Farmpedia - User contributions [en]

Template:Chapter 13.1

2026-01-15T09:37:11Z

Mamta:

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<div class="title"><h3>13.1 -Forming Farmer Groups to Empower Subsistence Farmers </h3><br><h3 class="ch-owner">Sabrina Ghonem,University of Guelph, Canada</h3></div>
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<p><b>Related video(s)</b>: Self help group, Village Development Committees, Coffee: group organisation, Water users associations, Community knowledge sharing centres (English)(Source: SAK Global)</p>
<p><i> https://www.accessagriculture.org/self-help-group?cat_id=40</i></p>
<p><i> https://www.accessagriculture.org/village-development-committees?cat_id=177</i></p>
<p><i> https://www.accessagriculture.org/village-savings-and-loan-associations</i></p>
<p><i>https://www.accessagriculture.org/coffee-group-organisation?cat_id=40</i></p>
<p><i>https://www.accessagriculture.org/water-users-associations?cat_id=40</i></p>
<p><i>https://www.accessagriculture.org/community-knowledge-sharing-centres</i></p>

<p>Suggested citation for this chapter.</p>
<p>Ghonem,S. (2022) Forming Farmer Groups to Empower Subsistence Farmers, M.N. Raizada, University of Guelph, Canada. http://www.farmpedia.org</p>
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<h1 class="title-bg">Introduction to Farmer Groups and Subsistence Farmers </h1>
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<p>As Rapsomanikis (2015) explained, there are numerous obstacles that impede smallholder farmers in Africa and Asia from maintaining their livelihoods. These farmers frequently work at this level since they do not have access to markets, financial services, or sophisticated farming methods (Rapsomanikis, 2015; Stringer et al., 2020). They consequently find it difficult to increase their income and productivity, which feeds the cycle of food insecurity and poverty (Rapsomanikis, 2015; Stringer et al., 2020). Establishing farmer groups is an excellent step forward since it promotes cooperation, information exchange, and group resource access (Ma et al., 2023; Rapsomanikis, 2015). By enabling smallholders to overcome their own obstacles and work together to solve shared problems, this strategy eventually improves livelihoods and resilience in rural communities (Ma et al., 2023; Rapsomanikis, 2015). Moreover, farmer groups play a crucial role in connecting rural communities with marketplaces, promoting understanding of market trends, and guaranteeing equitable market rates for farm products (Ma et al., 2023; Rapsomanikis, 2015). These organizations give farmers the chance to negotiate better terms, lessening their susceptibility to unfair market practices and improving their financial prospects (Rapsomanikis, 2015). They do this by using their collective negotiating strength. Thus, the establishment of farmer groups fosters sustainable development and prosperity among smallholder farming communities in Asia and Africa while also fortifying links within the community. </p>
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<h1 class="title-bg">Benefits of Farmer Groups </h1>
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<P>With a focus on the major influence on women’s participation, forming farmer groups is a transformative technique for empowering subsistence farmers (Bryan et al., 2024). As Bryan and colleagues (2024) explained, particularly powerful are women’s farmer groups, which act as forums for projects aimed at developing skills, sharing resources, and making decisions that are inclusive of both genders. Through their active participation, these groups provide more equitable and sustainable development results - in addition to amplifying the voices and agency of women within the agricultural sector (Bryan et al., 2024).</P>
<P>Additionally, farmer groups are essential in helping subsistence farmers with their transportation needs (Loconto et al., 2016). By planning bulk purchases and arranging transportation, they streamline the logistics of obtaining inputs from urban areas (Loconto et al., 2016). These collectives also optimize distribution networks and collectively negotiate transportation contracts, which expedites the process of distributing farm commodities to urban markets (Loconto et al., 2016). Through the removal of logistical obstacles, farmer groups improve the economic prospects and resilience of their members by facilitating efficient access to vital inputs and profitable market possibilities (Loconto et al., 2016).</P>
<P>For farmer groups, sharing the cost of specialized equipment such as irrigation systems and tractors is a major benefit (Rapsomanikis, 2015). To put into perspective, an irrigation system can cost from $2000 to $7,000 USD, while a tractor might cost as much as $14,000 USD or more. Furthermore, costs for insecticides, fertilizer, and seeds are critical and range from $1500 USD to $3500 USD per hectare annually (Rapsomanikis, 2015). In order to meet these needs, farmer groups can combine their resources and encourage cost-sharing and accessibility among their members (Rapsomanikis, 2015). This cooperative strategy reduces financial burdens for all participants while also allowing investment in essential resources that improve agricultural sustainability and productivity (Rapsomanikis, 2015).</P>
<P>Moreover, as Loconto and co-workers (2016) have explained, the collective power of farmer groups encompasses larger initiatives for empowerment in addition to logistical assistance. Members rotate crops and pool resources through cooperative efforts, which efficiently diversifies risks related to unfavourable weather and market volatility (Bryan et al., 2024; Loconto et al., 2016). Moreover, farmer groups give its members a forum for exchanging ideas and developing their skills, equipping them with the knowledge needed to maximize farming methods, boost output, and successfully negotiate changing market conditions (Bryan et al., 2024; Loconto et al., 2016).</P>
<P>In addition to the economic advantages outlined, farmer groups offer a diversity of social benefits crucial for the empowerment of subsistence farmers, with a notable impact on women’s participation (Bryan et al., 2024; Filley, 2022; Reza et al., 2018). Farmer groups act as a buffer against social isolation, fostering a sense of community and support among members (Filley, 2022; Reza et al., 2018). Particularly for women, who often face social barriers and isolation, these groups provide a vital network for collaboration and empowerment (Bryan et al., 2024; Filley, 2022). Moreover, as Reza and colleagues (2018) along with Filley (2022) outlined, during critical times such as weeding and harvesting, labour-sharing within these groups ensures tasks are completed efficiently, reducing the burden on individual farmers, especially women who might already bear multiple responsibilities. Additionally, farmer groups serve as a social safety net, filling gaps left by inadequate government support, by offering shared childcare services and access to micro-finance and loans (Filley, 2022; Reza et al., 2018). By achieving economies of scale not only for purchasing but also in selling produce, these groups enhance the bargaining power of smallholder farmers in the market, thereby increasing their resilience to external shocks (Filley, 2022; Reza et al., 2018). Overall, the social benefits of farmer groups extend far beyond the economic realm, playing a pivotal role in fostering inclusivity, reducing isolation, and empowering marginalized farmers in rural communities (Filley, 2022; Reza et al., 2018).</P>
<P>Essentially, creating farmer groups is a comprehensive strategy for enabling subsistence farmers by providing them with the tools, resources, and networks of support required to escape the cycle of poverty and achieve long-term success (Filley, 2022; Loconto et al., 2016; Reza et al., 2018). These groups are essential in changing agricultural landscapes and promoting sustainable rural development as they promote inclusivity, harness community strength, and solve practical issues (Filley, 2022; Loconto et al., 2016; Reza et al., 2018). </p>
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<h1 class="title-bg">Environment and Sustainability Benefits</h1>
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<p>As the FAO (2019) has thoroughly explained, in the agricultural industry, farmer groups are essential to advancing environmental sustainability. They promote resource-saving methods and waste reduction strategies through sustainable management practices, helping to preserve natural resources and lessen the harm done to the environment (FAO, 2019). Farmer groups show their dedication to long-term sustainability by implementing environmentally friendly farming practices and embracing technologies that reduce their negative effects on the environment (FAO, 2019). Furthermore, cooperative projects led by these groups help smallholders adjust to changes in the agricultural environment (FAO, 2019). Farmers may strengthen their resistance against climate change-related problems including unpredictable weather patterns and pest outbreaks by exchanging information, resources, and experiences (FAO, 2019). This cooperative strategy guarantees the sustainability of agricultural livelihoods in the face of changing environmental constraints while simultaneously promoting environmental responsibility (FAO, 2019).</p>
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<h1 class="title-bg">How to Start a Farmer Group </h1>
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<p>To be functional and effective, farmer groups must go through a number of critical stages in the formation process. As Savage and colleagues (2023) have stated, farmers first gather to form the organization and define roles, goals, and requirements for participation. For sustainable development, cooperation and mutual support are essential, and this foundational stage creates the framework for them (Savage et al., 2023). Women’s farmer groups are especially important, due to how they empower their female members and promote gender-inclusive decision-making (Bryan et al., 2024).</P>
<P>As Savage and co-researchers (2023) explained, within farmer groups, cooperation is essential. Members work together on projects, pooling their resources, labour, and skills to accomplish shared goals (Savage et al., 2023). Consistent communication promotes cohesiveness and unity by facilitating the exchange of ideas, best practices, and group problem-solving (Savage et al., 2023). These groups also maximize access to profitable markets and necessary resources by planning transportation for the acquisition of supplies from cities and the sale of produce to urban markets, thereby addressing logistical issues (Savage et al., 2023).</P>
<P>To ensure efficient group management and decision-making procedures, the leaders must be identified (Savage et al., 2023). Techniques for obtaining extension information are also essential (Savage et al., 2023). Farmer groups gain important agricultural knowledge by using internet cafés or relatives with smartphones and internet connection, which increases resilience and output (Savage et al., 2023). In general, farmer groups are created through a dynamic process of cooperation, knowledge sharing, and resource mobilization (Savage et al., 2023). This process is vital for resolving issues, enhancing livelihoods, and promoting sustainable agricultural growth (Savage et al., 2023).<p>
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<h1 class="title-bg">Critical Analysis</h1>
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<p>In developing nations, establishing farmer groups involves greater labour, especially from women (Doss et al., 2011). Within these farmer groupings, women perform 60–70% of the labour in agricultural activities, which includes harvesting, processing, and information sharing (Doss et al., 2011; Palacios-Lopez et al., 2017). For instance, as Palacios-Lopez and co-researchers (2017) stated in their journal article, women handle up to 80% of the agricultural labour in sub-Saharan Africa. Their support is essential to farmer groups’ continued viability and efficient operation (Doss et al., 2011). To ensure that agricultural development projects are inclusive and effective, it is imperative to acknowledge and address the additional labour requirements, particularly those undertaken by women (Doss et al., 2011).</P>
<P>The limited resources available to smallholder farmers, such as monetary resources and technological infrastructure, might pose substantial difficulties to the establishment of successful farmer groups (FAO, 2017). As FAO (2017) elaborated, these restrictions may make it more difficult for these groups to create and operate, which can limit their capacity to overcome shared obstacles and accomplish goals as a group. Further complicating these challenges are elements like member distrust, competing goals, power imbalances, or geographic dispersion, which make farmer group creation unsuitable or ineffective (Schoneveld, 2022). Their efficacy is further hampered by these problems, which not only undermine group cohesiveness and cooperation but also result in inefficiencies and possible disputes (FAO, 2017; Schoneveld, 2022).</P>
<P>Smallholder farmer groups can investigate different strategies and potential solutions to tackle these complex issues. Establishing community resource centres or forming alliances with agricultural extension organizations, for example, can open doors for easier and efficient access to necessary supplies, information, and assistance (Ndlela & Worth, 2023). As Ndlela and Worth (2023) explained, farmer groups can overcome obstacles and improve their ability to solve problems as a group by utilizing external connections and village-level programs. In conclusion, these strategies support sustainable agricultural growth and enhance rural communities’ standard of living, creating the foundation for long-term prosperity.
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<h1 class="title-bg">Additional Information Links and Practical Resources to Get Started</h1>
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<p>Link to a manual on how to start forming, establishing, and strengthening farmer groups/organizations generally, as well as specifically in Asia:
https://www.fao.org/3/W5830E/w5830e0n.htm</P>

<P>Link to a document on strengthening African farmers organizations and civil society organizations by the United Nations Economic Commission for Africa:
https://www.afdb.org/fileadmin/uploads/afdb/Documents/Events/DakAgri2015/Strengthening_Farmers_Organizations_and_Civil_Society_Organizations.pdf</P>

<P>A webinar panel discussing how farmer groups and co-operatives function, their environmental benefits, the community benefits, what the challenges are, and how they overcome these issues:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VZFWaZteG2w</P>

