Chapters 5.40 - Revision history

Mamta: Replaced content with "{{Chapters 5.40}}"

2024-09-04T09:19:10Z

Replaced content with "{{Chapters 5.40}}"

← Older revision		Revision as of 12:19, 4 September 2024
Line 1:		Line 1:
	~~<div>~~		{{Chapters 5.40}}
	~~<div class="title"><h3>~~5.40 ~~Marama bean as a subsistence and cash crop for smallholder farmers facing the impacts of climate change </h3><br><h3 class="ch-owner">Reid Sampson, University of Guelph, Canada </h3></div>~~
	~~<div class="hero-img-2">~~
	~~[[File:4.jpg\|300px]]~~
	~~<p>Suggested citation for this chapter.</p>~~
	<p>Sampson,R. (2022) Marama bean as a subsistence and cash crop for smallholder farmers facing the impacts of climate change, In Farmpedia, The Encyclopedia for Small Scale Farmers. Editor, M.N. Raizada, University of Guelph, Canada. http://www.farmpedia.org</p>
	~~<h3 class="title-bg">Marama Bean Background Information</h3>~~
	~~<div class="cont-bg">~~
	<p>Marama bean (Tylosema esculentum) is a wild legume food crop that is indigenous to Southern Africa, found primarily in the Kalahari Desert, Namibia, Botswana and the northwestern region of South Africa (Faria et al., 2011). Forming a part of the indigenous population’s diet, marama bean is considered underutilized in the global food market, despite its vast nutritional and socio-economic value (Holse et al., 2010). Due to this underutilization, marama bean has remained largely unmodified by humans, resulting in a crop adapted to its natural environment, but providing little yield due to lack of improvement (Cullis et al., 2018). Suitable to be grown in environments which experience little rainfall and temperatures of upwards of 37oC, marama bean has vast potential to improve food security for smallholder farmers (Holse et al., 2010); operating as a buffer against the negative effects of climate change in drought-afflicted areas.</p>
	~~</div>~~
	~~</div>~~
	~~<div style="margin-top: 30px;">~~
	~~<h3 class="title-bg">Growth of marama bean</h3>~~
	~~<div class="cont-bg">~~
	<p>Native to the Kalahari Desert, most marama bean is found growing in the wild (Cullis et al., 2018), preferring neutral and alkaline sandy soils which are prevalent in the African subtropics (Cullis et al., 2019). Receiving approximately 250-500 mm of rain annually, the crop is adapted to extreme environments, often growing where no other vegetation flourishes (Cullis et al., 2019). The plant is a creeper that spreads vines across the ground at a length of up to 6 meters (Cullis et al., 2019). These vines produce bilobed leaves which open in the morning, and fold together later in the afternoon when the sun is at its highest; reducing photodamage (Cullis et al., 2019). Marama bean is able to survive in such harsh conditions due to a number of drought-resistant mechanisms which include reducing the amount of leaves and stems it grows depending on moisture conditions, as well as producing a tuberous root (Cullis et al., 2018). This tuberous root operates as a starch and water reservoir, which the plant can access in times of prolonged drought (Cullis et al., 2018). An old tuber can weight upwards of 250 kg and hold 90% of its weight in water (Cullis et al., 2018). The crop prefers cold and dry winters, as the tuberous root beings to rot in moist soils (Cullis et al., 2019). An additional drought avoidance mechanism is the tap root, which penetrates deep within the sand in search of moisture, providing the plant with a steady supply of water (Cullis et al., 2018). Marama bean is a self-incompatible outcrossing crop, meaning it is unable to pollinate itself (Cullis et al., 2019). This prevents inbreeding, allowing farmers to target specific traits at each harvest to determine what to plant the following year (Muñoz-Sanz et al., 2020). This feature additionally protects farmers from pests and disease, as marama bean is unable to be grown as a homogenous monoculture (Cullis et al., 2019).</p>
	~~</div>~~
	~~</div>~~
	~~<div style="margin-top: 30px;">~~
	~~<h3 class="title-bg">Nutrition </h3>~~
	~~<div class="cont-bg">~~
	<p>The primary nutritional value that comes from the marama bean is the high protein and fat/oil content of its seeds (Holse et al., 2010). The seed fat/oil concentration ranges from 35 – 48% of its dry matter, while the protein can account for approximately 30-39% of dry matter (Holse et al., 2010). These values give the marama seeds a protein level comparable to that of soybeans (Glycine max) (33-46%), while providing approximately the same amount of fat/oil as peanuts (Arachis hypogaea) (45-55%) (Holse et al., 2010). The seeds contain all essential amino acids, and provide a variety of macro-nutrients including calcium, magnesium, phosphate and potassium (Holse et al., 2010). Staying edible for years after harvesting due to a tough outer shell and low water content, marama bean seeds are an ideal famine food (Holse et al., 2010). The seeds are not the only edible component of the crop. Marama bean’s primary water and starch storage organ, the tuber, is commonly consumed as a source of carbohydrates and water, especially in times of drought (Cullis et al., 2019). The tuber also has a very high protein value, comprising approximately 9% of its dry weight (Cullis et al., 2018). An interesting feature of marama bean is its lack of root nodules as a habitat for atmospheric nitrogen fixation, despite it being a member of the legume family (Fabaceae) and despite its seeds and tuber having a high protein content, consistent with biological nitrogen fixation (Cullis et al., 2018).</p>
