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  <div class="title"><h3>7.2 - Constant visual inspection for sick plants</h3><br><h3 class="ch-owner">Nick Moroz, University of Guelph,Canada</h3></div>
  <div class="title"><h3>7.2 -Evaluating the use of respirators for small scale farmers to protect them from pesticide sprays </h3><br><h3 class="ch-owner">
Cassandra Pedersen, University of Guelph, Canada</h3></div>
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<p>Suggested citation for this chapter.</p>
<p>Pedersen,C. (2022) Evaluating the use of respirators for small scale farmers to protect them from pesticide sprays, The Encyclopedia for Small Scale Farmers. Editor, M.N. Raizada, University of Guelph, Canada. http://www.farmpedia.org</p>
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       <h3 class="title-bg">Introduction to Careful Seed Selection and Methods</h3>
       <h1 class="title-bg">An introduction to the health risks around fertilizers</h1>
        <div class="cont-bg">
          <p>Fertilizers and pesticides can be beneficial for small scale agriculture. However,  without the use proper equipment they can have negative ramifications.  There are approximately 55,895,916 cases of non fatal pesticide poisoning reported annually within the continent of Africa (Boedeker et al. 2020). Annually approximately 130 people are reported to perish from pesticide poisoning in this region (Boedeker et al. 2020). Without intervention, these numbers are projected to grow.</p>
<p>The toxicity of pesticides varies vastly relative to the chemicals used in each product. LD 50 is the legal medical dose required to kill half the tested population (ChemiSafetyPro, 2016).  In essence, the smaller the proportion of LD50 the more toxic it is to the handlers. To put this into context, on average, a mixture of less then 50 mg of agent per kg of dilutant can kill a 155 lb person though 0.3 – 3 ml of oral consumption (Government of British Columbia, 2018).  Signs and symptoms of mild pesticide poisoning include: headache, fatigue, blurred vision, loss of appetite with nausea, stomach cramps, diarrhea, blurred vision associated with excessive tearing, excessive sweating and salivation, and slowed heartbeat often less than 50 beats per minute (O’Malley and O’Malley, 2021). In moderate to more severe cases individuals are unable to walk and will complain of chest discomfort and tightness muscle twitching, involuntary urination and bowel movements, seizures and unconsciousness (O’Malley and O’Malley, 2021).</p>
<p>Measures can be taken to prevent the oral consumption of droplet particles as well as aerosolized exposure to pesticides and fertilizers. For small scale farmers, being sick means the inability to work on their farm, and ultimately can be fatal.</p>
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      <h1 class="title-bg">A potential solution</h1>
        <div class="cont-bg">
          <p>A respirator is a device created to protect the wearer from inhaling hazardous particulates, materials carried in gases, vapors, fumes, airborne microorganisms, and dusts. The respirator filters out matter from entering into the mouth, esophagus and lungs through filters situated at the front of the breathing apparatus, while allowing the user to intake clean air (Sapbamrer et al., 2021). Respirators can protect farmers from intaking pesticides and thus help to prevent pesticide poisoning while also reducing the potential exposure to carcinogenic’s and other hazardous chemicals that can be found in unregulated pesticides (Sapbamrer et al., 2021). These apparatuses can be applied to the spaying of pesticides as well as but not limited to construction, the cleaning of farm equipment and cattle sheds.  Respirators can be re-used, and as such they can be shared throughout communities with proper coordination.</p>
<p>On the market currently there are many different types of respirators but not all are able to protect from chemical compound exposure. N95. N99 and N100 are all not effective against chemical exposure, but rather they are used within the medical field for the prevention of the spread and intake of infectious diseases. The R95, R99, and R100 respirators, however, are effective at limiting chemical exposure but they only have a life span of 8 hours meaning they are not a cost effective long term solution. The respirators on the market that are both effective and reusable are the P95, P99, and P100 models, as such they are the ideal respirators for this solution.</p>
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      <h1 class="title-bg">Implementation and distribution of respirators </h1>
        <div class="cont-bg">
<p>There is innovation in the respirator industry in Africa due to Covid 19, although traditionally they have been poorly accessible within rural Africa (van der Merwe, 2021). This is to say that the potential to develop respirators locally and not rely on intercontinental shipments is now a potential option and could vastly cut down the overhead cost of development. Cross continental shipping fees can be expensive and also leave a larger margin for delays and problems. African countries that could have the capabilities of producing respirators domestically are Kenya, Madagascar, South Africa, and Egypt (van der Merwe, 2021). Using local distribution channels, it may be possible to get the products to rural farming villages. The best method of getting the product to the target consumers would be through local farm organizations as well as local markets.</p>
<p>During the implementation process, someone locally respected with an understanding of how the respirators work to explain them to farmers would improve their adoption compared solely on textual facts. This could be a very good way to get women involved within the process so that they can be in the forefront. Such participatory initiatives also represent a good opportunity to involve women within the design, manufacturing and knowledge transfer processes – to ensure equipment is the appropriate size for example.</p>
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      <h1 class="title-bg">Cost analysis </h1>
        <div class="cont-bg">