<P>Link to an animated video by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations discussing farmer groups, their benefits, and showcases a story of fellow farmers in South Asia and how much of a massive positive impact they had on their community just through the formation of farmer groups:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YzVJsWyn0y4</p>
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<h1 class="title-bg">References</h1>
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<p>1. Bryan, E., Alvi, M., Huyer, S., & Ringler, C. (2024). Addressing gender inequalities and strengthening women’s agency to create more climate-resilient and sustainable food systems. Global Food Security, 40, 100731. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gfs.2023.100731 </p>
<p>2. Doss, C., Raney, T., Anríquez, G., Croppenstedt, A., Gerosa, S., Lowde, S., Skoet, J., & Matuscke, I. (2011). The role of women in agriculture. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 11. https://doi.org/10.1002/2014GB005021</p>
<p>3. FAO. (2017). The Future of Food and Agriculture: Trends and Challenges. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations Rome, 2017. In The Future of Food and Agriculture: Trends and Challenges (Vol. 4, Issue 4). https://www.fao.org/3/i6583e/i6583e</p>
<p>4. FAO. (2019). Agroecological and other innovative approaches for sustainable agriculture and food systems that enhance food security and nutrition. A Report by the High Level Panel of Experts on Food Security and Nutrition of the Committee on World Food Security, July. https://www.fao.org/3/ca5602en/ca5602en.pdf</p>
<p>5. Filley, S. (2022, November 10). Benefits of belonging to an Agriculture Organization. OSU Extension Service. https://extension.oregonstate.edu/animals-livestock/beef/benefits-belonging-agriculture-organization</p>
<p>6. Loconto, A., Poisot, A. S., & Santacoloma, P. (2016). Sustainable Food and Agriculture. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Retrieved from https://www.fao.org/sustainability/en/ </p>
<p>7. Ma, W., Marini, M. A., & Rahut, D. B. (2023). Farmers’ organizations and sustainable development: An introduction. Annals of Public and Cooperative Economics, 94(3), 683–700. https://doi.org/10.1111/apce.12449</p>
<p>8. Ndlela, S., & Worth, S. (2023). Perspective Chapter: Building Farmer Capacity through Agricultural Extension - A Model for True Capacity. In Rural Areas - Development and Transformations [Working Title]. IntechOpen, 112260 https://doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.112260</p>
<p>9. Palacios-Lopez, A., Christiaensen, L., & Kilic, T. (2017). How much of the labor in African agriculture is provided by women? Food Policy, 67, 52-63. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2016.09.017</p>
<p>10. Rapsomanikis, G. (2015). The economic lives of smallholder farmers. FAO, Food And Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Retrieved from https://www.fao.org/3/i5251e/i5251e.pdf </p>
<p>11. Reza, M., Noer, M., & Asmawi, Y. (2018). Benefits of social ties in farmer groups at Agricultural Extension Planning in the district of Lima Puluh Kota, Indonesia. International Journal of Agricultural Extension, 6(1), 17–24. https://doi.org/10.33687/ijae.006.01.2416</p>
<p>12. Savage, A., Brune, S., Hovis, M., Spencer, S. E., Dinan, M., & Seekamp, E. (2023, July 23). Working together: A guide to collaboration in rural revitalization. NC State Extension Publications. Retrieved from https://content.ces.ncsu.edu/working-together-a-guide-to-collaboration-in-rural-revitalization</p>
<p>13. Schoneveld, G. C. (2022). Transforming food systems through inclusive agribusiness. World Development, 158, 105970. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2022.105970</p>
<p>14. Stringer, L. C., Fraser, E. D. G., Harris, D., Lyon, C., Pereira, L., Ward, C. F. M., & Simelton, E. (2020). Adaptation and development pathways for different types of farmers. Environmental Science & Policy, 104, 174–189. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2019.10.007
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Template:Chapters 8.12

2026-01-15T09:26:46Z

Mamta:

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<div class="title"><h3>8.12 - Millet grain thresher</h3><br><h3 class="ch-owner">Zena Samake, University of Guelph, Canada
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<p><b>Related video(s)</b>: Community millet thresher (English subtitles)(Source: Access Agriculture, SAK Global)</p>
<p><i> https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KScSdE5xnf8</i></p>

<p>Suggested citation for this chapter.</p>
<p>Samake,Z(2022) Millet grain thresher. In Farmpedia, The Encyclopedia for Small Scale Farmers. Editor, M.N. Raizada, University of Guelph, Canada. http://www.farmpedia.org</p>
<h3 class="title-bg">Background</h3>
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<p>Millets are small grain cereal crops and include finger millet which is an annual cereal high in calcium, zinc, iron, dietary fibre, phytates and protein. The crop is widely cultivated in Africa and South Asia. Other millets include pearl millet, proso millet, foxtail millet, barnyard millet, kodo millet and little millet (Goron and Raizada, 2015). A millet grain thresher is a machine derived from the original grain thresher created by the Scottish engineer Andrew Meikle in 1786 (Norman, n.d.). This machine’s sole purpose is to ease a woman farmer’s task of threshing millet and does so faster and more reliably than traditional manual methods in Africa and South Asia. The traditional methods are time-consuming, economically inefficient and physically painful as they can cause back pain from repetitive action (Mistra & Satapathy, 2018).</P>
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<h3 class="title-bg">What Is The Millet Grain Thresher </h3>
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<p>A millet grain thresher is a machine with the sole purpose of separating the grain from their protective coats and is much faster than the traditional method of beating the grains with a flail which is also less reliable (see the video in the Practical Links section1) because of the high rate of grains broken between 1-2% (Proctor, 1994). As shown in Figure 1, the millet grain thresher is a machine that works by the farmer adding the millet seed in the designated slot, then the rotation cylinder inside the machine will separate the seed from their panicles and the bulk from the straw, and finally, the unused tissues are discharged at the other end (see the video in the Practical Links section2) </p>
<p>[[Image:MILKC.JPG|thumb|centre|Figure 1. Example of a millet grain thresher. See reference 4]]</p>
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<h3 class="title-bg">Cost And Critical Analysis </h3>
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<p>The millet grain thresher can improve production by incentivizing farmers to grow millet on more land, as manual threshing is currently a major limitation. On the other hand, the millet thresher is expensive, and difficult to transport because of its large size and weight and expense. The average price for a medium size unit of a portable millet grain thresher is $3,000 USD, while a larger industrial unit costs $80,000 – $100,000 USD (Made-in-China, 2022). The high cost enlightens a simple problem: in most developing countries, the majority of the population earns an average of $1-2 U.S. dollars per day (Our World in Data, 2019), so the machinery is not affordable. The population that could most benefit from this equipment in Africa and South Asia simply cannot afford it.</p>

<p>One solution to the high cost is to form a collective (e.g., women’s farmer group) to share the cost of a millet grain thresher. A good example of that is the farmer collective, Alluvial Agriculture in Nigeria, which reached an agreement with the tractor maker John Deere and the Indian conglomerate Tata group, to provide farming equipment to 100,000 smallholder farmers (Next Billion, 2018). Another approach is to offer microenterprise loans to a local entrepreneur who can purchase the equipment and offer a fee-for-service to women in the village. Alternatively, governments or NGOs need to offer large subsidies or low-cost loans such as the project led by the LAFC (see the practical link section3). . Over time, farmers using the thresher will save money, use less labour, and will produce more.</p>

<p>On the other hand, developing countries in Africa might be hurt by machinery since “the agricultural sector employs an average of 54 percent of the working population. In Burundi, Burkina Faso, and Madagascar, more than 80 percent of the labor force works in agriculture” (Sow, 2017). The reduced need for agricultural general labour would increase the unemployment rate, though this concern is not relevant at the village/household level.</p>
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<h1 class="title-bg">Critical Analysis</h1>
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<p>There is unequal access to the millet grain thresher, likely due to a lack of knowledge and its high cost. As an example of similar machinery, in 2014, there were less than 10 maize thresher machinery sets per square kilometre of farmland in Africa, compared to 257 sets in the United Kingdom, 200 in the United States, 130 in India and 125 in Brazil”(Next Billion, 2018). Farmers in remote regions follow the practices of their ancestors, with no way to know that there is a more efficient method to thresh millet.</p>

<p>Transport is a significant problem since the millet grain thresher is a heavy piece of machinery, which may require good roads, a truck and a forklift to install which may be challenging in remote regions in many developing nations (readers are encouraged to check the weight of the thresher in the thresher for sale useful link).</p>

<p>Another challenge is that this piece of equipment can easily malfunction or break down, but repairs in remote regions would be challenging, and transporting it to a repair shop would be expensive.</p>

<p>More importantly, the thresher is a machine that requires gas or electricity, so for a farmer to be able to use it, they must have reliable access to a source of energy, which is not necessarily the case in Africa nor in some parts of India. The electricity access report of 2020 shows that some developing countries have less than 20% of their population with access to electricity (Our World in Data, 2020)</p>

<p>A final problem that has been reported by farmers with farm machinery is injury, perhaps due to a lack of training, combined with high rates of illiteracy. A study done in the US stated that at least 11,880 injuries, and 368 farm-related injuries, occurred in the US alone in 2020 (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention,2022).</p>
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<h3 class="title-bg">Conclusion</h3>
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<p>A millet grain thresher is a machine that offers farmers the possibility to thresh their millet faster than traditional methods, with much less labour, ultimately promoting the growth of millets which are highly nutritious. However, it is expensive and requires maintenance and training. It may be most appropriate for commercial farmers, a farmer cooperative or a village-level entrepreneur offering it for a fee-for-service. </p>
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<h1 class="title-bg">Picture Based Lesson to Train Farmers </h1>
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[[Image:9.12 page-0001.jpg|thumb|centre|Picture Based Lesson to Train Farmer|Click on the image to access a higher resolution image as well as lessons adapted for different geographic regions.]]</p>
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<h3 class="title-bg">Practical Resources To Get Started</h3>
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<p>1. Josh Heikkila, (2011, October 25). Threshing millet [0.14]. YouTube. https://youtu.be/UusHepsdcJY</p>
<p>2. Hank Weiwei Machine, (2022,September 29). millet thresher machine [0.10]. YouTube. https://youtu.be/7vl8Q2PbXIE</p>
<p>3. LAFC. Lending for African Food Security. https://www.lendingforafricanfarming.com </p>
<p>4. Thresher for sale useful link: https://www.alibaba.com/showroom/millet-thresher-machine.html</p>
<p>5. Thresher for sale useful link: https://www.indiamart.com/proddetail/millet-thresher-25293103130.html</p>

<p><b>Picture based training lessons for farmers</b></p>
<p>http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/9.12_south_asian_eng.pdf
5 versions</p>
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<h3 class="title-bg">References</h3>
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<p>1. Norman, J. (n/d). Andrew Meikle Invents the Threshing Machine. History of Information. https://www.historyofinformation.com/detail.php?id=4656
Mistra, D. and Satapathy, S. (2018). Musculoskeletal & Risk Assessment during Threshing of Rice-Grain. MATEC Web of Conferences 172, 05005 https://www.matec-conferences.org/articles/matecconf/pdf/2018/31/matecconf_icdams2018_05005.pdf</p>
<p> 2. Proctor, D.L. (1994). Grain storage techniques Evolution and trends in developing countries. FAO, Rome. https://www.fao.org/3/t1838e/T1838E0p.htm#Technical%20alternatives </p>
<p>3. Taizy (2022) .Thresher machine, for rice, wheat, millet. Taizy Company. https://www.agriculture-machine.com/big-thresher-for-rice-wheat-beans-sorghum-millet/</p>
<p>4. Our World in Data (2019). Median income or expenditure per day 2019. https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/daily-median-income?country=OWID_WRL~ESP~KOR~MDG </p>
<p>5. Our World in Data (2020). Access to energy in 2020. https://ourworldindata.org/energy-access </p>
<p>6. Made-in-China (2022). Thresher price. https://www.made-in-china.com/price/thresher-price.html?prodPhrase=&minProdPrice=&maxProdPrice=&minNumOrder=&businessType=&order=price_desc
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<p>7. Next billion (2018, April 30). Africa’s Biggest Farmer Collective to Help 100,000 in Niger Delta as Tata and John Deere Sign Alluvial Initiative. https://nextbillion.net/news/press-release-africas-biggest-farmer-collective-help-100000-niger-delta-tata-john-deere-sign-alluvial-initiative/ </p>
<p>8. Sow, M. (2017, January 11). Figures of the week: Sub-Saharan Africa’s labor market in 2017. Brookings Institute, USA. https://www.brookings.edu/blog/africa-in-focus/2017/01/11/figures-of-the-week-sub-saharan-africas-labor-market-in-2017/ </p>
<p>9. Victor Farm Machinery (2022). Maize Thresher Machine Price in Nigeria and South Africa. https://www.cornmachine.com/maize-thresher-machine-price.html</p>
<p>10. Goron, T.L. and Raizada, M.N. (2015) Genetic diversity and genomic resources available for the small millet crops to accelerate a New Green Revolution. Frontiers in Plant Science 6, 157. https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpls.2015.00157/full</p>