	~~</div>~~
	~~</div>~~
	~~<div style="margin-top: 30px;">~~
	~~<h3 class="title-bg">Planting/Gathering </h3>~~
	~~<div class="cont-bg">~~
	<p>Today, marama bean remains a wild plant that has been largely ignored by international organizations due to the lack of economic importance in the global market (Cullis & Kunert, 2016). Increased international research and the deliberate cultivation of this crop are essential if it is to be utilized as a cash and food crop for smallholder farmers (Faria et al., 2011). Since the first attempt to cultivate the crop in Botswana in 1984, there has been approximately a dozen research projects focusing on its potential for commercialization and cultivation (Faria et al., 2011). Marama bean is a perennial plant, meaning its seeds re-sprout every year, growing from the underground tuber (Cullis et al., 2019). This is advantageous for smallholder farmers, as they save money on the cost of planting. In addition to the economic benefits of having a crop that provides seeds every harvest, the tuber from which the crop grows from can also be harvested for economic yield (Cullis et al., 2019). Marama seeds do not begin to be produced until the second year after planting, resulting in a delay with respect to food production (Cullis et al., 2018). Agricultural practices that have been studied include separating the crop into two groups; one which continually grows beans annually, while the other group is harvested for their tubers (Cullis et al., 2019). With respect to the gathering of wild marama bean, unsustainable farming practices include harvesting the beans before they can ripen, which damages the plant’s ability to regenerate (Faria et al., 2011).</p>
	~~</div>~~
	~~</div>~~
	~~<div style="margin-top: 30px;">~~
	~~<h3 class="title-bg">Practical issues </h3>~~
	~~<div class="cont-bg">~~
	<p>Despite the marama bean’s huge potential as a staple food crop, it remains underutilized, primarily due to the lack of mainstream research and development (Cullis & Kunert, 2016). This is a result of only a handful of samples being analyzed with respect to the crops’ chemical composition (Holse et al., 2010). Due to the small quantities of seeds which are gathered at any given time, marama bean consumption is confined to the local level (Faria et al., 2011). This confinement to the local level is also exacerbated by the lack of resources that sellers possess to transport their harvest over long distances (Faria et al., 2011). The seeds’ high concentration of protein and fat/oil makes marama bean a great addition to a smallholder farmer’s diet, and as a result it holds high socio-economic value as a food and cash crop locally (Holse et al., 2010). Smallholder farmers have already been observed selling marama bean to nearby villages, usually in the form of raw or roasted seeds (Faria et al., 2011). The price of marama bean in local markets fluctuate depending on the availability of the wild crop in relation to the community, with prices dropping as supply increases during the April gathering season (Faria et al., 2011). In 2008, raw seeds were found to have been selling in local markets in Namibia for approximately 2-3 N$/cup, or the equivalent of 0.13 - 0.20 cents US per cup (Faria et al., 2011). When roasted and unshelled, the seeds can sell for upwards of 5 N$/cup, or 0.33 cents US per cup (Faria et al., 2011). Marama bean seeds are commonly sold whole but can also be pounded into a flour or turned into a butter to improve its economic value in local markets (Faria et al., 2011). Additional research that needs to be conducted includes determining the presence of toxins in the raw seeds (Holse et al., 2010) and leaves as forage, as well as methods of improving the crop’s annual seed production. In order to begin the process of breeding for better yields, resources must first be allocated into determining the types of insects that pollinate the crop, as this is currently unknown (Cullis et al., 2019).</p>
	~~</div>~~
	~~</div>~~
	~~<div style="margin-top: 30px;">~~
	~~<h3 class="title-bg">Additional Links</h3>~~
	~~<div class="cont-bg">~~
	~~<p>https://www.nap.edu/read/11763/chapter/15#237~~
	~~A chapter on marama bean from the book “Lost Crops of Africa: Volume II: Vegetables”.</p>~~