<p>The cost of a respirator can be broken down into two sub categories: the cost of the apparatus which takes into account manufacturing costs, and second, the cost of shipping/ delivering the product. The average price of a full face respirator can range from $11 - $19 (Alibaba, 2021) on the lower end of the price spectrum. Respirators are reusable and are in theory a one time expense, not including replacement filters. Replacement filters cost $1-2 per filter, plus shipping costs (Alibaba, 2021). The largest cost becomes the cost of replacement filters over time.</p>
<p>Shipping costs can vary considerably. For example the cost of shipping 1 tonne per km along the route from Durban, South Africa to Lusaka in Zambia is $0.06 USD (Teravaninthorn, 2012), however from Douala (Cameroon) to N’djamena (Chad) is $0.11 USD (Teravaninthorn, 2012). The varying shipping and transport costs are higher within Africa compared to other parts of the world, but even within Africa the costs very because of variable fuel costs, age of fleet trucks (older trucks tend to have higher fuel consumption) and poor road conditions.</p>
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      <h1 class="title-bg">Critical analysis</h1>
         <div class="cont-bg">
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          <p>The importance of high seed quality for achieving a productive harvest cannot be overstated, especially over multiple harvest seasons. This paper will discuss what to look for in seed quality as well as describe methods on how to efficiently separate poor quality seeds from high quality seeds. In general, spotted or discoloured seeds mean diseased or unhealthy seeds (Rural Development Academy, 2006). In order to increase the yields of many grain crops globally, simple and low-cost solutions for seed quality control should be considered for farmers in developing countries (CSISA & IRRI, 2014; Mathur, Talukder, Veena, & Mortensen, 2004). The major method this paper will discuss is the Water Floatation Technique, a simple strategy that can be used to rid seed stocks or planting materials of infected or diseased seeds through separation. There are various techniques that can increase crop production by separating diseased seeds from healthy ones, including careful visual inspection of seeds or planting material and manual removal of discoloured or spotted seeds from the stock, hereby referred to as careful seed-selection (Rural Development Academy, 2006). One study in Bangladesh showed that careful seed-selection increased rice germination from 66% to 87%, increased seed quality and yields, and reduced disease and pest infestations in the local soils (Mathur et al., 2004). Similarly, the Water Floatation Technique can rapidly separate healthy, properly coloured seeds with those that are discoloured, malformed, and infected. Water floatation techniques assist in the rapid removal of sick or infected seeds, reducing the workload that is required in careful seed-selection by hand. Many farmers are currently employing water floatation techniques or careful seed inspection techniques but there are more who could benefit from these methods.</p>
<p>The three main points where potential problems may arise is determining the cost of distribution, distribution constraints and the likelihood the product will be accepted. The major cost uncertainty is due to variation in the cost of freight; this could be offset by agricultural organizations or a sponsor company. Sending products out through hub points can be effective but the cost of shipping will still remain volatile and variable depending on the region. As far as distribution constraints, due to the poor roads and bridges, there may be long wait times. The speed of over land travel can range from anywhere to 25 to 50 kilometers per day in parts of Africa (Teravaninthorn, 2012). When analyzing the likelihood of whether or not respirators will be successful, we have to take into consideration the potential for their rejection which requires thoughtful training and implementation to improve their adoption by small scale farmers. Other reasons for issues with adopting respirators include the procedural changes required to use respirators, the associated discomfort of the masks (e.g. more sweat), the potential cost increase (include to change filters due dirt and sweat) and potential for fake PPE. With the recent COVID 19 pandemic, there has been an onslaught of fake PPE reaching the market at discounted rates, and as a result, consumers and users have a lack of trust in PPE and those who distribute it</p>  
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       <h3 class="title-bg">Why choosing the best seeds matters</h3>
       <h1 class="title-bg">Conclusion</h1>
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<p>In conclusion, the most efficient way of dealing with the health related issues caused by prolonged exposure to pesticides/fertilizers and their mishandling is to provide respirators to farmers within Africa as well as South Asia. The benefit to small scale farmers is the prevention of potentially fatal and avoidable illness which could take away from their ability to provide for their families.</p>
<p>Farmers tend to select the best seeds over time and use them in the following seasons. Sometimes there are contaminated seeds that continue to be missed in the seed stock and unfortunately can be planted in following planting seasons, reducing yields and spreading infection (Mathur et al., 2004). This paper offers techniques to remove the contaminated seeds and maintain a fresh stockpile of healthy seeds for future planting, increasing seed germination and boosting yields over multiple years. In order to be confident in seed quality farmers must buy certified seeds or produce their own good seeds, and they should be constantly selecting for the healthy seeds, removing any infected seeds through water floatation or careful seed-selection (CSISA & IRRI, 2014). If a farmer is using their own seeds, the seeds should be clean and containing no weed seed, soil, or stones (CSISA & IRRI, 2014). Seeds must also be pure (only one variety), and healthy, meaning they are the same color with fully filled grains and free of cracks (CSISA & IRRI, 2014).</p>
 