Template:Chapters 8.4

2026-01-15T09:12:09Z

Mamta:

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<div class="title"><h3>8.4 - Hermetic grain storage bags</h3><br><h3 class="ch-owner">Gryphon Theriault-Loubier, University of Guelph, Canada</h3></div>
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<p><b>Related video(s)</b>: Storage bag (English translation)(English)(Source: Access Agriculture, SAK Global)</p>
<p><i> https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=x06-2oiYhSc</i></p>

<p>Suggested citation for this chapter.</p>
<p>Theriault-Loubier,G (2022) Hermetic grain storage bags. In Farmpedia, The Encyclopedia for Small Scale Farmers. Editor, M.N. Raizada, University of Guelph, Canada. http://www.farmpedia.org</p>
<h3 class="title-bg">Introduction</h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Though often overlooked, effective and affordable food storage technology desperately needs implementation in the developing world to protect from a wide variety of pests such as insects, rodents, and fungi.</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">Hermetically Sealed Technology</h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p><i>Principles</i></p>
<p>Hermetically Sealed Technology (HST) has been proven to be highly effective at preserving grains in many studies. A HST, when properly sealed and maintained, prevents the exchange of oxygen and moisture between the outside atmosphere and the stored grain (IRRI, 2004). This lack of oxygen creates an anaerobic environment; pests which rely on an aerobic environment, like fungal molds and insects are effectively controlled without the use of pesticides or other inputs, which are often out of reach for subsistence farmers (Kamanula et al., 2011).</p>
<p>HSTs have been found to be effective for storage of rice, cocoa beans, coffee, corn, dates, flour, millet, sorghum, sugar and wheat amongst others (GrainPro Inc., 2013). HSTs maintain flavor and aroma, prevent rancidity in foods such as peanuts, control insects and rodents, reduce fungal growth, and maintain harvest weight effectively (GrainPro Inc., 2013). Importantly, HSTs have been found to maintain seed viability for extended periods (FAO, 2011).</p>
<p>In a comparison with commonly used woven polypropylene bags (WPG), hermetic grain bags (HGB) were found to cause 99.5% mortality within 60 days of some common Sub-Saharan African maize pests that were artificially placed in the bags (Ognakossan 2013). In the same study, loss of grain was between 0.5-6% using HGB compared to 19-27% in WPG. Moisture rates were also maintained in the hermetic grain bags while moisture losses occurred in the WPG.</p>
<p>In an economic analysis of maize storage technologies in Kenya, Kimenju and De Groote (2010) presented the results of six-month crop storage loss trials in comparing metal silos, HSTs, a common pesticide and a standard woven polypropylene bag as control. Standard polypropylene bags were found to have the highest loss (24%), compared to the HST (6.3%), and metal silos (0.5-1.7%). While metal silos are perhaps a more effective means of storage in-place, they are not portable and not practical financially for a subsistence farmer (World Bank, 2011). Kimenju and De Groote (2010) noted that metal silos would take in excess of ten years to recoup the investment, whereas HSTs have the benefit of a relatively low initial investment and high return-on-investment. In fact, hermetic sacks are being bartered in some communities throughout Africa, as they are viewed as a high value commodity (FAO, 2011). An HST, effectively implemented, benefits farmers by allowing them to control when they sell their grain, and preventing the surplus at the end of the harvest which diminishes commodity prices for all farmers (Kimenju and DeGroote, 2010).</p>
<p>The World Bank does note that construction of mud silos in areas that do not traditionally use them has been effective (World Bank, 2011). For example, in northern Ghana 1,000 mud silos were commissioned by the Ministry of Food and Agriculture and associated organizations. It was found that in these areas, mud silos were effective in increasing effective crop storage time and preventing pest access, accounting for only 6.5 percent of losses over the study period as compared to jute bags and traditional granary structures (World Bank, 2011). However, construction of these silos requires the availability of suitable timber, which is sparse, and maintenance of the silos in the long term casts doubt over the ability of these silos to continue to offer such benefits (World Bank, 2011). Also, food security issues have encouraged individuals to store grain in their homes (often in the bedroom), and HSTs are more suitable for this (World Bank, 2011).</p>
<p><i>Critical Analysis</i></P>
<p>Grain needs to be suitably dried before being hermetically stored. Weinburg (2008) found that it is possible to store higher moisture content grain in HST, however losses do occur; it is still preferable, where possible, to dry grain adequately. Therefore, high humidity climates might find limited use if no effective method for drying foods can be practiced. The International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) estimates that to effectively reduce spoilage of foods inside HSTs, grains need to be dried to less than 12-14% moisture content depending on species (IRRI, 2010).</p>
<p>An HST needs to be kept protected, as any punctures leading to air leakage will minimize the benefits of the technology. To protect the bag, manufacturers recommend placing the HST into an existing type of storage such as a jute bag or woven polypropylene bag. To check for leaks, manufacturers suggest gently fill the bag with air, tying the bag shut, and placing a light book or hand on top, while observing the bag to check for air loss.</p>
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</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">The Cowpea Bag</h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<P>A variant of the HST is the Purdue Improved Cowpea Storage bag, which is a triple layer bag. It includes an outer protective layer and has been found to be quite effective in the protection of cowpea from a number of insects. Purdue maintains an extensive library of videos and information on their cowpea bag.</P>
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</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">Purchase</h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<P>The International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) co-developed one of the leading HST technologies with GrainPro Inc. GrainPro maintains an international distribution network, which is easily accessed through their site.</P>
<P>Large commercial systems cost about $100-130 per tonne, with an expected product life-cycle of at least ten years. Smaller scale ‘Super Bags’ cost approximately $1-2 depending on the volume of order and shipping destination. If protected from physical damage, they have been confirmed to last six growing seasons or more.<P>
<P>The cowpea bag can be purchased by visiting the Purdue website and consulting region specific dealers.</P>
</div>
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<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">Practical tips</h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<P>The International Rice Research Institute recommends that the grain should be dried to 12-14% moisture content. The HST should be placed inside an existing woven polypropylene bag or jute bag to provide protection. After the HST is filled with dried grain, excess air should be removed. The top of the bag should be twisted and folded into two, then tied with an elastic band or tape. The protective outer bag should also be closed. A very helpful and beautifully illustrated PDF is available through Purdue with many tips and basics</P>
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<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Picture Based Lesson to Train Farmers</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
[[Image:9.4.jpg|thumb|centre|Picture Based Lesson to Train Farmer|Click on the image to access a higher resolution image as well as lessons adapted for different geographic regions.]]</p>
<p><i>For the South Asian version (pictures only, text for you to insert), click this link for lesson 9.4:http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/9.4_south_asian.pdf</i></p>
<p><i>For the East/South Asian version (pictures only, text for you to insert), click this link for lesson 9.4:http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/9.4e.s.a.pdf</i></p>
<p><i>For the Sub-Saharan Africa/Caribbean version (pictures only, text for you to insert), click this link for lesson 9.4:http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/9.4subsaharan_africa_carribean.pdf</i></p>
<p><i>For the Latin-America version (pictures only, text for you to insert), click this link for lesson 9.4:http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/9.4latin_america.pdf</i></p>
<p><i>Source: MN Raizada and L Smith (2016) A Picture Book of Best Practices for Subsistence Farmers. eBook, University of Guelph Sustainable Agriculture Kit (SAK) Project, June 2016, Guelph, Canada.</i></p>
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<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">Further Information</h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<P>The International Rice Research Institute has excellent information on grain storage (http://www.knowledgebank.irri.org/rkb/grain-storage-systems.html), and detailed information on hermetic storage including practical tips (http://www.knowledgebank.irri.org/rkb/grain-storage-systems/hermetic-storage-systems.html</p>
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<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">References </h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>1. Ali, S., & Villers, P. (2002). Cocoons dramatically reduce pests in store. Appropriate Technology, 29(3), 20-20.</p>
<p>2. Baoua, I. B., Amadou, L., Margam, V., & Murdock, L. L. (2012). Performance of triple bagging hermetic technology for postharvest storage of cowpea grain in Niger. Journal of Stored Products Research, 51, 81-85.</p>
<p>3. Chen, S., Zhang, M., & Wang, S. (2011). Effect of initial hermetic sealing on quality of ‘Kyoho' grapes during storage. Postharvest Biology and Technology., 59(2), 194-199.</p>
<p>4. Edoh Ognakossan, K., Tounou, A. K., Lamboni, Y., & Hell, K. (2013). Post-harvest insect infestation in maize grain stored in woven polypropylene and in hermetic bags. International Journal of Tropical Insect Science, 33(1), 71-81.</p>
<p>5. IRRI Knowledgebank </p>
<p>6. Kimenju, S. and De Groote, H. (2010) Economic Analysis of Alternative Maize Storage Technologies in Kenya. Contributed Paper presented at the Joint 3rd African Association of Agricultural Economists (AAAE) and 48th Agricultural Economists Association of South Africa (AEASA) Conference, Cape Town, South Africa, September 19-23, 2010.</p>
<p>7. Johnson, J. A., & Zettler, J. L. (2009). Response of postharvest tree nut lepidopteran pests to vacuum treatments. Journal of Economic Entomology, 102(5), 2003-2010.</p>
<p>8. Weinberg, Z. G., Yan, Y., Chen, Y., Finkelman, S., Ashbell, G., & Navarro, S. (2008). The effect of moisture level on high-moisture maize (zea mays L.) under hermetic storage conditions-in vitro studies. Journal of Stored Products Research, 44 (2) Pp.136-144.</p>
<p>9. World Bank. (2011). Missing Food: The Case of Postharvest Grain Losses in Sub-Saharan Africa. World Bank, Natural Resources Institute, and Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. 1-116.</p>

Template:Chapter 4.10

2026-01-15T09:03:54Z

Mamta:

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<div class="title"><h3>4.10 - Livestock sheds and collecting urine to add to manure</h3><br><h3 class="ch-owner">Jaime Selinger, University of Guelph, Canada</h3></div>
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[[File:4.10.jpeg|300px]]
<p><i>Source:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Compost_site_germany.JPG</i></p>

<p><b>Related video(s)</b>: Human urine as fertilizer, Manure shed (English translation)(Source: Access Agriculture, SAK Global)</p>
<p><i> https://www.accessagriculture.org/human-urine-fertilizer?cat_id=1499</i></p>
<p><i> https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tb3hH4Ma45k</i></p>

<p>Suggested citation for this chapter.</p>
<p>Selinger,J. (2022) Livestock sheds and collecting urine to add to manure. In Farmpedia, The Encyclopedia for Small Scale Farmers. Editor, M.N. Raizada, University of Guelph, Canada. http://www.farmpedia.org</p>
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<h1 class="title-bg">Introduction</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>The soils of smallholder farmers often lack the proper amount of nitrogen, phosphate and potassium which are essential for healthy and bountiful growth of crops. Urine collected from livestock and humans is very rich in nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium which is important for plant growth. A family of four can produce the equivalent of a 50 kg bag of NPK fertilizer from urine alone every year (Feineigle 2011). This urine has a 10:1:4 ratio of NPK which is a higher nitrogen content than many mineral fertilizers (Feineigle 2011). Humans produce roughly 500 litres of urine and 50 litres of faeces per person per year (Caldwell & Rosemarin 2014). These contain about 4 kg of nitrogen, 0.5 kg of phosphorous and 1 kg of potassium, the three basic elements for plant growth. The exact amount varies from region to region depending on food intake. Seventy per cent of the nutrients excreted by humans are in the urine fraction (Caldwell & Rosemarin 2014). Livestock consumption of leguminous fodder such as Acacia, Calliandra and Erythrina can increase the nitrogen content of their urine (Devendra 1992). </p>

<p>Since the most prominent nutrient found in urine is nitrogen, it is important to have balanced nitrogen levels in urine that is mixed with manure and to balance urine addition with other nutrients required for plant growth. The importance of nitrogen to plant growth is outlined in Chapter 1.4 – Balanced Fertilization. Using urine as a way to enrich manure is a more cost-effective substitute for fertilizer. </p>