	~~<p>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DxNTkYtSFYw~~
	~~A video discussing the implementation of marama bean to improve food security in Africa.</p>~~

	~~<p>https://www.echocommunity.org/en/resources/9e6b7a74-93c9-428e-928a-00b6dcb65d63~~
	~~An article that looks more in depth at the cultivation, nutrition and preparation of marama bean.</p>~~

	~~<p>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XWKOyGH0XY8~~
	~~A video of a research project done in Africa by Case Western Reserve University, looking into tuber growth and size.</p>~~

	~~<p>http://www.nbri.org.na/sections/economic-botany/INP/sectors/Marama-bean~~
	An article posted by the National Botanical Research Institute giving an overview of the environments marama bean grows in, its nutritional value, growing cycle and potential as a buffer against climate change.</p>

	~~<p>http://tropical.theferns.info/viewtropical.php?id=Tylosema+esculentum~~
	~~An article depicting the various ways marama bean can be prepared including how to cook the seeds, the various uses of the bean’s oil, as well as the uses of different aged tubers.</p>~~

	~~<p>https://www.ebay.com/itm/World-rarest-Tylosema-esculentum-marama-bean-green-gold-1-rare-seed-/183896093148~~
	~~An eBay offering of someone selling marama bean seeds.</p>~~

	~~<p>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6VXgcsmSyF0~~
	An extremely informative video by the “Morama Engaged” project discussing the future of marama bean production and cultivation, different products that can be made out of the crop, as well as the potential health benefits it holds.</p>
	~~</div>~~
	~~</div>~~
	~~<div style="margin-top: 30px;">~~
	~~<h3 class="title-bg">References </h3>~~
	~~<div class="cont-bg">~~
	<p>1. Cullis, C., Chimwamurombe, P., Barker, N., Kunert, K., & Vorster, J. (2018). Orphan Legumes Growing in Dry Environments: Marama Bean as a Case Study. Frontiers in Plant Science, 9, 1199. https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpls.2018.01199/full</p>

	<p>2. Cullis, C., & Kunert, K. J. (2016). Unlocking the potential of orphan legumes. Journal of Experimental Botany, 68(8), 1895-1903. https://academic-oup-com.subzero.lib.uoguelph.ca/jxb/article/68/8/1895/2731367 </p>

	<p>3. Cullis, C., Lawlor, D. W., Chimwamurombe, P., Bbebe, N., Kunert, K., & Vorster, J. (2019). Development of marama bean, an orphan legume, as a crop. Food and Energy Security, 8(3), 1193-1212. https://www-proquest-com.subzero.lib.uoguelph.ca/docview/2272605983/B7EEC2D4FAD44687PQ/9?accountid=11233 </p>

	<p>4. Faria, M., Mabaya, E., & Jordaan, D. (2011). Markets for marama beans in southern Africa: Linking sustainable products with sustainable livelihoods. Development Southern Africa, 28(4), 477-492. https://www-tandfonline-com.subzero.lib.uoguelph.ca/doi/full/10.1080/0376835X.2011.605566 </p>

	<p>5. Holse, M., Husted, S., & Hansen, Å. (2010). Chemical composition of marama bean (Tylosema esculentum) - A wild African bean with unexploited potential. Journal of Food Composition and Analysis, 23(6), 648-657. https://www-sciencedirect-com.subzero.lib.uoguelph.ca/science/article/pii/S0889157510001146?via%3Dihub</p>

	<p>6. Muñoz-Sanz, J., Zuriaga, E., Cruz-García, F., McClure, B., & Romero, C. (2020). Self-(In)compatibility systems: Target traits for crop-production, plant breeding, and biotechnology. Frontiers in Plant Science, 11, 195. https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpls.2020.00195/full</p>

Mamta at 10:24, 2 July 2022

2022-07-02T10:24:33Z

Show changes

Mamta: Created page with "

5.40 -Drought Tolerant Bean Varieties (Phaseolus vulgaris) Utilized to Overcome the Negative Effects of Climate Change

Jordan Candido, University of Guelph, Canada

300px
Suggested citation for this chapter.