<p>Supply of certified seeds is extremely limited in most developing countries, with more than 95% of the seeds used in these countries coming from the informal seed sector, mostly from farmers’ own saved grains (Mathur et al., 2004). Yields can be low due to diseased seeds that result in poor germination rates and ultimately sick, unproductive crops (Mathur et al., 2004). A crop management project that started in Bangladesh in 1998 showed that rice seed samples collected from local farmers were infected by bacteria, fungi, or disease and resulted in poor germination rates (Mathur et al., 2004). The seeds that were causing low germination rates were shown to be those seeds that visually looked discoloured or spotted (Mathur et al., 2004). After careful seed-selection and manual removal of these spotted seeds, germination rates of the rice seed increased to rates of 87% on average compared to 66% on average in the original (or unaltered) seed stock samples (Mathur et al., 2004). For a thorough explanation of the methods of this study see Mathur et al. (2004). Mathur et al. (2004) results show that rice seed samples that contained the discoloured or spotted seeds had low germination and poor looking seedlings compared to the carefully selected seeds (see Table 1.0). Discolouration and spots on rice seeds are coloured due to infectious fungi and bacterial infections (Mathur et al., 2004; Singh & Rao, 1977; Rural Development Academy, 2009), and the germination of such infected seeds is diminished. Thus, this paper proposes that simple manual removal of seeds through careful selection or by water flotation techniques will greatly benefit farmers by improving their seed stores and crop health and productivity</p>
[[File:capture 94.JPG]]
[[File:capture 94.JPG]]
<p>The recommendations proposed by Mathur et al. (2004) would increase the healthy seedlings of rice per hectare over multiple years, but also resulting in lower contamination of disease organisms in planting soils (Mathur et al., 2004). Over the years there would be less seed and soil-borne infectious organisms in areas that practice careful seed-selection either manually or by water floatation (Mathur et al., 2004). Higher quality grains and increase yields will ultimately generate greater incomes for famers that can only access their own seedlings (Mathur et al., 2004; Rural Development Academy, 2009).</p>
 
