then be thinned out to 15 centimetres apart (RSA, 2010). Row spacing is most successful at 75 centimeters to 1.2 meters apart (RSA, 2010). Mung bean seeds have a somewhat lower germination rate of about 50-60% (RSA, 2010). Planting equipment for soybeans and cowpeas is appropriate for seeding mung beans but it must be adjusted in order to account for its small seed size (RSA, 2010). Nitrogen fertiliser is generally not required for mung bean growth however, the use of Rhizobium inoculums is generally advised (RSA, 2010). In addition to this, mung bean also has phosphorus, calcium, magnesium and sulphur requirements (RSA, 2010). These fertiliser requirements are comparable to the needs of other legumes (RSA, 2010). About 5 to 10 kilograms per hectare of phosphorus fertiliser should be applied to dry-land mung bean crops (RSA, 2010). Furthermore, mung beans are sensitive to zinc deficiency and may require a post-emergence application of zinc sulphate, depending on the soil (RSA, 2010).

Weeding Requirements

Mung beans are not very competitive with weeds thus, adequate weeding is necessary to ensure proper yields (RSA, 2010). To combat this there are only a few herbicides registered for mung beans however, hand weeding mung bean crops 40 days after seeding can be highly advantageous (RSA, 2010). Additionally, inter-tillage is recommended once or twice a growing season and rotary hoeing should be done when necessary until flowers emerge (RSA, 2010). Weeding of damp plants is not recommended as this may spread bacterial and fungal disease to the crop (RSA, 2010).

Pest and Disease Control

Mung beans secrete a sweet, sticky substance which attracts many insects, thus causing insect pest control issues (RSA, 2010). Monocrotophus, omethoate or dimethoate should be sprayed at a minimum on 3, 7- and 14-days post-emergence (RSA, 2010). To avoid post-harvest pests, proper sanitation of storage facilities, total dry-down of seed and the application of vegetable oils to the seed is vital (RSA, 2010).

Mung bean may face pressure from various leaf and stem diseases, but this results in little damage to yields (RSA, 2010). The mung bean Yellow Mosaic Virus has the largest potential to damage mung bean crops in the Indian subcontinent (RSA, 2010). Most diseases and viruses facing mung bean crops are controlled through the use of disease-resistant seed varieties (RSA, 2010). Another important factor in controlling diseases is the removal of crop and weed debris at the time of seeding as these may be hosts of disease (RSA, 2010).

Smallholder Farmer Adoption Benefits

Mung Bean Drought Tolerance

Mung bean is believed to do very well under drought conditions; however, some varieties perform better in drought conditions than others (Bangar et al., 2019). Optimally, mung bean should receive 350-600 mm of rain per month, however, at minimum it only requires 50 to 200 mm of rain per month (Purwoko, 2014). Mung bean is most tolerant of drought conditions during the reproductive and vegetative phases and some mung bean varieties have been shown to produce higher protein content during drought stress (Bangar et al., 2019). This drought tolerance is achieved through tight regulation of leaf stomates -- pores that permit carbon dioxide input/oxygen release but also cause significant plant water loss known as transpiration (Pataczek, 2018). The fastest maturing varieties are ready for harvest 90 days after planting. Mung beans are competitive over other legumes in droughty soils (Myers, 2003).

Other Benefits from Growing Mung Beans

On the world market, mung beans may fetch a price which is double that of soybeans (Myers, 2003). Split, cracked, and otherwise damaged seeds, along with any other residual crop material can be fed to livestock (Myers, 2003). Because mung beans require a relatively short maturity period (sometimes as low as 60 days depending on the region), they can easily be double cropped after cereals or successfully intercropped with cereals (Myers, 2003; Bangar et al., 2019). This may allow mung beans to grow successfully alongside cereals without the need for any additional fertilizer inputs (Myers, 2003). Since mung bean is a food crop and drought tolerant, it has the potential to act as an “economic buffer” in the face of weather challenges and low world commodity prices when compared with other legumes (Myers, 2003). Mung bean leaves can be fed to cattle as forage (Myers, 2003). It can be grown for silage and chicken feed as well (RSA, 2010).