Candido,J. (2022) Drought Tolerant Bean Varieties (Phaseolus vulgaris) Utilized to Overcome the Negative Effects of Climate Change, In Farmpedia,..."

2022-07-01T18:45:06Z

Created page with "<div> <div class="title"><h3>5.40 -Drought Tolerant Bean Varieties (Phaseolus vulgaris) Utilized to Overcome the Negative Effects of Climate Change </h3><br><h3 class="ch-owner">Jordan Candido, University of Guelph, Canada </h3></div> <div class="hero-img-2"> 300px <p>Suggested citation for this chapter.</p> <p>Candido,J. (2022) Drought Tolerant Bean Varieties (Phaseolus vulgaris) Utilized to Overcome the Negative Effects of Climate Change, In Farmpedia,..."

New page

<div>
<div class="title"><h3>5.40 -Drought Tolerant Bean Varieties (Phaseolus vulgaris) Utilized to Overcome the Negative Effects of Climate Change </h3><br><h3 class="ch-owner">Jordan Candido, University of Guelph, Canada </h3></div>
<div class="hero-img-2">
[[File:4.jpg|300px]]
<p>Suggested citation for this chapter.</p>
<p>Candido,J. (2022) Drought Tolerant Bean Varieties (Phaseolus vulgaris) Utilized to Overcome the Negative Effects of Climate Change, In Farmpedia, The Encyclopedia for Small Scale Farmers. Editor, M.N. Raizada, University of Guelph, Canada. http://www.farmpedia.org</p>
<h3 class="title-bg">Background</h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>During the formation of the International Centre for Tropical Agriculture, or CIAT, in 1967, headquartered in Colombia, the vast majority of starving and malnourished people residing in tropical and sub-tropical regions were smallholder farmers (CIAT, 2017). Thus, the goal of increasing yield potential became a primary priority for CIAT (CIAT, 2017). The current areas of concern are in regard to common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) production systems, the landscapes where its production occurs, and its yield potential (CIAT, 2015). Millions of farmers within Africa and Latin America depend on high yield outcomes from their bean crops not only to provide food but also to provide an income for themselves and their families. However, due to the high demand of the crop and the drastic effects of climate change, farmers continue to struggle to meet the needs of consumers (CIAT, 2015).</p>

<p>Throughout the previous several decades, the impacts of climate change have been worsening (IFPRI, 2009). Climate change projections state that regions in Sub-Saharan Africa, Latin America, and the Caribbean will be greatly affected by an increase of drought conditions and a rise in average annual temperatures. Due to these conditions, the threats to agricultural production within these land areas are escalating (IFPRI, 2009). Within these regions, the common bean is a staple crop; beans are often referred to as “the meat of the poor” (CIAT, 2016). They contain high levels of protein, fibre, vitamins and micronutrients. An estimated 400 million people residing in the tropics consume beans in their daily diet due to their high nutritional content (CIAT, 2016).</p>
</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">Benefits of Drought Tolerant Bean Varieties to Small Scale Farmers </h3>
<div class="cont-bg">

<p>The world’s largest and most diverse collection of beans is preserved by CIAT (CIAT, 2015). Beans were domesticated within the neo-tropics thousands of years ago, which is where the majority of CIAT’s germplasm originated. With such an extensive range of beans available, the seed bank contains many options for farmers; a variety of colours, nutritional content, and production requirements can be found within these different strains (CIAT, 2015).</p>