<p>In areas where there is not as much livestock, human urine can also be added to crops as noted above. Akpan et al. (2012) recently demonstrated that human urine is strongly alkaline and contains a moderate amount of nutrients (N, P, K, Mg, Ca and Na). Application of either urine or inorganic fertilizer significantly (P<0.05) increased plant nutrient uptake compared with the control (Akpan-Idiok et al. 2012). Human or livestock urine can also be used directly in home gardens.</p>
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<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">How the practice is conducted</h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Urine can be collected from livestock using a concrete floor that is sloped toward a PVC pipe that empties into a manure pit. This pipe leads to a pit or inside a mud/stone wall where it is stored. The mixture is then transferred from the storage area and spread along the soil where the crops are to grow. An alternative to this process is that the urine pipe leads to a storage drum from which urine can be added to the manure. These practices require time and effort from the household. Building a concrete floor with a slope towards a PVC pipe would cost a total of $12 USD in materials and would require up to 3 days of construction labour (Sustainable Soil Management Programme 2007). A smallholder farmer can undertake this labour, but it requires specialized knowledge and training (e.g. how to mix concrete). The construction of this can be done by digging a manure pi within the livestock shed in which the urine will be emptied into (SSMP 2007). Then, the smallholder farmer will have to make a floor at the bottom of the shed where the urine will be collected out of a compact of soil or clay, or cement if they are able to afford it (SSMP 2007). Other costs for this would be a collection devise for the urine after it is disposed into the manure pit (SSMP 2007). </p>
<p>There is an easier alternative to collecting urine from livestock, specifically by penning the livestock in a certain area where crops will grow prior to planting so that their urine and feces will directly mix with the soil (Bedford et al. 2016). The animals are able to graze the land and release urine and feces and are able to comfortably move around the land rather than be restricted (Bedford et al. 2016). This process requires little labour on the part of the farming household.</p>
<p>The urine of the livestock is collected within the livestock shed. It is suggested that the livestock shed be created out of fabric as it provides more ventilation and filtration for sheds in hot climates and is more cost-effective for smallholder farmers and industrial farmers alike (Megadome Buildings 2016). As resources are sometimes limited for smallholder farmers, the fabric livestock shed will work as long as they have constructed a proper concrete floor and slope towards the manure pit.</p>
<p>This is not a new concept and has been utilized by many smallholder farmers. In a study conducted by Powell & Williams (1996) in the West African Sahel, the yield was compared over the course of six years using urine from livestock as fertilizer compared to chemical fertilizer. The authors found that there was a 52% increase in yields within the first year of the study (Powell & Williams 1996). </p>
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<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">Ammonia Emissions</h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Ammonia emission is one of the greatest environmental threats from farms (Fangmeier et al. 1994). This is an increasingly destructive threat since ammonia released into the air can affect the crops in the surrounding area as well as the possibility of ammonium contamination into groundwater and river/lake water (Fangmeier et al. 1994). Livestock urine can lead to ammonia losses. It is necessary to mix liquid and solid manures to reduce ammonia emissions (Sommer & Hutchings 2001). Due to ammonia emissions being linked to global warming and climate change, it is necessary to change the diet of livestock and add the required nutrients to soil to reduce these ammonia emissions (Fangmeier et al. 1994). It is important for livestock to be fed a well-balanced diet, including carbohydrate rich foods as it balances out the nitrogen and reduces ammonia emission into the air. Addition of fermentable carbohydrates, such as bran or pulp, into grow-finishing diets, resulted in a 14% reduction of ammonia emission for each percentage increase in carbohydrate (Powers 2004). </p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Picture Based Lesson to Train Farmers</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
[[Image:5.10a page-0001.jpg|thumb|centre|Picture Based Lesson to Train Farmer|Click on the image to access a higher resolution image as well as lessons adapted for different geographic regions.]]</p>
<p><i>For the South Asian version (pictures only, text for you to insert), click this link for lesson 5.12:http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/5.12_south_asian.pdf</i></p>
<p><i>For the East/South Asian version (pictures only, text for you to insert), click this link for lesson 5.12:http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/5.12e.s.a.pdf</i></p>
<p><i>For the Sub-Saharan Africa/Caribbean version (pictures only, text for you to insert), click this link for lesson 5.12:http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/5.12subsaharan_africa_carribean.pdf</i></p>
<p><i>For the Latin-America version (pictures only, text for you to insert), click this link for lesson 5.12:http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/5.12latin_america.pdf</i></p>
<p><i>For North Africa And Middle East version (pictures only, text for you to insert), click this link for lesson Chapter 5. 4.11:http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/4.11n._africa_middleeast.pdf</i></p>
<p><i>Source: MN Raizada and L Smith (2016) A Picture Book of Best Practices for Subsistence Farmers. eBook, University of Guelph Sustainable Agriculture Kit (SAK) Project, June 2016, Guelph, Canada.</i></p>
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<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">Helpful Links</h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>To learn more about the benefits and challenges of using human urine to improve agriculture, follow this link:</p>
<p>http://voices.nationalgeographic.com/2013/04/10/human-pee-added-to-compost-boosts-crops/]</p>
<p>http://permaculturenews.org/2011/11/27/urine-closing-the-npk-loop/</p>
<p>http://modernfarmer.com/2014/01/human-pee-proven-fertilizer-future/</p>
<p>http://www.gardeningknowhow.com/garden-how-to/soil-fertilizers/feeding-plants-with-urine.htm</p>
<p>Refer to SAK Picture Book Lesson 5.10a and 5.10b p. 54-55 for step by step picture instructions</p>
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<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">References</h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>1.Agriculture and Forestry. (2006). Applying Manure on Perennial Forage. Agriculture and Forestry. http://www1.agric.gov.ab.ca/$department/deptdocs.nsf/all/agdex10727</p>
<p>2.Akpan-Idiok, A.U., Udo, I.A., & Braide, E.I. (2012). The use of human urine as an organic fertilizer in the production of okra (Abelmoschus esculentus) in South Eastern Nigeria. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 62, 14-20. doi:10.1016/j.resconrec.2012.02.003.</p>
<p>3.Andersson, E., (2015). Turning waste into value: using human urine to enrich soils for sustainable food production in Uganda. Journal of Cleaner Production, 96, 290-298. doi: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2014.01.070.</p>
<p>4.Arnold, C., (2013). Human Pee Added to Compost Boosts Crops. National Geographic. http://voices.nationalgeographic.com/2013/04/10/human-pee-added-to-compost-boosts-crops/</p>
<p>5.Bedford, M. R., Choct, M., & O'Neill, H. M. (2016). Nutrition Experiments in Pigs and Poultry: A Practical Guide. CABI.</p>
<p>6.Bishwakarma, B.K., Dahal, N.R., Allen, R., Rajbhandari, N.P., Dhital, B.K., Gurung, D.B., Bajracharya, R.M., & Baillie, I.C. (2015). Effects of improved management and quality of farmyard manure on soil organic carbon contents in small-holder farming systems of the Middle Hills of Nepal. Climate and Development, 7(5), 426-436. doi: 10.1080/17565529.2014.966045</p>
<p>7.Caldwell, I. & Rosemarin, A. (2014). Human urine and faeces as a fertilizer. Stockholm Environment Institute. </p>
<p>8.Devendra, C. (1992). Nutritional potential of fodder trees and shrubs as protein sources in ruminant nutrition. Legume trees and other fodder trees as protein sources for livestock, 100, 95-113.</p>
<p>9.De Vries, J.W., Aarnink, A.J.A., Groot Koerkamp, P.W.G., & De Boer, I.J.M. (2013). Life Cycle Assessment of Segregating Fattening Pig Urine and Feces Compared to Conventional Liquid Manure Management. Environmental Science & Technology, 47, 1587-1597. doi: 10.1021/es302951a</p>
<p>10.Fangmeier, A., Hadwiger-Fangmeier, A., Van der Eerden, L., & Jäger, H-J. (1994). Effects of atmospheric ammonia on vegetation – A review. Environmental Pollution, 86(1), 43-82.</p>
<p>11.Feineigle, M. (2011). Urine: Closing the NPK Loop. Permaculture Research Institute.
http://permaculturenews.org/2011/11/27/urine-closing-the-npk-loop/</p>
<p>12.Jana, B.B., Bag, S.K., & Rana, S. (2012). Comparative evaluation of the fertilizer value of human urine, cow manure and their mix for the production of carp fingerlings in small holding tanks. Aquaculture International, 20, 735-749. doi: 10.1007/s10499-012-9500-1.</p>
<p>13.Powell, J. M., & Williams, T. O. (1993). Livestock, nutrient cycling and sustainable agriculture in the West African Sahel. Sustainable Agriculture Programme, International Institute for Environment and Development, 37.</p>
<p>14.Powers, W. (2004). Practices to reduce ammonia emissions from livestock operations.
Rees, R.M., Baddeley, J.A., Bhogal, A., Ball, B.C., Chadwick, D.R., MacLeod, M., Lilly, A., Pappa, V.A., Thorman, R.E., Watson, C.A., & Williams, J.R. (2013). Nitrous oxide mitigation in UK agriculture. Soil Science and Plant Nutrition, 59, 3-15. doi: 10.1080/00380768.2012.733869.</p>
<p>15.Sommer, S.G., & Hutchings, N.J., (2001). Ammonia emission from field applied manure and its reduction – invited paper. European Journal of Agronomy, 15, 1-15. doi:10.1016/S1161-0301(01)00112-5.</p>
<p>16.The Sustainable Soil Management Programme. (2007). Improved cattleshed for urine collection. ICIMOD. http://www.icimod.org/?q=10339</p>
<p>17.Tremorin, D.G., Tenuta, M., Mkhabela, M., Flaten, D.N., & Ominski, K.H. (2012). Nitrous oxide emissions from feces and synthetic urine of cattle grazing forage grass fertilized with hog slurry. Animal Feed Science and Technology, 177(3-4), 225-236. doi: 10.1016/j.anifeedsci.2012.08.008.</p>
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Template:Chapters 3.4b

2026-01-15T08:49:53Z

Mamta:

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<div class="title"><h1>3.4b - Waterfall-type cucurbits on terrace edges</h1><br><h3 class="ch-owner">

<p><b>Related video(s)</b>: Wall crops (English)(Source: Access Agriculture, SAK Global)</p>
<p><i> https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cC447Tnr0E0</i></p>

<p><i>COMING SOON</i></p>

Template:Chapter 3.3a

2026-01-15T08:45:29Z

Mamta:

<div>
<div class="title"><h1>3.3a - Waterfall-type legumes on terrace edges</h1><br><h3 class="ch-owner">
<p><b>Related video(s)</b>: Wall crops (English)(Source: Access Agriculture, SAK Global)</p>
<p><i> https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cC447Tnr0E0</i></p>

<p><i><b>COMING SOON</b></i></p>

Template:Chapter 3.2b

2026-01-15T08:42:28Z

Mamta:

<div>
<div class="title"><h3>3.2b - Climbing chayote squash on terrace walls</h3><br><h3 class="ch-owner">Nicholas Dischiavi, University of Guelph, Canada</h3></div>
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[[File:3.2b image.jpeg|300px]]
<p><b>Related video(s)</b>: Wall crops (English)(Source: SAK Global)</p>
<p><i> https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cC447Tnr0E0</i></p>