<p>In order to assess and improve the quality of their own seed, farmers can employ the germination test and then employ the water flotation technique to select for the higher quality seeds from the original stock (CSISA & IRRI, 2014). These two methods are briefly outlined as follows:</p>
 
<p>1. The Germination test (or Between Paper, BP, method): This test involves carefully placing seeds on a wet rag and rolling the rag around a stick laid across the rag for support, while leaving the seeds undisturbed and inside the wet rag (CSISA & IRRI, 2014). After five days, unroll the rags and count the number of seeds with roots (CSISA & IRRI, 2014). The number of sprouted seeds represents the germination rate, with a rate of 70% or less being very unfavorable (CSISA & IRRI, 2014). It is the unhealthy and diseased seeds that will not germinate, lowering the germination rate of a sample. See CSISA document in the Reference List or the paper by Mathur et al. (2004) for more details.</p>
<p>2. Water Floatation Technique: ensure you have quality seeds for planting before soaking your seeds for germination or planting (CSISA & IRRI, 2014). Place seeds for planting into a bucket containing clean water and stir gently. Discard all grains that float to the surface (CSISA & IRRI, 2014). Carefully sort seeds and remove floating seeds, which are infected or deformed seeds, and extract all empty or partially filled grains (CSISA & IRRI, 2014). See the water floatation video in the Resources Moving Forward Section or Reference List for more details. More extensive credible water flotation information and research follows directly below.</p>
 
<p><b>The Water Floatation Technique</b></p>
<p>The water floatation technique involves separating hollow, diseased, or partially filled seeds from healthy seeds using water or salt water (Rural Development Academy, 2009). As seen in a video by the Rural Development Academy (2009) in collaboration with the International Rice Research Institute, after placing seeds into a bucket of clean water, unfilled or partially filled seeds will float to the surface because they are lighter. Following this separation, remove the floating seeds while keeping those that sunk to the bottom (Rural Development Academy, 2009). Washing with salt water can then refine this seed-selection, as infected partially filled seeds, which are harder to remove via unsalted water floatation, will float in salt water, when enough salt is added that a raw egg will float (Rural Development Academy, 2009). These seeds can then also be removed, resulting in only clean seeds that should be washed with freshwater and then dried before planting (Rural Development Academy, 2009). Rural Development Academy (2009) and CSISA & IRRI (2014) accredit this technique for increasing seed quality and maximizing the speed of selection.</p>
<p>Sivakumar et al. (2007) also showed that seed flotation techniques are not necessarily limited to water flotation, but that petroleum ether flotation techniques also were extremely advantageous in improving seeds germination percentages in certain seeds. They tested the viability of petroleum ether as a separation medium to increase the germination of Casuarina equisetifolia Forst seed lots. Petroleum flotation resulted in 90% germination in the sunken fraction and 4% in the floating fraction (Sivakumar et al., 2007). The percentage of seeds discarded as floaters that germinated was remarkably low in this study (Sivakumar et al., 2007). Thus, petroleum flotation appears to be able to increase the germination of C. equisetifolia seed lots through flotation and seed-separation, although its efficacy is influenced by variables such as wing surface area and seed density of filled and empty seeds. (Sivakumar et al., 2007). Sivakumar et al. (2007) showed that new techniques, such as the use of petroleum ether for flotation, could enhance seed floatation procedures, given the proper seeds and conditions.</P>
<p><b>Limitations of Floatation Method</b></p>
<p>There is a natural degree of seed variation that will be observed while farming, including within the seed morphology (colour, size, and weight), seed germination (viability, germination percent, etc.) and seedling growth parameters (survival percentage, seedling height, seedling biomass, etc.) (Ginwal, Phartyal, Rawat, & Srivastava, 2005). Farmers should understand this natural variability and select the seeds with the desired traits, looking for major discrepancies that indicate a diseased seed from a normal one. Furthermore, germination of seeds can be strongly influenced by genetic control and the heritability of genetic components, which can be exploited to increase germination rates of certain species (Ginwal et al., 2005). As such, farmers should not only look at careful seed-selection and water floatation as the only factor that can influence high germination or crop yields, especially across all grain crops and in all environments. Despite this variability, water floatation and seed-selection are proven techniques.</p>
 