<p>Within the previous 15 years, researchers at the Consortium of International Agricultural Research Centres (CGIAR), CIAT’s umbrella organization, have created incredible advances towards solving issues surrounding drought, and increasing the heat-tolerance and nutritional content levels within common bean varieties (CIAT, 2015). CIAT researchers have been able to identify lines that display a tolerance to a 3˚C increase in temperature. These lines derive from a variety of crosses between common and tepary bean species (Phaseolus acutifolius). Currently cultivated traditional bean varieties have been projected to suffer a 20-50% loss by 2050, whereas heat-tolerant bred beans are projected to suffer minimal losses within that same time period (CIAT, 2015).</p>

<p>In order for the new bean varieties to have drought resistant qualities, different traits from different genetic groups were required (Beebe, 2014). Many of the traits which are linked to drought resistance were found within both bean roots and shoots. In order to guarantee a higher success rate of the bean plant, a lengthy root system was required. Additionally, early maturation of the bean crops was a common tactic to combat drought tolerance. A total of 36 genotypes were tested in 2009 during a growing season with significant drought stress. Table 1 shows the field trial results of 5 genotypes grown under different field conditions (Beebe, 2014).</P>

<p>Table 1. Drought associated traits associated with improved bean genotypes </p>
[[File:Capture 672.JPG]]
<p>The crops were managed by the irrigation systems for up to 25 days following planting. In order to induce drought stress, the crops were fed a total of 105 mm of water initially followed by an allotted amount of 59 mm of rainwater. An analysis of these trials recommended that the most elite drought tolerant lines expressed heightened stomatal control of transpiration and contained Mexican genetics (Beebe, 2014).</p>

<p>Since 1996, The Pan-Africa Bean Research Alliance (PABRA) has released over 550 new drought resistant bean varieties to many of the countries within Africa in co-ordination with assistance from CIAT (CIAT, 2016). Utilizing germplasm available, the new varieties of beans (known as BIO101 and BIO107) contain 60% more iron and 50% more zinc than those of traditional bean crops. Following the creation of these specially bred beans, a trial with pregnant and young women in Rwanda discovered that the new varieties of beans reduced iron-deficiency and increased immune system strength in each of the women (CIAT, 2016). With these new advances, PABRA will assist future production by making the crops more resilient to climate change threats while simultaneously targeting direct effects on the human population (CIAT, 2015).</p>

<p>The regions within Latin America, Oceania and Sub-Saharan Africa contain the highest percentage of women participating in the agricultural sector. It is within these regions that 60% of the total agricultural production is completed by women (Huyer, 2016). In the world’s least developed regions, 79% of the women contributing to their national economy report that they work in the agriculture sector (Huyer, 2016). When women engage in the agricultural production (with new technologies such as heat-tolerant bean varieties) it creates a sense of empowerment and thus builds essential assets, which the women are then able to use in all other aspects of their lives (Muriel, 2019). With the climate change innovations available within common bean variety crops, female farmers are considered to be important influences (Huyer, 2016). When the women’s knowledge of available innovative resources and access to information increases, it establishes an increase in food supply as well as a more resilient community. Likewise, an attempt is made to close the gender gap, thus providing a higher chance for equal opportunities between both men and women (Huyer, 2016), which would in turn help to positively shape the future of those regions affected.</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">Gender Issues Associated with Production of Drought Tolerant Bean Varieties </h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>If the farmers, though especially female farmers, are not able to utilize and benefit from these new seed varieties, the food supply decreases and the gender gap increases, which diminishes the resiliency of the community (Huyer, 2016). Additionally, since very little information is available with regards to how poor regions with higher gender discrepancy respond to the threats and impacts of climate change within agricultural production, it is difficult to forecast results for future decades (Huyer, 2016).</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">Production of Drought Tolerant Beans (Phaseolus Vulgaris) in Arid Regions </h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>It is necessary that farmers are equipped with all of the relevant information required to achieve the highest quality results from their newly adapted bean varieties (PABRA, 2016). Becoming knowledgeable about land preparation, crop management and harvesting is vital to ensuring success within production systems. Integrated crop management (ICM) is a holistic approach utilized by PABRA that assists farmers throughout their cultivation. The desired outcome from ICM is to give smallholder farmers access to cost-effective, climate change resistant crops. This is achieved by working with many international partners. Multiple techniques exist within ICM such as pest management, soil quality, planting and intercropping. With such techniques, approximately six million farmers have been able to improve their bean yields. The ICM research encompasses a variety of areas:</p>
<p>- Cropping systems: Assessing the different varieties of beans while comparing the benefits of intercropping and rotation.</p>
<p>- Inputs: Evaluating the varieties of fertilisers available which are best suitable for the farmer’s chosen bean variety.</p>
<p>- Water Management: In order to combat the negative effects of climate change and drought, improved practices regarding irrigation and water conservation are fundamental. </p>
<p>- Soil Fertility: By working with the technologies available within the private sector, this promotes biological nitrogen fixation capabilities which increases yield potential.</p>
<p>- Pest and Disease Management: Bean varieties are frequently affected by an array of pests and diseases which have very negative effects on crop yields. PABRA analyses integrated pest management systems with utilization of both biological and chemical methods (PABRA, 2016).</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">Helpful Links to Get Started </h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Resource for Requesting Seeds:</p>
<p>https://genebank.ciat.cgiar.org/genebank/inforequestmaterial.do</p>
<p>CIAT innovations on heat-tolerant beans:</p>
<p>https://blog.ciat.cgiar.org/heat-tolerant-wild-beans-tapped-to-breed-commercial-beans-for-hotter-climates/</p>
<p>What is ‘Seed Security’?</p>
<p>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xvqSaw49wnE</p>
<p>Agricultural Business Skills for seed-producers:</p>
<p>https://cgspace.cgiar.org/bitstream/handle/10568/54569/handbook_3_english.pdf</p>
<p>Crop Management:</p>
<p>https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/detail/national/newsroom/features/?&cid=nrcs143_023350</p>
<p>Smallholder Farmers Stories Who Have Adopted Drought Tolerant Bean Varieties:</p>
<p>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=O2UqFbnOc6U</p>
<p>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=x3D3DiZ4I-8</p>
<p>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Qd4RS66FMJM&t=8s</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">References </h3>
<div class="cont-bg">