<p>Suggested citation for this chapter.</p>
<p>Dischiavi, N (2022) Climbing chayote squash on terrace walls. In Farmpedia, The Encyclopedia for Small Scale Farmers. Editor, M.N. Raizada, University of Guelph, Canada. http://www.farmpedia.org</p>
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<h1 class="title-bg">Background on Terrace Farming </h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Terrace farming is not an ideal method of production for many smallholder farmers due to high labour and limited horizontal growing area (Chapagain and Raizada, 2017). However, growing crops vertically along terrace walls represents an opportunity for subsistence farmers to increase their production per hectare, as well as profits (Chapagain et al., 2019). </p>
<p>In mountainous regions, terrace farming has been utilized for thousands of years due to its ability to prevent soil erosion, conserve water and increase productivity, especially with limited land space (Deng et al., 2021). The first evidence of terrace farming was in Southeast Asia some 5000 years ago, with the practice subsequently extending to the Mediterranean's northern and southern borders, with extensive evidence of terrace agriculture by the Incas in the New World (Price & Nixon, 2005). Terrace farming is most commonly designed as follows: a vertical wall is built along the mountain/hillside, and on top of the terrace is a horizontal plot of land which is where field crops can be grown (Chapagain et al., 2019). To allow for the growth of such crops (e.g. grains, horticultural crops, and fodder), steep slopes (typically of the hillside) are split into narrow, graded steps (Chapagain et al., 2019). In addition, the ledge at the base of the vertical wall can be left as a walkway or can be utilized to grow climbing and/or hanging plants (Chapagain et al., 2019), which is the topic of this chapter. </p>
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<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Background to Chayote Squash</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Chayote (or Sechium edule), a member of the Cucurbitaceae family, is believed to have originated in Central America (Pu et al., 2021). To this day, it remains unknown where exactly chayote was first domesticated, but it is still common amongst Central American countries such as Guatemala, Costa Rica, and Mexico (Vieria et al., 2019). Past research incorrectly deemed Guatemala as the birthplace of chayote, yet current research supports the theory it was cultivated by the Mayans in Southern Mexico (Pu et al., 2021). Due to the location in which chayote originated, it grows best in semi-tropical climates but can also be adapted to grow in tropical climates (Pu et al., 2021). However, European explorers spread chayote across the globe, planting it in the Caribbean, South America, and parts of Europe, and as time went on, farmers adapted to grow chayote in Asian and African countries (Pu et al., 2021). Conveniently, chayote can be consumed in full as all parts of the plant are edible, including its tuberous roots (Pu et al., 2021). These roots are prepared after one year of growth and contain significant amounts of starch and dietary fibre (Pu et al., 2021).</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Growth and Production of Chayote</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Like other Cucurbitaceae, chayote grows on a perennial vine (Vieria et al., 2019). These vines grow in a very aggressive nature up to 6-9 m in a given season and produce 50-100 squash per plant (Vieria et al., 2019). Further, what is particularly nice about chayote is that seeds can be found inside the fruit and replanted for future yields. Chayote can take many different shapes, with variation in colour, size, and texture. As a warm-season fruit, chayote should be planted about one month after the last sign of frost if relevant (Vieria et al., 2019). To grow fully, chayote requires 4 to 5 months in direct sunlight yet it can also grow in partial sunlight, however, this would, in turn, reduce the yield (Pu et al., 2021). For best results, chayote should be planted in soil with a pH between 6-6.8 (Pu et al., 2021). </p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Cost Benefit-Analysis of Growing at the Base of Terrace Walls </h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>In a study by Chapagain et al. (2019), climbing chayote squash was planted at the base of terrace walls over two cropping seasons to test its potential growth and overall value. Taking place in Nepal, the researchers attempted to grow climbing pumpkins, yams, as well as chayote in two separate locations (Chapagain et al., 2019). Chayote was by far the most profitable of the three, as the fruit weight totalled approximately 166 kg each, while tubers totalled about 16 kg (Chapagain et al., 2019).</p>
<p>Although chayote is relatively affordable to grow, there are expenses that reduce their potential earnings (Chapagain et al., 2019). Using the study by Chapagain et al. (2019), researchers were able to do a trial of potential earning outcomes in USD. In the Dhading block of Nepal, transportation to market alone cost $11.40 per plant on average (cost between 2015-16 on average). Next, the cost of labour was about $3.45 while seeds and planting materials were around $0.35 (Chapagain et al., 2019). Altogether including miscellaneous costs, the expenses of growing and selling chayote were about $16.55 in the Dhading block, while the net return was approximately $32.95 per plant (Chapagain et al., 2019). Not only could the fruit be sold, however, and (in the Dhading region) the chayote tuber was valued at $0.40/kg (Chapagain et al., 2019). The cost of maintaining the terrace itself must be considered as well, which includes labour, and materials.</P>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Sustainability of Terrace Farming </h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>A major challenge is that terraces require constant maintenance, or else they deteriorate which requires considerable labour and cost to restore (Deng et al., 2019), as noted above. Over time, terraces can interrupt water circulation, including promoting run-off and soil loss, if not well-maintained (Deng et al., 2021). In order to operate as intended, a terrace must be used in unison with soil conservation practices, especially in wet climates (Durán Zuazo et al., 2019). The emergence of significant environmental issues brought on by poorly designed or poorly managed terraces could cause soil loss up to five times as much as a well-managed terrace. The terrace must be protected by vegetation, or plant covers must be implemented to preserve the terrace (Durán Zuazo et al., 2019). In this vein, the chayote vertical canopy may protect the terrace walls, but studies are needed to make such a conclusion. Failure to maintain the terrace could lead to the deterioration of soil and pose issues in the future for farmers hoping to re-use that land. </p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Limitations </h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Unfortunately, chayote squash is not the most profitable commodity for remote farmers. Although it has the potential for great economic return for farmers, transportation of the fruit in remote areas cut profits tremendously, as noted above (Chapagain et al., 2019). Chapagain et al. (2019) found in their trial that almost 70% of the overall cost of growing chayote was allocated towards transportation from the hillside to markets due to the substantial mass of both the squash itself as well as the tubers. This shows the importance of remote farmers developing market channels and/or working relationships with potential consumers. Alternatively, some type of post-harvest processing or preservation without refrigeration could be beneficial, to add value to this crop and reduce the immediate transportation costs (e.g. pickling, etc.).</p>
<p>The issue of storage is a common problem for chayote farmers, especially those harvesting excess fruit (Cadena-Iñiguez, 2006). As chayote fruit is soft and high in moisture content, the seed can germinate prematurely inside the fruit (vivipory), about a week after storage under non-ideal environmental conditions (Cadena-Iñiguez, 2006). Cold storage or wax coating were found to prevent this premature sprouting (Cadena-Iñiguez, 2006).</p>
<p>The design of the terrace can pose challenges to farmers as well. It is recommended farmers select an angled terrace wall in order to minimize the possible effect of monsoon rainfall on the terrace, and the potential for soil erosion (Pu et al., 2021). This is not common knowledge to all farmers and runs the risk of damaging their soil and/or terrace. In a financial sense, it is also important to consider the cost of materials used for the construction of the terrace, and the possibility of damaging the soil when building it (Deng et al., 2021). Un-informed farmers could possibly create a non-sustainable terrace that could lead to the potential ruin of crops and loss of their investment.</p>
<p>Although farmers in Nepal have already begun to grow climbing and hanging crops on terrace walls, experts have yet to analyze the true potential economic gains from these yields, so this form of farming requires testing in other environments (Chapagain et al., 2019). The cost of building a new terrace is especially concerning, and hence should only be undertaken on farms with pre-existing terraces. The Nepal Terrace Farmers and Sustainable Agriculture Kits initiative (SAKNepal) offer valuable resources (Government of Canada, 2021).</p>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Conclusion</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>When evaluating the economic success of subsistence farmers growing chayote squash on terrace walls, it is evident that the potential for profit is high as long as there are pre-existing terrace walls available, and post-harvest and transportation solutions available to take advantage of the high yield of this cropping system.</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Picture Based Lesson to Train Farmers </h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
[[Image:4.2b page-0001.jpg|thumb|centre|Picture Based Lesson to Train Farmer|Click on the image to access a higher resolution image as well as lessons adapted for different geographic regions.]]</p>
<p>http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/4.2b_south_asian_eng.pdf
South Asia </p>

<p>http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/4.2_b_east_southeast_asia_englishversion-2.pdf
East/Southeast Asia </p>

<p>http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/4.2bsubsaharan_africa_carribean_engversion.pdf
Sub-Saharan Africa/Carribean </p>

<p>http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/4.2blatin_america_eng_version.pdf
Latin America</p>

<p>http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/3.7n._africa_middleeast_eng_version.pdf
North Africa/Middle East</p>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Links to Useful Resources</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=S43fq_ROP9A&ab_channel=SAKGlobal</p>

<p>Short YouTube film displaying the practice of terrace farming in Nepal</p>

<p>https://idl-bnc-idrc.dspacedirect.org/bitstream/handle/10625/57210/IDL-57210.pdf
Article on a terrace farming initiative in Nepal</p>

<p>https://www.idrc.ca/en/research-in-action/sustainable-agriculture-kits-terrace-farmers-nepal
Article on sustainable agriculture kits</p>

<p>https://www.accessagriculture.org/slm02-fanya-juu-terraces
Example of terrace farming</p>

<p>https://www.proquest.com/docview/2673379795/FBBC998CABD44842PQ/12?accountid=11233
Article on the health benefits of chayote</p>

<p>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=W7db3_Y7t2Q&ab_channel=LearnOrganicGardeningatGrowingYourGreens
YouTube video showing how to grow chayote vines vertically</p>

<p>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qtE-ZK6pL0Y&ab_channel=MarieCountryLife
YouTube video sharing recipes for cooking chayote</p>

<p>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IjjhKZ4F6W8&ab_channel=No-TillGrowers
YouTube video showing the function of a terrace farm on a hillside

</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">References</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>1. Cadena-Iñiguez, J., Arévalo-Galarza, L., Ruiz-Posadas, L. M., Aguirre-Medina, J. F., Soto-Hernández, M., Luna-Cavazos, M., & Zavaleta-Mancera, H. A. (2006). Quality Evaluation and influence of 1-MCP on sechium edule (Jacq.) Sw. fruit during postharvest. Postharvest Biology and Technology, 40(2), 170–176. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.postharvbio.2005.12.013</p>

<p>2. Chapagain, T., Ghimire, B., Pudasaini, R., Gurung, K., Choi, K., Rai, L., Magar, S., Bishnu, B. K., & Raizada, M. N. (2019). The underutilized terrace wall can be intensified to improve farmer livelihoods. Agronomy for Sustainable Development, 39(3), 29. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13593-019-0574-2 </p>

<p>3. Deng, C., Zhang, G., Liu, Y., Nie, X., Li, Z., Liu, J., & Zhu, D. (2021). Advantages and disadvantages of terracing: A comprehensive review. International Soil and Water Conservation Research, 9(3), 344–359. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iswcr.2021.03.002</p>

<p>4. Durán Zuazo, V. H., Rodríguez Pleguezuelo, C. R., Rodríguez, B. C., Ruiz, B. G., Gordillo, S. G., Sacristán, P. C., Tavira, S. C., & García-Tejero, I. F. (2019). Terraced subtropical farming: Sustainable Strategies for Soil Conservation. Soil Health Restoration and Management, 6(4)( 231–278. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-8570-4_7
</p>
<p>5. Government of Canada. (2021, March 9). Sustainable agriculture kits for terrace farmers in Nepal. International Development Research Centre (IDRC), Ottawa. Retrieved September 29, 2022, from https://www.idrc.ca/en/research-inaction/sustainable-agriculture-kits-terrace-farmers-nepal</p>

<p>6. Price, S. Nixon, L. (2005). Ancient Greek agricultural terraces: Evidence from texts and archaeological survey. American Journal of Archaeology, 109, 665-694
https://www.jstor.org/stable/40025693</p>

<p>7. Pu, Y.-T., Luo, Q., Wen, L.-H., Li, Y.-R., Meng, P.-H., Wang, X.-J., & Tan, G.-F. (2021). Origin, Evolution, Breeding, and Omics of Chayote, an Important Cucurbitaceae Vegetable Crop. Frontiers in Plant Science, 12, 739091. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2021.739091</p>

<p>8. Vieira, E. F., Pinho, O., Ferriera, I. M., Delerue-Matos, C. (2019) Chayote (Sechium edule): A Review of Nutritional Composition, Bioactivities and Potential Applications. Food Chemistry, 275, 557–568., https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2018.09.146.</p>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

Template:Chapter 3.2b

2026-01-15T08:40:47Z

Mamta:

<div>
<div class="title"><h3>3.2b - Climbing chayote squash on terrace walls</h3><br><h3 class="ch-owner">Nicholas Dischiavi, University of Guelph, Canada</h3></div>
<div class="hero-img-2">
[[File:3.2b image.jpeg|300px]]
<p><b>Related video(s)</b>: Wall crops (English)(Source: SAK Global)</p>
<p><i> https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cC447Tnr0E0</i></p>

