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	~~<div class="title"><h3>~~5.54 ~~-Echinacea as Low-Cost Cash Crop for Smallholder Farmers to Increase Resiliency to Climate Change </h3><br><h3 class="ch-owner">Allison Duncan , University of Guelph, Canada </h3></div>~~
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	~~<p>Suggested citation for this chapter.</p>~~
	<p>Duncan,A. (2022) Echinacea as Low-Cost Cash Crop for Smallholder Farmers to Increase Resiliency to Climate Change, In Farmpedia, The Encyclopedia for Small Scale Farmers. Editor, M.N. Raizada, University of Guelph, Canada. http://www.farmpedia.org</p>
	~~<h3 class="title-bg">Background of Echinacea </h3>~~
	~~<div class="cont-bg">~~
	<p>Echinacea (Echinacea purpurea) is a perennial medicinal plant that offers promise to smallholder farmers as an income source that is buffered against climate change. It is commonly known as purple coneflower and comprises a group of herbaceous flowering planting of the daisy family with nine species (Billah, 2019). The majority of commercial cultivation of Echinacea is located in the North-West United States and Western Canada (Letchamo, 2002). Areas such as Austria, Germany, Russia, New Zealand, Ukraine, Yugoslavia, and the Republic of South Africa also have well-established cultivation of Echinacea (Letchamo, 2002).</p>
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	~~<h3 class="title-bg">Medicinal Benefits </h3>~~
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	<p>Echinacea is an herbal medicine is used to combat the common cold, bronchitis, upper respiratory infections, and some inflammatory conditions (Percival, 2000). The chemical composition of Echinacea raw material is of interest to both the herbal industry and regulatory agencies as a determinant of product quality and authenticity (Letchamo, 2002). Approximately 85% of the traditional Echinacea medicine sold is collected from the wild, threatening the species with overharvesting (Thomsen, 2012).</p>
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	~~<h3 class="title-bg">Echinacea growth</h3>~~
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	<p>Echinacea is native to North America and can be found growing in the wild in moist to dry prairies and open wooden areas (Billah, 2019). Echinacea is a perennial. The plant lays dormant in the winter, then by spring, the plant is approximately one meter in height (Thomsen, 2012). In mid-summer, the plant is flowering, then aerial parts wilt by fall, spreading the seeds before going dormant again (Thomsen, 2012). The growing season can vary depending on location, for example, 135 days in Siberia to 365 days in tropical/subtropical environments (Letchamo, 2002). Direct weed removal and hay mulch are cost-effective weed management options for Echinacea (Kristiansen, 2009). The integration of methods such as tillage and chipping with other techniques such as crop rotations, false seedbed preparation, and fertilizer banding may improve productivity (Kristiansen, 2009). Echinacea should be grown with relatively high nitrogen concentrations in the soil (at least 200 kg nitrogen/ ha) (Thomsen, 2012). Echinacea thrives in loam soil consisting of loose topsoil, with good aeration, drainage and fertility (King, 2005). Echinacea angustifolia seeds survive in a wide pH range of 5.9 to 8.0 (King, 2005).</p>

	<p>Echinacea seed collection involves cutting a stalk supporting a spent flower, then enclosing the flower in a paper bag, and hanging the plant upside down. The plant will release the seeds into the bag when they are ready. The seeds are then separated from the chaff, dried for a few weeks and stored in a cool, dry place (Billah, 2019). It is recommended to harvest aerial parts yearly during the wilting stage until the plant is three to four years old (Thomsen, 2012). If aerial parts and roots have to be harvested in the same year, it is best to harvest the seeds in the summertime, one week after gathering the aerial parts (Thomsen, 2012).</p>
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	~~<h3 class="title-bg">Climate Change</h3>~~
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	<p>Echinacea is resilient and thrives in most regions, but it is also drought-resistant, which is beneficial in the context of climate change (Billah, 2019). The plant can also survive long winters with soil temperatures below 0°C (Thomsen, 2012). The plant can be grown in the subtropics zones, at sea level to high altitudes, and in-land or near the coast (Thomsen, 2012).</p>
	<p>Echinacea does not like waterlogged conditions and should have soil with a water-holding capacity between 40 and 50 per cent and air porosity of 15 to 25 per cent (King, 2005). Irrigation or soil moisture with sodium levels over 100 ppm should be avoided (King, 2005). Echinacea angustifolia is more drought-tolerant than E.purpurea, and equal to E. pallida; it will not tolerate standing water (King, 2005).</p>
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	~~<h3 class="title-bg">Implementation by smallholder farmers </h3>~~
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	<p>Echinacea may be a source of income for smallholder farmers. Smallholder women farmers in rural areas are increasingly susceptible to climate change's adverse effects, due to crop losses and increased labour associated with more challenging collection of firewood and water (Jost, 2016). Echinacea is ideal for smallholder women as the plant can act as a buffer to climate change given its high level of tolerance to extreme environments.</p>