Mung bean also does well as a green manure, adding significant nitrogen and other nutrients to the soil. Mung bean is highly beneficial for its capacity to form a symbiotic relationship with root microbes that convert atmospheric nitrogen gas into ammonia fertilizer, a process termed biological nitrogen fixation. It is estimated that after cultivation, the nitrogen residue added by mung bean plants can be 36 to 52 kg of urea N ha-1, without the incorporation of residues. If residues are incorporated, mung beans can add 74 to 94 kg of urea N ha-1. This is particularly useful in conservation agriculture, and sustainable intensification of agriculture (Pataczek et al., 2018). If used in tandem with conservation tillage practices, growing mung bean can help increase biomass productivity of the soil, improve energy and water-efficiency and has the potential to increase profitability (Pataczek et al., 2018). The improvements that mung beans offer to the soil can have positive impacts which outlast the growing and harvesting of the mung bean plants themselves.

Smallholder Farmer Adoption Challenges

Growing mung bean has some constraints, the first of which being that mung beans are generally low yielding and have significant need and capacity for genetic development (AVRDC, 2016). This being said, some recent breeding collections have helped in the discovery of mung bean’s potential for salt and heat tolerance and yellow mosaic virus resistance (AVRDC, 2016). Mung bean could be bred for greater drought tolerance, improved nutritional profile and higher yields. Costs of producing mung bean are largely comparable to those of producing soybeans however they may be subject to higher transport and cleaning costs (RSA, 2010). As mentioned above, the germination rate of mung beans is also poor which may cause additional challenges considering mung bean is mainly grown for sprouts (RSA, 2010). It may be more difficult to find a buyer for mung bean seeds compared to other legumes therefore it is recommended that the farmer finds a buyer before seeding (RSA, 2010; Myers, 2003). There seems to be no reliable statistics available as to how much mung bean is grown and cultivated in Africa. Its growth may be limited by the fact that it may not be a culturally important food in some countries.

Further Critical Analysis

As stated above, producing mung beans is comparable to the production of soybeans in factors such as cost and inputs, but it provides up to double the price on the market. However, mung beans have lower yields than soybeans and do not have the same capacity to be used as animal feed. The drought tolerance of mung bean makes it more appealing as this may offer a stable income in time of weather variability. When compared to the cowpea, mung bean is the more competitive crop only in dry soils and areas more prone to drought, as is the same when compared to soybeans (Boe et al., 1991).

Conclusions

Overall, mung bean is a viable crop option for those with sandy loam, well-drained soil types which may experience seasonal drought before the flowering period of plant growth. It has a strong nutrient content and can easily be intercropped and double cropped making it a good additional source of income without requiring additional inputs. It is somewhat limited by the need for pest control, particularly weed control as it is not a very competitive crop.

Helpful resources to get started

https://avrdc.org/intl-mungbean-network/ This link provides access to mung bean workshops and is a connection to potential future development projects involving mung bean. It also includes basic information about the crop and its genetic breeding.

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24438453 This link provides useful information about mung bean as medicine as well as information on its nutritional content.

https://homeguides.sfgate.com/plant-mung-bean-56151.html This link details basic, manual planting steps for the mung bean.

https://www.gardeningknowhow.com/edible/vegetables/beans/how-to-grow-mung-beans.htm This link provides useful information on growing mung bean and also provides tips for growing mung beans indoors.

https://indiaphile.info/a-healthy-snack-and-meal-sprouted-mung-beans-and-a-simple-saute/ This link features a simple way of preparing mung beans.

https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlelanding/1997/ja/a701610g#!divAbstract This links discusses the use mung bean seedlings as bio-indicators of Arsenic contamination.