<p>Suggested citation for this chapter.</p>
<p>Dischiavi,N(2022) Climbing chayote squash on terrace walls. In Farmpedia, The Encyclopedia for Small Scale Farmers. Editor, M.N. Raizada, University of Guelph, Canada. http://www.farmpedia.org</p>
</div>
<div class="ch-navber" style="display: flex; justify-content: space-between;">
<div class="center-side" style="max-width: 100%;margin-right: 3%;">
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Background on Terrace Farming </h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Terrace farming is not an ideal method of production for many smallholder farmers due to high labour and limited horizontal growing area (Chapagain and Raizada, 2017). However, growing crops vertically along terrace walls represents an opportunity for subsistence farmers to increase their production per hectare, as well as profits (Chapagain et al., 2019). </p>
<p>In mountainous regions, terrace farming has been utilized for thousands of years due to its ability to prevent soil erosion, conserve water and increase productivity, especially with limited land space (Deng et al., 2021). The first evidence of terrace farming was in Southeast Asia some 5000 years ago, with the practice subsequently extending to the Mediterranean's northern and southern borders, with extensive evidence of terrace agriculture by the Incas in the New World (Price & Nixon, 2005). Terrace farming is most commonly designed as follows: a vertical wall is built along the mountain/hillside, and on top of the terrace is a horizontal plot of land which is where field crops can be grown (Chapagain et al., 2019). To allow for the growth of such crops (e.g. grains, horticultural crops, and fodder), steep slopes (typically of the hillside) are split into narrow, graded steps (Chapagain et al., 2019). In addition, the ledge at the base of the vertical wall can be left as a walkway or can be utilized to grow climbing and/or hanging plants (Chapagain et al., 2019), which is the topic of this chapter. </p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Background to Chayote Squash</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Chayote (or Sechium edule), a member of the Cucurbitaceae family, is believed to have originated in Central America (Pu et al., 2021). To this day, it remains unknown where exactly chayote was first domesticated, but it is still common amongst Central American countries such as Guatemala, Costa Rica, and Mexico (Vieria et al., 2019). Past research incorrectly deemed Guatemala as the birthplace of chayote, yet current research supports the theory it was cultivated by the Mayans in Southern Mexico (Pu et al., 2021). Due to the location in which chayote originated, it grows best in semi-tropical climates but can also be adapted to grow in tropical climates (Pu et al., 2021). However, European explorers spread chayote across the globe, planting it in the Caribbean, South America, and parts of Europe, and as time went on, farmers adapted to grow chayote in Asian and African countries (Pu et al., 2021). Conveniently, chayote can be consumed in full as all parts of the plant are edible, including its tuberous roots (Pu et al., 2021). These roots are prepared after one year of growth and contain significant amounts of starch and dietary fibre (Pu et al., 2021).</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Growth and Production of Chayote</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Like other Cucurbitaceae, chayote grows on a perennial vine (Vieria et al., 2019). These vines grow in a very aggressive nature up to 6-9 m in a given season and produce 50-100 squash per plant (Vieria et al., 2019). Further, what is particularly nice about chayote is that seeds can be found inside the fruit and replanted for future yields. Chayote can take many different shapes, with variation in colour, size, and texture. As a warm-season fruit, chayote should be planted about one month after the last sign of frost if relevant (Vieria et al., 2019). To grow fully, chayote requires 4 to 5 months in direct sunlight yet it can also grow in partial sunlight, however, this would, in turn, reduce the yield (Pu et al., 2021). For best results, chayote should be planted in soil with a pH between 6-6.8 (Pu et al., 2021). </p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Cost Benefit-Analysis of Growing at the Base of Terrace Walls </h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>In a study by Chapagain et al. (2019), climbing chayote squash was planted at the base of terrace walls over two cropping seasons to test its potential growth and overall value. Taking place in Nepal, the researchers attempted to grow climbing pumpkins, yams, as well as chayote in two separate locations (Chapagain et al., 2019). Chayote was by far the most profitable of the three, as the fruit weight totalled approximately 166 kg each, while tubers totalled about 16 kg (Chapagain et al., 2019).</p>
<p>Although chayote is relatively affordable to grow, there are expenses that reduce their potential earnings (Chapagain et al., 2019). Using the study by Chapagain et al. (2019), researchers were able to do a trial of potential earning outcomes in USD. In the Dhading block of Nepal, transportation to market alone cost $11.40 per plant on average (cost between 2015-16 on average). Next, the cost of labour was about $3.45 while seeds and planting materials were around $0.35 (Chapagain et al., 2019). Altogether including miscellaneous costs, the expenses of growing and selling chayote were about $16.55 in the Dhading block, while the net return was approximately $32.95 per plant (Chapagain et al., 2019). Not only could the fruit be sold, however, and (in the Dhading region) the chayote tuber was valued at $0.40/kg (Chapagain et al., 2019). The cost of maintaining the terrace itself must be considered as well, which includes labour, and materials.</P>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Sustainability of Terrace Farming </h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>A major challenge is that terraces require constant maintenance, or else they deteriorate which requires considerable labour and cost to restore (Deng et al., 2019), as noted above. Over time, terraces can interrupt water circulation, including promoting run-off and soil loss, if not well-maintained (Deng et al., 2021). In order to operate as intended, a terrace must be used in unison with soil conservation practices, especially in wet climates (Durán Zuazo et al., 2019). The emergence of significant environmental issues brought on by poorly designed or poorly managed terraces could cause soil loss up to five times as much as a well-managed terrace. The terrace must be protected by vegetation, or plant covers must be implemented to preserve the terrace (Durán Zuazo et al., 2019). In this vein, the chayote vertical canopy may protect the terrace walls, but studies are needed to make such a conclusion. Failure to maintain the terrace could lead to the deterioration of soil and pose issues in the future for farmers hoping to re-use that land. </p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Limitations </h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Unfortunately, chayote squash is not the most profitable commodity for remote farmers. Although it has the potential for great economic return for farmers, transportation of the fruit in remote areas cut profits tremendously, as noted above (Chapagain et al., 2019). Chapagain et al. (2019) found in their trial that almost 70% of the overall cost of growing chayote was allocated towards transportation from the hillside to markets due to the substantial mass of both the squash itself as well as the tubers. This shows the importance of remote farmers developing market channels and/or working relationships with potential consumers. Alternatively, some type of post-harvest processing or preservation without refrigeration could be beneficial, to add value to this crop and reduce the immediate transportation costs (e.g. pickling, etc.).</p>
<p>The issue of storage is a common problem for chayote farmers, especially those harvesting excess fruit (Cadena-Iñiguez, 2006). As chayote fruit is soft and high in moisture content, the seed can germinate prematurely inside the fruit (vivipory), about a week after storage under non-ideal environmental conditions (Cadena-Iñiguez, 2006). Cold storage or wax coating were found to prevent this premature sprouting (Cadena-Iñiguez, 2006).</p>
<p>The design of the terrace can pose challenges to farmers as well. It is recommended farmers select an angled terrace wall in order to minimize the possible effect of monsoon rainfall on the terrace, and the potential for soil erosion (Pu et al., 2021). This is not common knowledge to all farmers and runs the risk of damaging their soil and/or terrace. In a financial sense, it is also important to consider the cost of materials used for the construction of the terrace, and the possibility of damaging the soil when building it (Deng et al., 2021). Un-informed farmers could possibly create a non-sustainable terrace that could lead to the potential ruin of crops and loss of their investment.</p>
<p>Although farmers in Nepal have already begun to grow climbing and hanging crops on terrace walls, experts have yet to analyze the true potential economic gains from these yields, so this form of farming requires testing in other environments (Chapagain et al., 2019). The cost of building a new terrace is especially concerning, and hence should only be undertaken on farms with pre-existing terraces. The Nepal Terrace Farmers and Sustainable Agriculture Kits initiative (SAKNepal) offer valuable resources (Government of Canada, 2021).</p>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Conclusion</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>When evaluating the economic success of subsistence farmers growing chayote squash on terrace walls, it is evident that the potential for profit is high as long as there are pre-existing terrace walls available, and post-harvest and transportation solutions available to take advantage of the high yield of this cropping system.</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Picture Based Lesson to Train Farmers </h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
[[Image:4.2b page-0001.jpg|thumb|centre|Picture Based Lesson to Train Farmer|Click on the image to access a higher resolution image as well as lessons adapted for different geographic regions.]]</p>
<p>http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/4.2b_south_asian_eng.pdf
South Asia </p>

<p>http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/4.2_b_east_southeast_asia_englishversion-2.pdf
East/Southeast Asia </p>

<p>http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/4.2bsubsaharan_africa_carribean_engversion.pdf
Sub-Saharan Africa/Carribean </p>

<p>http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/4.2blatin_america_eng_version.pdf
Latin America</p>

<p>http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/3.7n._africa_middleeast_eng_version.pdf
North Africa/Middle East</p>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Links to Useful Resources</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=S43fq_ROP9A&ab_channel=SAKGlobal</p>

<p>Short YouTube film displaying the practice of terrace farming in Nepal</p>

<p>https://idl-bnc-idrc.dspacedirect.org/bitstream/handle/10625/57210/IDL-57210.pdf
Article on a terrace farming initiative in Nepal</p>

<p>https://www.idrc.ca/en/research-in-action/sustainable-agriculture-kits-terrace-farmers-nepal
Article on sustainable agriculture kits</p>

<p>https://www.accessagriculture.org/slm02-fanya-juu-terraces
Example of terrace farming</p>

<p>https://www.proquest.com/docview/2673379795/FBBC998CABD44842PQ/12?accountid=11233
Article on the health benefits of chayote</p>

<p>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=W7db3_Y7t2Q&ab_channel=LearnOrganicGardeningatGrowingYourGreens
YouTube video showing how to grow chayote vines vertically</p>

<p>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qtE-ZK6pL0Y&ab_channel=MarieCountryLife
YouTube video sharing recipes for cooking chayote</p>

<p>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IjjhKZ4F6W8&ab_channel=No-TillGrowers
YouTube video showing the function of a terrace farm on a hillside

</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">References</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>1. Cadena-Iñiguez, J., Arévalo-Galarza, L., Ruiz-Posadas, L. M., Aguirre-Medina, J. F., Soto-Hernández, M., Luna-Cavazos, M., & Zavaleta-Mancera, H. A. (2006). Quality Evaluation and influence of 1-MCP on sechium edule (Jacq.) Sw. fruit during postharvest. Postharvest Biology and Technology, 40(2), 170–176. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.postharvbio.2005.12.013</p>

<p>2. Chapagain, T., Ghimire, B., Pudasaini, R., Gurung, K., Choi, K., Rai, L., Magar, S., Bishnu, B. K., & Raizada, M. N. (2019). The underutilized terrace wall can be intensified to improve farmer livelihoods. Agronomy for Sustainable Development, 39(3), 29. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13593-019-0574-2 </p>

<p>3. Deng, C., Zhang, G., Liu, Y., Nie, X., Li, Z., Liu, J., & Zhu, D. (2021). Advantages and disadvantages of terracing: A comprehensive review. International Soil and Water Conservation Research, 9(3), 344–359. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iswcr.2021.03.002</p>

<p>4. Durán Zuazo, V. H., Rodríguez Pleguezuelo, C. R., Rodríguez, B. C., Ruiz, B. G., Gordillo, S. G., Sacristán, P. C., Tavira, S. C., & García-Tejero, I. F. (2019). Terraced subtropical farming: Sustainable Strategies for Soil Conservation. Soil Health Restoration and Management, 6(4)( 231–278. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-8570-4_7
</p>
<p>5. Government of Canada. (2021, March 9). Sustainable agriculture kits for terrace farmers in Nepal. International Development Research Centre (IDRC), Ottawa. Retrieved September 29, 2022, from https://www.idrc.ca/en/research-inaction/sustainable-agriculture-kits-terrace-farmers-nepal</p>

<p>6. Price, S. Nixon, L. (2005). Ancient Greek agricultural terraces: Evidence from texts and archaeological survey. American Journal of Archaeology, 109, 665-694
https://www.jstor.org/stable/40025693</p>

<p>7. Pu, Y.-T., Luo, Q., Wen, L.-H., Li, Y.-R., Meng, P.-H., Wang, X.-J., & Tan, G.-F. (2021). Origin, Evolution, Breeding, and Omics of Chayote, an Important Cucurbitaceae Vegetable Crop. Frontiers in Plant Science, 12, 739091. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2021.739091</p>

<p>8. Vieira, E. F., Pinho, O., Ferriera, I. M., Delerue-Matos, C. (2019) Chayote (Sechium edule): A Review of Nutritional Composition, Bioactivities and Potential Applications. Food Chemistry, 275, 557–568., https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2018.09.146.</p>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

Template:Chapter 3.2a

2026-01-15T08:32:23Z

Mamta:

<div>
<div class="title"><h3>3.2a - Climbing beans on terrace walls</h3><br><h3 class="ch-owner">Noah Dion, University of Guelph, Canada</h3></div>
<div class="hero-img-2">
[[File:3.2 image.jpeg|300px]]
<p><b>Related video(s)</b>: Managing birds in climbing beans, Staking climbing beans, Wall crops (English)(Source: Access Agriculture, SAK Global)</p>
<p><i> https://www.accessagriculture.org/managing-birds-climbing-beans?cat_id=1499</i></p>
<p><i> https://www.accessagriculture.org/staking-climbing-beans?cat_id=1499</i></p>
<p><i> https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cC447Tnr0E0</i></p>
<p>Suggested citation for this chapter.</p>
<p>Dion, N(2022) Climbing beans on terrace walls. In Farmpedia, The Encyclopedia for Small Scale Farmers. Editor, M.N. Raizada, University of Guelph, Canada. http://www.farmpedia.org</p>
</div>
<div class="ch-navber" style="display: flex; justify-content: space-between;">
<div class="center-side" style="max-width: 100%;margin-right: 3%;">
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Introduction to the Farming Practice </h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Terrace farming is a practice that has been exercised over the past 5000-6000 years, primarily in hilly, rural regions where there is not an abundance of flat farmland to be cultivated. These terraces are utilized mostly by farmers in South Asia (e.g. China, India, Nepal, etc.), East Africa (e.g. Ethiopia, Tanzania, etc.) and South American regions (Chapagain et al., 2019). The terrace wall gives the farmer the ability to use poor farmland in mountainous regions by building risers up the hilly parts of the land, like a staircase. The terrace is made up of three main components: the flat land in between each riser (step-up) that is cultivated mainly with field crops, the slim narrow path on the edge allowing farmers to navigate their way through the land and tend to the crops, and the riser which is usually a bare wall either constructed with a sturdy material or dug out and man-made. In Nepal, for example, a terrace wall's dimensions are: 4-5 m in height and 50-100 m in length, with the flat land in between each step being roughly 3-4 m in width (Chapagain et al., 2019). This means that more than half the potential surface area is unused – in particular, the vertical surface. Growing crops, in particular climbing beans, at the base of the terrace wall offers an opportunity to improve local nutrition, the environment and alleviate poverty.</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Climbing Bean Candidates for Cultivation on Terrace Walls </h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>The legume family is the 3rd largest family out of all flowering plants, hosting approximately 20,000 different species (Doyle, 1994). Some examples of these legumes (more specifically climbing beans) are the cowpea, common bean, winged bean, etc. There are many different types of climbing beans that are candidates for successful growth on terrace walls. These could be planted at the base of the walls. The jack bean (also known as Canavalia ensiformis) is a great example of a legume that would thrive in this environment. Native to the West Indies and Central America, these beans hold potential to grow on the terrace walls because they are tolerant to waterlogging as well as drought tolerant (Haq, 2011). They can survive on as little as 650 mm of rainfall per year (Clark and Raizada, 2017). The winged bean (also known as Psophocarpus) is another potential candidate for climbing the terrace walls. This crop shows potential based on its agronomic and nutritional traits and is usually grown by subsistence farmers. Their seeds contain a significant amount of protein (37.3%) (Cerny et al., 1971). Unfortunately this bean is very underutilized and lacks adequate research.</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Benefits of Growing Climbing Beans on Terrace Walls</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Implementing climbing beans into terrace farming will increase overall legume yields which can lower poverty and malnutrition rates in the hilly regions. Beans add nitrogen to the soil to assist other crops, as well as protein to food and fodder for human and livestock diets, respectively (Rondon et al., 2007). There are many benefits that make farming on terrace walls appealing. Terrace risers are designed to prevent erosion from rainwater. They do this through their ability to slow the amount and velocity of the rainwater by collecting rainfall accumulating on the slope of the risers, which in turn slows the erosion process (Wheaton and Monke, n.d.). In addition, more efficient farming can be practiced through the wall's ability to collect and hold more water. In Nepal, the agricultural land holding on average is about 0.68-0.77 ha for hilly/mountainous regions (Clark and Raizada, 2017) so incorporating terrace walls into crop production will benefit the subsistence farmers in these regions greatly. </p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Potential Hardships </h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>There are many challenges to consider when implementing this method of farming as it can be a very tedious and laborious (Clark and Raizada, 2017). The height and trajectory of the cultivated land on the terrace walls can make farming the climbing beans very physically challenging, especially for smallholder women farmers that are unfortunately not always as physically capable as a stronger male farmer in certain circumstances. The direction the wall is facing is very important when relating to overall sun exposure. Climbing crops may shade the crops that are growing on the horizontal land in between the terrace risers which would tamper with the growing process. Also, when the sun is no longer shedding light on the face of the wall, the climbing legumes will have a lack of sunlight. Climbing beans may not be compatible with other terrace crops or crop production methods (e.g. flooded rice paddies) (Clark and Raizada, 2017).</P>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Socio-Economic Challenges</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>There are also socio-economic hardships to consider since the hilly regions that the terrace farmers populate are typically suffering from poverty. In these regions, there can be a lack of human capital since many men migrate to the city or other countries for employment (Chapagain and Raizada, 2017). In Nepal, over 30% of the population live on $14 USD per month, where 75% of the population in the hilly regions live below the poverty line (Chapagain and Raizada, 2017). Therefore, constructing and maintaining terrace farms is not a very feasible option for the economically struggling countries in these mountainous regions, and hence this practice would be limited to farmers that already have terraces. </p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Picture Based Lesson to Train Farmers </h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
[[Image:4.2a page-0001.jpg|thumb|centre|Picture Based Lesson to Train Farmer|Click on the image to access a higher resolution image as well as lessons adapted for different geographic regions.]]</p>
<p>http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/4._terrace_agriculture.pdf</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Practical Links to Get Started </h1>
<div class="cont-bg">

<p>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cFPbuinYXA0
Video on the construction and irrigation of terraced farmland</p>

<p>https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/184952v1.full
Article listing many different examples of climbing legumes </p>

<p>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LpaPU-STAsY
Video discussing soil conservation </p>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">References</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>1. Pratap, A. and Kumar, J. (2011). Underutilized Food Legumes: Potential for Multipurpose Uses. In A. Pratap and J. Kumar (Eds.), Biology and Breeding of Food Legumes. Cambridge: CAB International. https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/184952v1.full</p>
<p>2. Cerny, K., Maud, K., Pospisil, F., Svabensky, O., and Zajic, B. (1971) Nutritive value of the winged bean (Psophocarpus palustris Desv.). British Journal of Nutrition. 26, 293–299. https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/184952v1.full</p>
<p>3. Chapagain, T., Ghimire, B., Pudasaini, R., Gurung, K., Choi, K., Rai, L., Magar, S., Bishnu, B. K., & Raizada, M. N. (2019). The underutilized terrace wall can be intensified to improve farmer livelihoods - agronomy for sustainable development. Agronomy for Sustainable Development 39, 29. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s13593-019-0574-2</p>
<p>4. Chapagain, T., & Raizada, M. N. (2017). Agronomic challenges and opportunities for Smallholder Terrace Agriculture in developing countries. Frontiers in Plant Science 8, 331. https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpls.2017.00331/full</p>
<p>5. Clark, J. C., & Raizada, M. N. (2017). Climbing legumes: an underutilized resource with significant potential to intensify farming on terrace walls (FTW) for smallholder farmers. bioRxiv. https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/184952v1.full</p>
<p>6. Doyle, J. J. (1994). Phylogeny of the legume family: approach to understanding the origins of nodulation. nnnual review of ecology and systematics, Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 25, 325–349. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2097315</p>
<p>7. Rondon, M.A., Lehmann, J., Ramírez, J. et al. (2007). Biological nitrogen fixation by common beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) increases with bio-char additions. Biol Fertil Soils 43, 699–708. (https://doi.org/10.1007/s00374-006-0152-z</p>
<p>8. Wheaton , R. Z., & Monke, E. J. (n.d.). Terracing as a `best management practice' for controlling erosion and protecting water quality. Purdue University, Cooperative Extension Service. https://www.extension.purdue.edu/extmedia/ae/ae-114.html#:~:text=The%20major%20benefit%2C%20of%20course,than%20would%20otherwise%20be%20possible.</p>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

Template:Chapter 3.2a

2026-01-15T08:13:11Z

Mamta:

<div>
<div class="title"><h3>3.2a - Climbing beans on terrace walls</h3><br><h3 class="ch-owner">Noah Dion, University of Guelph, Canada</h3></div>
<div class="hero-img-2">
[[File:3.2 image.jpeg|300px]]
<p><b>Related video(s)</b>: Managing birds in climbing beans, Staking climbing beans, Wall crops (English)(Source: Access Agriculture)</p>
<p><i> https://www.accessagriculture.org/managing-birds-climbing-beans?cat_id=1499</i></p>
<p><i> https://www.accessagriculture.org/staking-climbing-beans?cat_id=1499</i></p>
<p><i> https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cC447Tnr0E0</i></p>
<p>Suggested citation for this chapter.</p>
<p>Dion, N(2022) Climbing beans on terrace walls. In Farmpedia, The Encyclopedia for Small Scale Farmers. Editor, M.N. Raizada, University of Guelph, Canada. http://www.farmpedia.org</p>
</div>
<div class="ch-navber" style="display: flex; justify-content: space-between;">
<div class="center-side" style="max-width: 100%;margin-right: 3%;">
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Introduction to the Farming Practice </h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Terrace farming is a practice that has been exercised over the past 5000-6000 years, primarily in hilly, rural regions where there is not an abundance of flat farmland to be cultivated. These terraces are utilized mostly by farmers in South Asia (e.g. China, India, Nepal, etc.), East Africa (e.g. Ethiopia, Tanzania, etc.) and South American regions (Chapagain et al., 2019). The terrace wall gives the farmer the ability to use poor farmland in mountainous regions by building risers up the hilly parts of the land, like a staircase. The terrace is made up of three main components: the flat land in between each riser (step-up) that is cultivated mainly with field crops, the slim narrow path on the edge allowing farmers to navigate their way through the land and tend to the crops, and the riser which is usually a bare wall either constructed with a sturdy material or dug out and man-made. In Nepal, for example, a terrace wall's dimensions are: 4-5 m in height and 50-100 m in length, with the flat land in between each step being roughly 3-4 m in width (Chapagain et al., 2019). This means that more than half the potential surface area is unused – in particular, the vertical surface. Growing crops, in particular climbing beans, at the base of the terrace wall offers an opportunity to improve local nutrition, the environment and alleviate poverty.</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Climbing Bean Candidates for Cultivation on Terrace Walls </h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>The legume family is the 3rd largest family out of all flowering plants, hosting approximately 20,000 different species (Doyle, 1994). Some examples of these legumes (more specifically climbing beans) are the cowpea, common bean, winged bean, etc. There are many different types of climbing beans that are candidates for successful growth on terrace walls. These could be planted at the base of the walls. The jack bean (also known as Canavalia ensiformis) is a great example of a legume that would thrive in this environment. Native to the West Indies and Central America, these beans hold potential to grow on the terrace walls because they are tolerant to waterlogging as well as drought tolerant (Haq, 2011). They can survive on as little as 650 mm of rainfall per year (Clark and Raizada, 2017). The winged bean (also known as Psophocarpus) is another potential candidate for climbing the terrace walls. This crop shows potential based on its agronomic and nutritional traits and is usually grown by subsistence farmers. Their seeds contain a significant amount of protein (37.3%) (Cerny et al., 1971). Unfortunately this bean is very underutilized and lacks adequate research.</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Benefits of Growing Climbing Beans on Terrace Walls</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Implementing climbing beans into terrace farming will increase overall legume yields which can lower poverty and malnutrition rates in the hilly regions. Beans add nitrogen to the soil to assist other crops, as well as protein to food and fodder for human and livestock diets, respectively (Rondon et al., 2007). There are many benefits that make farming on terrace walls appealing. Terrace risers are designed to prevent erosion from rainwater. They do this through their ability to slow the amount and velocity of the rainwater by collecting rainfall accumulating on the slope of the risers, which in turn slows the erosion process (Wheaton and Monke, n.d.). In addition, more efficient farming can be practiced through the wall's ability to collect and hold more water. In Nepal, the agricultural land holding on average is about 0.68-0.77 ha for hilly/mountainous regions (Clark and Raizada, 2017) so incorporating terrace walls into crop production will benefit the subsistence farmers in these regions greatly. </p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Potential Hardships </h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>There are many challenges to consider when implementing this method of farming as it can be a very tedious and laborious (Clark and Raizada, 2017). The height and trajectory of the cultivated land on the terrace walls can make farming the climbing beans very physically challenging, especially for smallholder women farmers that are unfortunately not always as physically capable as a stronger male farmer in certain circumstances. The direction the wall is facing is very important when relating to overall sun exposure. Climbing crops may shade the crops that are growing on the horizontal land in between the terrace risers which would tamper with the growing process. Also, when the sun is no longer shedding light on the face of the wall, the climbing legumes will have a lack of sunlight. Climbing beans may not be compatible with other terrace crops or crop production methods (e.g. flooded rice paddies) (Clark and Raizada, 2017).</P>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Socio-Economic Challenges</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>There are also socio-economic hardships to consider since the hilly regions that the terrace farmers populate are typically suffering from poverty. In these regions, there can be a lack of human capital since many men migrate to the city or other countries for employment (Chapagain and Raizada, 2017). In Nepal, over 30% of the population live on $14 USD per month, where 75% of the population in the hilly regions live below the poverty line (Chapagain and Raizada, 2017). Therefore, constructing and maintaining terrace farms is not a very feasible option for the economically struggling countries in these mountainous regions, and hence this practice would be limited to farmers that already have terraces. </p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Picture Based Lesson to Train Farmers </h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
[[Image:4.2a page-0001.jpg|thumb|centre|Picture Based Lesson to Train Farmer|Click on the image to access a higher resolution image as well as lessons adapted for different geographic regions.]]</p>
<p>http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/4._terrace_agriculture.pdf</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Practical Links to Get Started </h1>
<div class="cont-bg">