	<p>High yield biomass is not the goal of commercial medicinal plant production, but rather quality over quantity (Thomsen, 2012). In the case of Ethinacea, the growth environment and harvest and postharvest treatments can cause large differences in the content of its bioactive medicinal compounds (Thomsen, 2012). Therefore, it is vital to have a compliant, controlled-environment production system (Zheng, 2206). Capital investment required for a one hectare Echinacea operation in a Western nation is estimated to be $14,750: land $2,500, buildings $3,500, and machinery $8,750 (King, 2005). These costs will be lower in rural developing nations. Producers have to market to buyers to ensure a return on this investment. Marketing research questions provide a good basis to understanding local markets. The best way to sell root, seed and herb is to present the product at the best quality possible (King, 2005). Producers should provide as much information to the buyer. Producers can add value through minimal processing of a raw product (chopping, bagging and labelling), and processing the product (into a tincture, pill, infusion, etc.) (King, 2005).</p>
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	~~<h3 class="title-bg">Critical analysis </h3>~~
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	<p>While Echinacea is reported to provide many health benefits, peer-reviewed research is limited (Percival, 2000). There are genetic differences between seed populations in terms of medicinal compound production, and therefore seeds must be pre-screened (Thomsen, 2012), Resources are available for laboratory services, seed cleaning services, equipment and materials. Echinacea is generally considered to be pest and pathogen tolerant; however, with increased cultivation practices, numerous disease problems can occur, such as cucumber mosaic virus, virus bean wilt, and mosaic diseases (Letchamo, 2002). There needs to be a focus on how best to cultivate this crop, as well as harvest and postharvest production techniques that allow Echinacea production to be sustainable (Thomsen, 2012). A significant challenge for smallholders who wish to attempt this crop is how to connect the harvest to a commercial supply chain.</p>
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	~~<h3 class="title-bg">Further Information to get started </h3>~~
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	~~<p>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=L7IXzt4ha_s~~
	~~Growing Echinacea Background~~
	~~https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DxqiRKOUsgs~~
	~~How to Grow Echinacea</p>~~

	~~<p>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VtNYlviBcn0~~
	~~How to deadhead coneflowers</p>~~

	~~<p>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xCSFhkki_-s~~
	~~How to Control Spider Mites // Garden Answer</p>~~

	~~<p>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YeuYl4JnfEo~~
	~~Growing Echinacea</p>~~

	~~<p>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wACIAwIk3RY~~
	~~How to grow Echinacea from Seed (purple coneflower)</p>~~

	~~<p>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RDSp-Pij15M~~
	~~Echinacea: from plant to medicine</p>~~
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	~~<h3 class="title-bg">References </h3>~~
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	<p>1. Billah, M. M., Hosen, M. B., Khan, F., & Niaz, K. (2019). Echinacea. In Nonvitamin and Nonmineral Nutritional Supplements. Chapter 3.13. Elsevier. https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Kamal_Niaz2/publication/328191403_Echinacea/links/5bf6a70a92851c6b27d1f68c/Echinacea.pdf.</p>

	<p>2. Jost, C., Kyazze, F., Naab, J., Neelormi, S., Kinyangi, J., Zougmore, R., ... & Nelson, S. (2016). Understanding gender dimensions of agriculture and climate change in smallholder farming communities. Climate and Development, 8(2), 133-144.</p>

	<p>3. King, C., 2005. Commercial Echinacea Production. [ebook] Alberta: Alberta Agriculture, Food and Rural Development, pp.8-80. Available at: https://www1.agric.gov.ab.ca/$Department/deptdocs.nsf/all/agdex10531/$FILE/188_20_1.pdf</p>

	<p>4. Kristiansen, P., Sindel, B. M., & Jessop, R. S. (2008). Weed management in organic echinacea (Echinacea purpurea) and lettuce (Lactuca sativa) production. Renewable Agriculture and Food Systems, 23(2), 120-135. doi:http://dx.doi.org.subzero.lib.uoguelph.ca/10.1017/S1742170507001950</p>

	~~<p>5. Lee, K. M., Hussaini, Q., Ke, S., & Lee, C. W. (1995). Effects of Salinity, Temperature, and pH on Germination of Echinacea angustifolia Seeds. HortScience, 30(4), 869F-869.</p>~~