<p>Another limitation of the water floatation technique is the potential for loss of viable seeds in the discarded fraction, reducing the genetic diversity of seed lots (Sivakumar et al., 2007). However, this can be addressed by carful seed-selection and following the procedures of these flotation techniques. However, floating seeds are proven to have a very low probability (sometime only 4%) to be capable of germination and are generally undesirable or diseased (Sivakumar et al., 2007; Mathur et al., 2004; Singh & Rao, 1977). The advantage of petroleum flotation techniques is the accuracy of the technique. The proportion of germinable seeds discarded as floaters is remarkably low, at 4% (Sivakumar et al., 2007). This is an important advantage, as a high loss of viable seeds in the discarded fraction as floaters may not be economical, and would reduce genetic diversity of the seed lot (Sivakumar et al., 2007).</p>
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       <h3 class="title-bg">Resources Moving Forwards and Video Protocols for Removing Discoloured/Spotted Seeds: </h3>
       <h1 class="title-bg">Helpful links</h1>
         <div class="cont-bg">
         <div class="cont-bg">
<p>1.Cereal Systems Initiative for South Asia Phase II (CSISA) and International Rice Research Institute (IRRI). (2014). 8 tips for higher rice yields in Odisha (Oriya). Retrieved from http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PA00K83Q.pdf</p>  
          <p>https://youtu.be/yBg2B2BP9nA
<p>2. Ginwal, H. S., Phartyal, S. S., Rawat, P. S., & Srivastava, R. L. (2005). Seed source variation in morphology, germination and seedling growth of Jatropha curcas Linn. in central India. Silvae genetica, 54(2), 76-79.</p>  
- Link to how to properly use the respirator and a breakdown of its individual part</p>
 
<p>https://youtu.be/GLllZ-qiXJA
- link to a brief history in the question do we really need pesticides</p>  


<p>3.Mathur, S. B., Talukder, M. H., Veena, M. S., & Mortensen, C. N. (2004). Effect of manual cleaning on health and germination of rice seeds. Seed Science and Technology, 32(2), 405-415.</p>  
<p>https://youtu.be/kfgPR2yF8Cg
- Link to PPE related to spraying pesticides</p>


<p>4.Rural Development Academy, Bogra, International Rice Research Institute, and CAB International (Producer), & unknown (Director). (2009). 2 Seed Flotation [YouTube video]. (Available from TECAxFAO on YouTube). Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=e6G8bU9OkqE</p>  
<p>https://youtu.be/TenRNA_usxA
- link to how to spray pesticides to prevent backsplash with the knapsack sprayers</p>


<p>5.Rural Development Academy, Bogra, International Rice Research Institute, and CAB International (Producer), & unknown (Director). (2006). Spotted Seeds Means Diseased Seeds [YouTube video]. (Available from International Rice Research Institute on YouTube). Retrieved from http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0NKVCNyPwuI</p>  
<p>https://youtu.be/aooaY6mttPE
- link how to mix and load your pesticide sprayers</p>


<p>6.Singh, R. A., & Rao, M. H. S. (1977). A simple technique for detecting Xanthomonas oryzae in rice seeds. Seed Science and Technology, 5(1), 123-127.</p>  
<p>https://youtu.be/Ln_Lp-liMoE
- link to how to properly use pesticide sprayers</p>