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/286306858_Use_of_raw_and_heat-treated_mung_bean_seeds_phaseolus_aureus_as_replacement_for_soybean_meal_protein_in_the_diets_for_sea_bass_lates_calcarifer_fingerlings_in_tanks_Effects_on_growth_performance_nutri This article discusses the use of treated mung bean meal as a replacement food source for sea bass.

https://onlinelibrary-wiley-com.subzero.lib.uoguelph.ca/doi/full/10.1111/jpn.12611 This links provides information on the use of fermented mung bean as feed for weaned pigs to improve their immunity.

https://search-proquest-com.subzero.lib.uoguelph.ca/docview/1491989865?rfr_id=info%3Axri%2Fsid%3Aprimo This link provides additional information about fermented mung bean as an additive to animal feed.

References

1. AVRDC. (2019, November 5). International Mungbean Improvement Network. Retrieved a. November 27, 2019, from https://avrdc.org/intl-mungbean-network/.

2. Bangar, P., Chaudhury, A., Tiwari, B., Kumar, S., Kumari, R., & Bhat, K. V. (2019, February 7). a. Morphophysiological and biochemical response of mungbean [Vigna radiata (L.) b. Wilczek] varieties at different developmental stages under drought stress. Turkish Journal of Biology, 43(1), 58-69. Retrieved from c. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6426646/.

3. Boe, A., Twidwell, E. K., & Rephart, K. D. (1991). Growth and forage yield of cowpea and a. mungbean in the northern Great Plains. Canadian Journal of Plant Science, 71(3), 709–715. doi: 10.4141/cjps91-104

4. Isemura, T., Kaga, A., Tabata, S., Somta, P., Srinives, P., Shimizu, T., … Tomooka, N. (2012, a. August 2). Construction of a Genetic Linkage Map and Genetic Analysis of Domestication Related Traits in Mungbean (Vigna radiata). PLoS ONE, 7(8). doi:

10.1371/journal.pone.0041304

5. Myers, R. L. (2003, November). Alternative Crop Guide Mungbeans. Iowa State University. a. Retrieved from https://www.extension.iastate.edu/alternativeag/cropproduction/pdf/mungbean_crop_guide.pdf.

6. Pataczek, L., Zahir, Z. A., Ahmad, M., Rani, S., Nair, R., Schafleitner, R., … Hilger, T. (2018). a. Beans with Benefits—The Role of Mungbean (Vigna radiate) in a Changing Environment. American Journal of Plant Sciences, 09(07), 1577–1600. doi: 10.4236/ajps.2018.97115

7. Purwoko, D. (2014). Using climate information for supporting mung bean a. plantation over Sumbawa region. Retrieved November 27, 2019, from https://www.weadapt.org/knowledge-base/climate-adaptation-training/using-climate-information-for-supporting-mung-bean-plantation-over-sumbawa-region.

8. Republic of South Africa (RSA). Directorate Plant Production. Mung Bean Production a. Guideline. (2010). Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, Pretoria. Retrieved from https://www.daff.gov.za/docs/Brochures/MbeanpGUDELINS.pdf

9. Schafleitner, R., Nair, R. M., Rathore, A., Wang, Y.-W., Lin, C.-Y., Chu, S.-H., … Ebert, A. W. a. (2015). The AVRDC – The World Vegetable Center mungbean (Vigna radiata) core and mini core collections. BMC Genomics, 16: 344. doi: 10.1186/s12864-015-1556-7

10. U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA). (2019, January 4). Food Data Central Search Results. a. Mung beans, mature seeds, sprouted, cooked, boiled, drained, with salt. Retrieved from https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/fdc-app.html#/food-details/168499/nutrients.

11. Yang, R.Y. & Tsou, S.C.S. (n.d., 1998). Mungbean as a Potential Iron Source in South Asian a. Diets. World Vegetable Center (Tainan, Taiwan). International consultation workshop on mungbean. Retrived from http://203.64.245.61/fulltext_pdf/eam0122.pdf

12. Yi-Shen, Z., Shuai, S., & Fitzgerald, R. (2018). Mung bean proteins and peptides: nutritional, a. functional and bioactive properties. Food & Nutrition Research, 62, 10.29219/fnr.v62.1290. doi: 10.29219/fnr.v62.1290

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