<p>1. Beebe, S.E., et al. (2014) Common beans, biodiversity, and multiple stresses:
a. challenges of drought resistance in tropical soils. Crop and Pasture Science 65, 667-675. Retrieved from https://www.publish.csiro.au/cp/cp13303</p>
<p>2. Buruchara, R. (2011). Development and Delivery of Bean Varieties in Africa: The Pan-
a. African Bean Research Alliance (PABRA) Model, p.227-245. African Crop Science Journal. Retrieved from https://www.ajol.info/index.php/acsj/article/view/74168/64827</p>
<p>3. Huyer, S, et al. (2016). CCAFS Gender and Social Inclusion Strategy, p.8-11. The
a. Consortium of International Agricultural Research Centres. Retrieved from https://cgspace.cgiar.org/handle/10568/72900</p>
<p>4. International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI). (2009). Climate Change: Impact
a. on Agriculture and Costs of Adaptation. Retrieved from https://books.google.ca/books?hl=en&lr=&id=1Vpe0JvYTJYC&oi=fnd&pg=PR7&ots=Xmu2c8Swla&sig=GX4sDC1DiDa7I5408r0a3nz2sJo&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false</p>
<p>5. Muriel, J., et al. (2019). The Abbreviated Women’s Empowerment in Agriculture Index
a. (A-WEIA). Project Results for ‘His and Hers, Time and Income: How Intra Household Dynamics Impact Nutrition in Agricultural Households’. The International Centre for Tropical Agriculture. Retrieved from https://cgspace.cgiar.org/handle/10568/101141</p>
<p>6. The International Centre for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT). (2015). Developing Beans that
a. Can Beat the Heat. The Consortium of International Agricultural Research Centres. Retrieved from https://ciat-library.ciat.cgiar.org/articulos_ciat/biblioteca/DEVELOPING_BEANS_THAT_CAN_BEAT_THE_HEAT_lowres%20(2).pdf</p>
<p>7. The International Centre for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT). (2016). Beans. Retrieved from
a. https://ciat.cgiar.org/what-we-do/breeding-better-crops/beans/.</p>
<p>8. The International Centre for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT). (2017). Fifty Years and Fifty
a. Wins, p.4-18. The Consortium of International Agricultural Research Centres. Retrieved from https://cgspace.cgiar.org/bitstream/handle/10568/89145/50_WINS_WEB02.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y</p>