<p>7.Sivakumar, V., Anandalakshmi, R., Warrier, R. R., Singh, B. G., Tigabu, M., & Oden, P. C. (2007). Petroleum flotation technique upgrades the germinability of Casuarina equisetifolia seed lots. New forests, 34(3), 281-291.</p>
<p>https://www.alibaba.com/product-detail/3M-6200-2091cn-P100-Grade-Particulate_62525995333.html
- link to acceptable respirator though wholesale</p> 
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      <h1 class="title-bg">References</h1>
        <div class="cont-bg">
          <p>1. Alibaba (2021) Full Face Respirators-Full Face Respirators Manufacturers, Suppliers and Exporters on Alibaba.comWelding Helmets. Alibaba. https://www.alibaba.com/trade/search?fsb=y&IndexArea=product_en&CatId=&SearchText=FULL+FACE+RESPORATORS&viewtype=&tab=\</p>
<p>2. Boedeker, W. Watts, M., Clausing, P. and Marquez, E. 2020 The Global Distribution of Acute Unintentional Pesticide Poisoning: Estimations Based on a Systematic Review. BMC Public Health 20, 1875, https://bmcpublichealth.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12889-020-09939-0/tables/8.</p>
<p>3. ChemSafetyPro (2016) Definition of Toxicological Dose Descriptors (LD50, LC50, EC50, NOAEL, LOAEL, etc). http://www.chemsafetypro.com/Topics/CRA/Toxicology_Dose_Descriptors.html</p>
<p>4. Government of British Columbia (2016) Pesticide Toxicity and Hazard - Gov.bc.ca. https://www2.gov.bc.ca/assets/gov/farming-natural-resources-and-industry/agriculture-and-seafood/animal-and-crops/plant-health/pesticide-toxicity-hazard.pdf?bcgovtm=2free</p>
<p>5. Government of Canada (2021) Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety. Pesticides - Health Effects: Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety, 29 Sept. 2021, https://www.ccohs.ca/oshanswers/chemicals/pesticides/health_effects.html</p>
<p>6. O’Malley, G. F., & O’Malley, R. (2021). Insecticide Poisoning. Merck Manual Consumer Version. Merck, Grand strand, Calgary  https://www.merckmanuals.com/en-ca/home/injuries-and-poisoning/poisoning/insecticide-poisoning</p>
<p>7. Sapbamrer, R., Hongsibsong, S., Naksata, M., & Naksata, W. (2021). Insecticide Filtration Efficiency of Respiratory Protective Equipment Commonly Worn by Farmers in Thailand. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(5), 2624. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18052624</p>
<p>8. Teravaninthorn, S. (2012). Transport Prices and Costs in Africa: A Review of the International Corridors. World Bank, Washington, D.C. Https://Openknowledge.Worldbank.Org/Handle/10986/6610. https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/6610</p>
<p>9. van der Merwe, C. (2021). South Africa’s ventilator project shows value of basic research. Research Professional News, South Africa.  https://researchprofessionalnews.com/rr-news-africa-south-2021-6-south-africa-s-ventilator-project-shows-value-of-basic-research/</p>
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Latest revision as of 19:28, 27 June 2022

7.2 -Evaluating the use of respirators for small scale farmers to protect them from pesticide sprays


Cassandra Pedersen, University of Guelph, Canada

4.jpg

Suggested citation for this chapter.

Pedersen,C. (2022) Evaluating the use of respirators for small scale farmers to protect them from pesticide sprays, The Encyclopedia for Small Scale Farmers. Editor, M.N. Raizada, University of Guelph, Canada. http://www.farmpedia.org

An introduction to the health risks around fertilizers

Fertilizers and pesticides can be beneficial for small scale agriculture. However, without the use proper equipment they can have negative ramifications. There are approximately 55,895,916 cases of non fatal pesticide poisoning reported annually within the continent of Africa (Boedeker et al. 2020). Annually approximately 130 people are reported to perish from pesticide poisoning in this region (Boedeker et al. 2020). Without intervention, these numbers are projected to grow.

The toxicity of pesticides varies vastly relative to the chemicals used in each product. LD 50 is the legal medical dose required to kill half the tested population (ChemiSafetyPro, 2016). In essence, the smaller the proportion of LD50 the more toxic it is to the handlers. To put this into context, on average, a mixture of less then 50 mg of agent per kg of dilutant can kill a 155 lb person though 0.3 – 3 ml of oral consumption (Government of British Columbia, 2018). Signs and symptoms of mild pesticide poisoning include: headache, fatigue, blurred vision, loss of appetite with nausea, stomach cramps, diarrhea, blurred vision associated with excessive tearing, excessive sweating and salivation, and slowed heartbeat often less than 50 beats per minute (O’Malley and O’Malley, 2021). In moderate to more severe cases individuals are unable to walk and will complain of chest discomfort and tightness muscle twitching, involuntary urination and bowel movements, seizures and unconsciousness (O’Malley and O’Malley, 2021).