	<p>6. Letchamo, W., Polydeonny, L. V., Gladisheva, N. O., Arnason, T. J., Livesey, J., & Awang, D. V. C. (2002). Factors affecting Echinacea quality. p. 514–521. In: J. Janick and A. Whipkey (eds.), Trends in new crops and new uses. ASHS Press, Alexandria, VA.</p>

	<p>7. Li, T. S. C., & Wang, L. C. H. (1998). Physiological components and health effects of ginseng, echinacea and seabuckthorn. In Functional Foods, Biochemical and Processing Aspects (Ed: G. Mazza), Chapter 10. Technomic Publishing, Lancaster and Basel.</p>

	~~<p>8. Percival, S. (2000). Use of echinacea in medicine. Biochemical Pharmacology, 60(2), 155–158. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0006-2952(99)00413-X</p>~~

	<p>9. Thomsen, M.O. (2012) The Impact of Cultivation Techniques and Induced Stress on Bioactive Compounds in Echinacea Species. PhD Thesis, Aarhus University, Denmark. http://pure.au.dk/portal/files/48761202/The_impact_of_cultivation_techniques_and_induced_stress_on_bioactive_compounds_afhandling_MOTH.pdf.</p>

	<p>10. Zheng, Y., et al. (2006) Growing Environment and Nutrient Availability Affect the Content of Some Phenolic Compounds in Echinacea Purpurea and Echinacea Angustifolia. Planta Medica, 72(15), 1407–14. doi:10.1055/s-2006-951720.</p>

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5.54 -Drought Tolerant Bean Varieties (Phaseolus vulgaris) Utilized to Overcome the Negative Effects of Climate Change

Jordan Candido, University of Guelph, Canada

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Suggested citation for this chapter.

Candido,J. (2022) Drought Tolerant Bean Varieties (Phaseolus vulgaris) Utilized to Overcome the Negative Effects of Climate Change, In Farmpedia,..."

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Created page with "<div> <div class="title"><h3>5.54 -Drought Tolerant Bean Varieties (Phaseolus vulgaris) Utilized to Overcome the Negative Effects of Climate Change </h3><br><h3 class="ch-owner">Jordan Candido, University of Guelph, Canada </h3></div> <div class="hero-img-2"> 300px <p>Suggested citation for this chapter.</p> <p>Candido,J. (2022) Drought Tolerant Bean Varieties (Phaseolus vulgaris) Utilized to Overcome the Negative Effects of Climate Change, In Farmpedia,..."

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<div>
<div class="title"><h3>5.54 -Drought Tolerant Bean Varieties (Phaseolus vulgaris) Utilized to Overcome the Negative Effects of Climate Change </h3><br><h3 class="ch-owner">Jordan Candido, University of Guelph, Canada </h3></div>
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[[File:4.jpg|300px]]
<p>Suggested citation for this chapter.</p>
<p>Candido,J. (2022) Drought Tolerant Bean Varieties (Phaseolus vulgaris) Utilized to Overcome the Negative Effects of Climate Change, In Farmpedia, The Encyclopedia for Small Scale Farmers. Editor, M.N. Raizada, University of Guelph, Canada. http://www.farmpedia.org</p>
<h3 class="title-bg">Background</h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>During the formation of the International Centre for Tropical Agriculture, or CIAT, in 1967, headquartered in Colombia, the vast majority of starving and malnourished people residing in tropical and sub-tropical regions were smallholder farmers (CIAT, 2017). Thus, the goal of increasing yield potential became a primary priority for CIAT (CIAT, 2017). The current areas of concern are in regard to common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) production systems, the landscapes where its production occurs, and its yield potential (CIAT, 2015). Millions of farmers within Africa and Latin America depend on high yield outcomes from their bean crops not only to provide food but also to provide an income for themselves and their families. However, due to the high demand of the crop and the drastic effects of climate change, farmers continue to struggle to meet the needs of consumers (CIAT, 2015).</p>

<p>Throughout the previous several decades, the impacts of climate change have been worsening (IFPRI, 2009). Climate change projections state that regions in Sub-Saharan Africa, Latin America, and the Caribbean will be greatly affected by an increase of drought conditions and a rise in average annual temperatures. Due to these conditions, the threats to agricultural production within these land areas are escalating (IFPRI, 2009). Within these regions, the common bean is a staple crop; beans are often referred to as “the meat of the poor” (CIAT, 2016). They contain high levels of protein, fibre, vitamins and micronutrients. An estimated 400 million people residing in the tropics consume beans in their daily diet due to their high nutritional content (CIAT, 2016).</p>
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<h3 class="title-bg">Benefits of Drought Tolerant Bean Varieties to Small Scale Farmers </h3>
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<p>The world’s largest and most diverse collection of beans is preserved by CIAT (CIAT, 2015). Beans were domesticated within the neo-tropics thousands of years ago, which is where the majority of CIAT’s germplasm originated. With such an extensive range of beans available, the seed bank contains many options for farmers; a variety of colours, nutritional content, and production requirements can be found within these different strains (CIAT, 2015).</p>