Measures can be taken to prevent the oral consumption of droplet particles as well as aerosolized exposure to pesticides and fertilizers. For small scale farmers, being sick means the inability to work on their farm, and ultimately can be fatal.

A potential solution

A respirator is a device created to protect the wearer from inhaling hazardous particulates, materials carried in gases, vapors, fumes, airborne microorganisms, and dusts. The respirator filters out matter from entering into the mouth, esophagus and lungs through filters situated at the front of the breathing apparatus, while allowing the user to intake clean air (Sapbamrer et al., 2021). Respirators can protect farmers from intaking pesticides and thus help to prevent pesticide poisoning while also reducing the potential exposure to carcinogenic’s and other hazardous chemicals that can be found in unregulated pesticides (Sapbamrer et al., 2021). These apparatuses can be applied to the spaying of pesticides as well as but not limited to construction, the cleaning of farm equipment and cattle sheds. Respirators can be re-used, and as such they can be shared throughout communities with proper coordination.

On the market currently there are many different types of respirators but not all are able to protect from chemical compound exposure. N95. N99 and N100 are all not effective against chemical exposure, but rather they are used within the medical field for the prevention of the spread and intake of infectious diseases. The R95, R99, and R100 respirators, however, are effective at limiting chemical exposure but they only have a life span of 8 hours meaning they are not a cost effective long term solution. The respirators on the market that are both effective and reusable are the P95, P99, and P100 models, as such they are the ideal respirators for this solution.

Implementation and distribution of respirators

There is innovation in the respirator industry in Africa due to Covid 19, although traditionally they have been poorly accessible within rural Africa (van der Merwe, 2021). This is to say that the potential to develop respirators locally and not rely on intercontinental shipments is now a potential option and could vastly cut down the overhead cost of development. Cross continental shipping fees can be expensive and also leave a larger margin for delays and problems. African countries that could have the capabilities of producing respirators domestically are Kenya, Madagascar, South Africa, and Egypt (van der Merwe, 2021). Using local distribution channels, it may be possible to get the products to rural farming villages. The best method of getting the product to the target consumers would be through local farm organizations as well as local markets.

During the implementation process, someone locally respected with an understanding of how the respirators work to explain them to farmers would improve their adoption compared solely on textual facts. This could be a very good way to get women involved within the process so that they can be in the forefront. Such participatory initiatives also represent a good opportunity to involve women within the design, manufacturing and knowledge transfer processes – to ensure equipment is the appropriate size for example.

Cost analysis

The cost of a respirator can be broken down into two sub categories: the cost of the apparatus which takes into account manufacturing costs, and second, the cost of shipping/ delivering the product. The average price of a full face respirator can range from $11 - $19 (Alibaba, 2021) on the lower end of the price spectrum. Respirators are reusable and are in theory a one time expense, not including replacement filters. Replacement filters cost $1-2 per filter, plus shipping costs (Alibaba, 2021). The largest cost becomes the cost of replacement filters over time.

Shipping costs can vary considerably. For example the cost of shipping 1 tonne per km along the route from Durban, South Africa to Lusaka in Zambia is $0.06 USD (Teravaninthorn, 2012), however from Douala (Cameroon) to N’djamena (Chad) is $0.11 USD (Teravaninthorn, 2012). The varying shipping and transport costs are higher within Africa compared to other parts of the world, but even within Africa the costs very because of variable fuel costs, age of fleet trucks (older trucks tend to have higher fuel consumption) and poor road conditions.

Critical analysis

The three main points where potential problems may arise is determining the cost of distribution, distribution constraints and the likelihood the product will be accepted. The major cost uncertainty is due to variation in the cost of freight; this could be offset by agricultural organizations or a sponsor company. Sending products out through hub points can be effective but the cost of shipping will still remain volatile and variable depending on the region. As far as distribution constraints, due to the poor roads and bridges, there may be long wait times. The speed of over land travel can range from anywhere to 25 to 50 kilometers per day in parts of Africa (Teravaninthorn, 2012). When analyzing the likelihood of whether or not respirators will be successful, we have to take into consideration the potential for their rejection which requires thoughtful training and implementation to improve their adoption by small scale farmers. Other reasons for issues with adopting respirators include the procedural changes required to use respirators, the associated discomfort of the masks (e.g. more sweat), the potential cost increase (include to change filters due dirt and sweat) and potential for fake PPE. With the recent COVID 19 pandemic, there has been an onslaught of fake PPE reaching the market at discounted rates, and as a result, consumers and users have a lack of trust in PPE and those who distribute it

Conclusion

In conclusion, the most efficient way of dealing with the health related issues caused by prolonged exposure to pesticides/fertilizers and their mishandling is to provide respirators to farmers within Africa as well as South Asia. The benefit to small scale farmers is the prevention of potentially fatal and avoidable illness which could take away from their ability to provide for their families.

Helpful links

https://youtu.be/yBg2B2BP9nA - Link to how to properly use the respirator and a breakdown of its individual part

https://youtu.be/GLllZ-qiXJA - link to a brief history in the question do we really need pesticides

https://youtu.be/kfgPR2yF8Cg - Link to PPE related to spraying pesticides

https://youtu.be/TenRNA_usxA - link to how to spray pesticides to prevent backsplash with the knapsack sprayers

https://youtu.be/aooaY6mttPE - link how to mix and load your pesticide sprayers

https://youtu.be/Ln_Lp-liMoE - link to how to properly use pesticide sprayers

https://www.alibaba.com/product-detail/3M-6200-2091cn-P100-Grade-Particulate_62525995333.html - link to acceptable respirator though wholesale

References

1. Alibaba (2021) Full Face Respirators-Full Face Respirators Manufacturers, Suppliers and Exporters on Alibaba.comWelding Helmets. Alibaba. https://www.alibaba.com/trade/search?fsb=y&IndexArea=product_en&CatId=&SearchText=FULL+FACE+RESPORATORS&viewtype=&tab=\

2. Boedeker, W. Watts, M., Clausing, P. and Marquez, E. 2020 The Global Distribution of Acute Unintentional Pesticide Poisoning: Estimations Based on a Systematic Review. BMC Public Health 20, 1875, https://bmcpublichealth.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12889-020-09939-0/tables/8.

3. ChemSafetyPro (2016) Definition of Toxicological Dose Descriptors (LD50, LC50, EC50, NOAEL, LOAEL, etc). http://www.chemsafetypro.com/Topics/CRA/Toxicology_Dose_Descriptors.html

4. Government of British Columbia (2016) Pesticide Toxicity and Hazard - Gov.bc.ca. https://www2.gov.bc.ca/assets/gov/farming-natural-resources-and-industry/agriculture-and-seafood/animal-and-crops/plant-health/pesticide-toxicity-hazard.pdf?bcgovtm=2free

5. Government of Canada (2021) Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety. Pesticides - Health Effects: Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety, 29 Sept. 2021, https://www.ccohs.ca/oshanswers/chemicals/pesticides/health_effects.html

6. O’Malley, G. F., & O’Malley, R. (2021). Insecticide Poisoning. Merck Manual Consumer Version. Merck, Grand strand, Calgary https://www.merckmanuals.com/en-ca/home/injuries-and-poisoning/poisoning/insecticide-poisoning

7. Sapbamrer, R., Hongsibsong, S., Naksata, M., & Naksata, W. (2021). Insecticide Filtration Efficiency of Respiratory Protective Equipment Commonly Worn by Farmers in Thailand. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(5), 2624. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18052624

8. Teravaninthorn, S. (2012). Transport Prices and Costs in Africa: A Review of the International Corridors. World Bank, Washington, D.C. Https://Openknowledge.Worldbank.Org/Handle/10986/6610. https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/6610

9. van der Merwe, C. (2021). South Africa’s ventilator project shows value of basic research. Research Professional News, South Africa. https://researchprofessionalnews.com/rr-news-africa-south-2021-6-south-africa-s-ventilator-project-shows-value-of-basic-research/

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