<p>Within the previous 15 years, researchers at the Consortium of International Agricultural Research Centres (CGIAR), CIAT’s umbrella organization, have created incredible advances towards solving issues surrounding drought, and increasing the heat-tolerance and nutritional content levels within common bean varieties (CIAT, 2015). CIAT researchers have been able to identify lines that display a tolerance to a 3˚C increase in temperature. These lines derive from a variety of crosses between common and tepary bean species (Phaseolus acutifolius). Currently cultivated traditional bean varieties have been projected to suffer a 20-50% loss by 2050, whereas heat-tolerant bred beans are projected to suffer minimal losses within that same time period (CIAT, 2015).</p>

<p>In order for the new bean varieties to have drought resistant qualities, different traits from different genetic groups were required (Beebe, 2014). Many of the traits which are linked to drought resistance were found within both bean roots and shoots. In order to guarantee a higher success rate of the bean plant, a lengthy root system was required. Additionally, early maturation of the bean crops was a common tactic to combat drought tolerance. A total of 36 genotypes were tested in 2009 during a growing season with significant drought stress. Table 1 shows the field trial results of 5 genotypes grown under different field conditions (Beebe, 2014).</P>

<p>Table 1. Drought associated traits associated with improved bean genotypes </p>
[[File:Capture 672.JPG]]
<p>The crops were managed by the irrigation systems for up to 25 days following planting. In order to induce drought stress, the crops were fed a total of 105 mm of water initially followed by an allotted amount of 59 mm of rainwater. An analysis of these trials recommended that the most elite drought tolerant lines expressed heightened stomatal control of transpiration and contained Mexican genetics (Beebe, 2014).</p>

<p>Since 1996, The Pan-Africa Bean Research Alliance (PABRA) has released over 550 new drought resistant bean varieties to many of the countries within Africa in co-ordination with assistance from CIAT (CIAT, 2016). Utilizing germplasm available, the new varieties of beans (known as BIO101 and BIO107) contain 60% more iron and 50% more zinc than those of traditional bean crops. Following the creation of these specially bred beans, a trial with pregnant and young women in Rwanda discovered that the new varieties of beans reduced iron-deficiency and increased immune system strength in each of the women (CIAT, 2016). With these new advances, PABRA will assist future production by making the crops more resilient to climate change threats while simultaneously targeting direct effects on the human population (CIAT, 2015).</p>

<p>The regions within Latin America, Oceania and Sub-Saharan Africa contain the highest percentage of women participating in the agricultural sector. It is within these regions that 60% of the total agricultural production is completed by women (Huyer, 2016). In the world’s least developed regions, 79% of the women contributing to their national economy report that they work in the agriculture sector (Huyer, 2016). When women engage in the agricultural production (with new technologies such as heat-tolerant bean varieties) it creates a sense of empowerment and thus builds essential assets, which the women are then able to use in all other aspects of their lives (Muriel, 2019). With the climate change innovations available within common bean variety crops, female farmers are considered to be important influences (Huyer, 2016). When the women’s knowledge of available innovative resources and access to information increases, it establishes an increase in food supply as well as a more resilient community. Likewise, an attempt is made to close the gender gap, thus providing a higher chance for equal opportunities between both men and women (Huyer, 2016), which would in turn help to positively shape the future of those regions affected.</p>
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<h3 class="title-bg">Gender Issues Associated with Production of Drought Tolerant Bean Varieties </h3>
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<p>If the farmers, though especially female farmers, are not able to utilize and benefit from these new seed varieties, the food supply decreases and the gender gap increases, which diminishes the resiliency of the community (Huyer, 2016). Additionally, since very little information is available with regards to how poor regions with higher gender discrepancy respond to the threats and impacts of climate change within agricultural production, it is difficult to forecast results for future decades (Huyer, 2016).</p>
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<h3 class="title-bg">Production of Drought Tolerant Beans (Phaseolus Vulgaris) in Arid Regions </h3>
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<p>It is necessary that farmers are equipped with all of the relevant information required to achieve the highest quality results from their newly adapted bean varieties (PABRA, 2016). Becoming knowledgeable about land preparation, crop management and harvesting is vital to ensuring success within production systems. Integrated crop management (ICM) is a holistic approach utilized by PABRA that assists farmers throughout their cultivation. The desired outcome from ICM is to give smallholder farmers access to cost-effective, climate change resistant crops. This is achieved by working with many international partners. Multiple techniques exist within ICM such as pest management, soil quality, planting and intercropping. With such techniques, approximately six million farmers have been able to improve their bean yields. The ICM research encompasses a variety of areas:</p>
<p>- Cropping systems: Assessing the different varieties of beans while comparing the benefits of intercropping and rotation.</p>
<p>- Inputs: Evaluating the varieties of fertilisers available which are best suitable for the farmer’s chosen bean variety.</p>
<p>- Water Management: In order to combat the negative effects of climate change and drought, improved practices regarding irrigation and water conservation are fundamental. </p>
<p>- Soil Fertility: By working with the technologies available within the private sector, this promotes biological nitrogen fixation capabilities which increases yield potential.</p>
<p>- Pest and Disease Management: Bean varieties are frequently affected by an array of pests and diseases which have very negative effects on crop yields. PABRA analyses integrated pest management systems with utilization of both biological and chemical methods (PABRA, 2016).</p>
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<h3 class="title-bg">Helpful Links to Get Started </h3>
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<p>Resource for Requesting Seeds:</p>
<p>https://genebank.ciat.cgiar.org/genebank/inforequestmaterial.do</p>
<p>CIAT innovations on heat-tolerant beans:</p>
<p>https://blog.ciat.cgiar.org/heat-tolerant-wild-beans-tapped-to-breed-commercial-beans-for-hotter-climates/</p>
<p>What is ‘Seed Security’?</p>
<p>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xvqSaw49wnE</p>
<p>Agricultural Business Skills for seed-producers:</p>
<p>https://cgspace.cgiar.org/bitstream/handle/10568/54569/handbook_3_english.pdf</p>
<p>Crop Management:</p>
<p>https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/detail/national/newsroom/features/?&cid=nrcs143_023350</p>
<p>Smallholder Farmers Stories Who Have Adopted Drought Tolerant Bean Varieties:</p>
<p>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=O2UqFbnOc6U</p>
<p>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=x3D3DiZ4I-8</p>
<p>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Qd4RS66FMJM&t=8s</p>
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<h3 class="title-bg">References </h3>
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<p>1. Beebe, S.E., et al. (2014) Common beans, biodiversity, and multiple stresses:
a. challenges of drought resistance in tropical soils. Crop and Pasture Science 65, 667-675. Retrieved from https://www.publish.csiro.au/cp/cp13303</p>
<p>2. Buruchara, R. (2011). Development and Delivery of Bean Varieties in Africa: The Pan-
a. African Bean Research Alliance (PABRA) Model, p.227-245. African Crop Science Journal. Retrieved from https://www.ajol.info/index.php/acsj/article/view/74168/64827</p>
<p>3. Huyer, S, et al. (2016). CCAFS Gender and Social Inclusion Strategy, p.8-11. The
a. Consortium of International Agricultural Research Centres. Retrieved from https://cgspace.cgiar.org/handle/10568/72900</p>
<p>4. International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI). (2009). Climate Change: Impact
a. on Agriculture and Costs of Adaptation. Retrieved from https://books.google.ca/books?hl=en&lr=&id=1Vpe0JvYTJYC&oi=fnd&pg=PR7&ots=Xmu2c8Swla&sig=GX4sDC1DiDa7I5408r0a3nz2sJo&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false</p>
<p>5. Muriel, J., et al. (2019). The Abbreviated Women’s Empowerment in Agriculture Index
a. (A-WEIA). Project Results for ‘His and Hers, Time and Income: How Intra Household Dynamics Impact Nutrition in Agricultural Households’. The International Centre for Tropical Agriculture. Retrieved from https://cgspace.cgiar.org/handle/10568/101141</p>
<p>6. The International Centre for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT). (2015). Developing Beans that
a. Can Beat the Heat. The Consortium of International Agricultural Research Centres. Retrieved from https://ciat-library.ciat.cgiar.org/articulos_ciat/biblioteca/DEVELOPING_BEANS_THAT_CAN_BEAT_THE_HEAT_lowres%20(2).pdf</p>
<p>7. The International Centre for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT). (2016). Beans. Retrieved from
a. https://ciat.cgiar.org/what-we-do/breeding-better-crops/beans/.</p>
<p>8. The International Centre for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT). (2017). Fifty Years and Fifty
a. Wins, p.4-18. The Consortium of International Agricultural Research Centres. Retrieved from https://cgspace.cgiar.org/bitstream/handle/10568/89145/50_WINS_WEB02.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y</p>