<p>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cFPbuinYXA0
Video on the construction and irrigation of terraced farmland</p>

<p>https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/184952v1.full
Article listing many different examples of climbing legumes </p>

<p>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LpaPU-STAsY
Video discussing soil conservation </p>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">References</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>1. Pratap, A. and Kumar, J. (2011). Underutilized Food Legumes: Potential for Multipurpose Uses. In A. Pratap and J. Kumar (Eds.), Biology and Breeding of Food Legumes. Cambridge: CAB International. https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/184952v1.full</p>
<p>2. Cerny, K., Maud, K., Pospisil, F., Svabensky, O., and Zajic, B. (1971) Nutritive value of the winged bean (Psophocarpus palustris Desv.). British Journal of Nutrition. 26, 293–299. https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/184952v1.full</p>
<p>3. Chapagain, T., Ghimire, B., Pudasaini, R., Gurung, K., Choi, K., Rai, L., Magar, S., Bishnu, B. K., & Raizada, M. N. (2019). The underutilized terrace wall can be intensified to improve farmer livelihoods - agronomy for sustainable development. Agronomy for Sustainable Development 39, 29. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s13593-019-0574-2</p>
<p>4. Chapagain, T., & Raizada, M. N. (2017). Agronomic challenges and opportunities for Smallholder Terrace Agriculture in developing countries. Frontiers in Plant Science 8, 331. https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpls.2017.00331/full</p>
<p>5. Clark, J. C., & Raizada, M. N. (2017). Climbing legumes: an underutilized resource with significant potential to intensify farming on terrace walls (FTW) for smallholder farmers. bioRxiv. https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/184952v1.full</p>
<p>6. Doyle, J. J. (1994). Phylogeny of the legume family: approach to understanding the origins of nodulation. nnnual review of ecology and systematics, Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 25, 325–349. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2097315</p>
<p>7. Rondon, M.A., Lehmann, J., Ramírez, J. et al. (2007). Biological nitrogen fixation by common beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) increases with bio-char additions. Biol Fertil Soils 43, 699–708. (https://doi.org/10.1007/s00374-006-0152-z</p>
<p>8. Wheaton , R. Z., & Monke, E. J. (n.d.). Terracing as a `best management practice' for controlling erosion and protecting water quality. Purdue University, Cooperative Extension Service. https://www.extension.purdue.edu/extmedia/ae/ae-114.html#:~:text=The%20major%20benefit%2C%20of%20course,than%20would%20otherwise%20be%20possible.</p>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

Template:Chapter 3.2a

2026-01-15T08:08:40Z

Mamta:

<div>
<div class="title"><h3>3.2a - Climbing beans on terrace walls</h3><br><h3 class="ch-owner">Noah Dion, University of Guelph, Canada</h3></div>
<div class="hero-img-2">
[[File:3.2 image.jpeg|300px]]

<p><b>Related video(s)</b>:Wall crops (English) (Source: Access Agriculture)</p>
<p><i> https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cC447Tnr0E0</i></p>

<p><b>Related video(s)</b>: Managing birds in climbing beans, Staking climbing beans (Source: Access Agriculture)</p>
<p><i> https://www.accessagriculture.org/managing-birds-climbing-beans?cat_id=1499</i></p>
<p><i> https://www.accessagriculture.org/staking-climbing-beans?cat_id=1499</i></p>
<p>Suggested citation for this chapter.</p>
<p>Dion, N(2022) Climbing beans on terrace walls. In Farmpedia, The Encyclopedia for Small Scale Farmers. Editor, M.N. Raizada, University of Guelph, Canada. http://www.farmpedia.org</p>
</div>
<div class="ch-navber" style="display: flex; justify-content: space-between;">
<div class="center-side" style="max-width: 100%;margin-right: 3%;">
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Introduction to the Farming Practice </h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Terrace farming is a practice that has been exercised over the past 5000-6000 years, primarily in hilly, rural regions where there is not an abundance of flat farmland to be cultivated. These terraces are utilized mostly by farmers in South Asia (e.g. China, India, Nepal, etc.), East Africa (e.g. Ethiopia, Tanzania, etc.) and South American regions (Chapagain et al., 2019). The terrace wall gives the farmer the ability to use poor farmland in mountainous regions by building risers up the hilly parts of the land, like a staircase. The terrace is made up of three main components: the flat land in between each riser (step-up) that is cultivated mainly with field crops, the slim narrow path on the edge allowing farmers to navigate their way through the land and tend to the crops, and the riser which is usually a bare wall either constructed with a sturdy material or dug out and man-made. In Nepal, for example, a terrace wall's dimensions are: 4-5 m in height and 50-100 m in length, with the flat land in between each step being roughly 3-4 m in width (Chapagain et al., 2019). This means that more than half the potential surface area is unused – in particular, the vertical surface. Growing crops, in particular climbing beans, at the base of the terrace wall offers an opportunity to improve local nutrition, the environment and alleviate poverty.</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Climbing Bean Candidates for Cultivation on Terrace Walls </h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>The legume family is the 3rd largest family out of all flowering plants, hosting approximately 20,000 different species (Doyle, 1994). Some examples of these legumes (more specifically climbing beans) are the cowpea, common bean, winged bean, etc. There are many different types of climbing beans that are candidates for successful growth on terrace walls. These could be planted at the base of the walls. The jack bean (also known as Canavalia ensiformis) is a great example of a legume that would thrive in this environment. Native to the West Indies and Central America, these beans hold potential to grow on the terrace walls because they are tolerant to waterlogging as well as drought tolerant (Haq, 2011). They can survive on as little as 650 mm of rainfall per year (Clark and Raizada, 2017). The winged bean (also known as Psophocarpus) is another potential candidate for climbing the terrace walls. This crop shows potential based on its agronomic and nutritional traits and is usually grown by subsistence farmers. Their seeds contain a significant amount of protein (37.3%) (Cerny et al., 1971). Unfortunately this bean is very underutilized and lacks adequate research.</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Benefits of Growing Climbing Beans on Terrace Walls</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Implementing climbing beans into terrace farming will increase overall legume yields which can lower poverty and malnutrition rates in the hilly regions. Beans add nitrogen to the soil to assist other crops, as well as protein to food and fodder for human and livestock diets, respectively (Rondon et al., 2007). There are many benefits that make farming on terrace walls appealing. Terrace risers are designed to prevent erosion from rainwater. They do this through their ability to slow the amount and velocity of the rainwater by collecting rainfall accumulating on the slope of the risers, which in turn slows the erosion process (Wheaton and Monke, n.d.). In addition, more efficient farming can be practiced through the wall's ability to collect and hold more water. In Nepal, the agricultural land holding on average is about 0.68-0.77 ha for hilly/mountainous regions (Clark and Raizada, 2017) so incorporating terrace walls into crop production will benefit the subsistence farmers in these regions greatly. </p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Potential Hardships </h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>There are many challenges to consider when implementing this method of farming as it can be a very tedious and laborious (Clark and Raizada, 2017). The height and trajectory of the cultivated land on the terrace walls can make farming the climbing beans very physically challenging, especially for smallholder women farmers that are unfortunately not always as physically capable as a stronger male farmer in certain circumstances. The direction the wall is facing is very important when relating to overall sun exposure. Climbing crops may shade the crops that are growing on the horizontal land in between the terrace risers which would tamper with the growing process. Also, when the sun is no longer shedding light on the face of the wall, the climbing legumes will have a lack of sunlight. Climbing beans may not be compatible with other terrace crops or crop production methods (e.g. flooded rice paddies) (Clark and Raizada, 2017).</P>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Socio-Economic Challenges</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>There are also socio-economic hardships to consider since the hilly regions that the terrace farmers populate are typically suffering from poverty. In these regions, there can be a lack of human capital since many men migrate to the city or other countries for employment (Chapagain and Raizada, 2017). In Nepal, over 30% of the population live on $14 USD per month, where 75% of the population in the hilly regions live below the poverty line (Chapagain and Raizada, 2017). Therefore, constructing and maintaining terrace farms is not a very feasible option for the economically struggling countries in these mountainous regions, and hence this practice would be limited to farmers that already have terraces. </p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Picture Based Lesson to Train Farmers </h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
[[Image:4.2a page-0001.jpg|thumb|centre|Picture Based Lesson to Train Farmer|Click on the image to access a higher resolution image as well as lessons adapted for different geographic regions.]]</p>
<p>http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/4._terrace_agriculture.pdf</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Practical Links to Get Started </h1>
<div class="cont-bg">

<p>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cFPbuinYXA0
Video on the construction and irrigation of terraced farmland</p>

<p>https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/184952v1.full
Article listing many different examples of climbing legumes </p>

<p>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LpaPU-STAsY
Video discussing soil conservation </p>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">References</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>1. Pratap, A. and Kumar, J. (2011). Underutilized Food Legumes: Potential for Multipurpose Uses. In A. Pratap and J. Kumar (Eds.), Biology and Breeding of Food Legumes. Cambridge: CAB International. https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/184952v1.full</p>
<p>2. Cerny, K., Maud, K., Pospisil, F., Svabensky, O., and Zajic, B. (1971) Nutritive value of the winged bean (Psophocarpus palustris Desv.). British Journal of Nutrition. 26, 293–299. https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/184952v1.full</p>
<p>3. Chapagain, T., Ghimire, B., Pudasaini, R., Gurung, K., Choi, K., Rai, L., Magar, S., Bishnu, B. K., & Raizada, M. N. (2019). The underutilized terrace wall can be intensified to improve farmer livelihoods - agronomy for sustainable development. Agronomy for Sustainable Development 39, 29. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s13593-019-0574-2</p>
<p>4. Chapagain, T., & Raizada, M. N. (2017). Agronomic challenges and opportunities for Smallholder Terrace Agriculture in developing countries. Frontiers in Plant Science 8, 331. https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpls.2017.00331/full</p>
<p>5. Clark, J. C., & Raizada, M. N. (2017). Climbing legumes: an underutilized resource with significant potential to intensify farming on terrace walls (FTW) for smallholder farmers. bioRxiv. https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/184952v1.full</p>
<p>6. Doyle, J. J. (1994). Phylogeny of the legume family: approach to understanding the origins of nodulation. nnnual review of ecology and systematics, Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 25, 325–349. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2097315</p>
<p>7. Rondon, M.A., Lehmann, J., Ramírez, J. et al. (2007). Biological nitrogen fixation by common beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) increases with bio-char additions. Biol Fertil Soils 43, 699–708. (https://doi.org/10.1007/s00374-006-0152-z</p>
<p>8. Wheaton , R. Z., & Monke, E. J. (n.d.). Terracing as a `best management practice' for controlling erosion and protecting water quality. Purdue University, Cooperative Extension Service. https://www.extension.purdue.edu/extmedia/ae/ae-114.html#:~:text=The%20major%20benefit%2C%20of%20course,than%20would%20otherwise%20be%20possible.</p>
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Template:Chapters 3.1

2026-01-15T08:06:40Z

Mamta:

<div>
<div class="title"><h3>3.1 - Yam in sacks on terrace walls</h3><br><h3 class="ch-owner">Emma Desilets, University of Guelph, Canada</h3></div>
<div class="hero-img-2">
[[File:3.1 image.jpeg|300px]]

<p><b>Related video(s)</b>: Yam sac (English subtitles) (Source: Access Agriculture)</p>
<p><i> https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NMtyPhQHrJQ</i></p>

<p>Suggested citation for this chapter.</p>
<p>Desilets,E. (2022) Yam in sacks on terrace walls. In Farmpedia, The Encyclopedia for Small Scale Farmers. Editor, M.N. Raizada, University of Guelph, Canada. http://www.farmpedia.org</p>
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<div class="center-side" style="max-width: 100%;margin-right: 3%;">
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Introduction</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>A staple crop in many parts of Africa and Southeast Asia (Opara, 2003), yams (Dioscorea sp. not to be confused with sweet potato) are an important source of carbohydrates, contain good amounts of fibre and vitamin C (Wanasundera & Ravindran, 1994), and can provide a family with a new source of income and nutrition. Unfortunately, many smallholder farmers in hilly regions lack enough cultivated land area to grow more crops and support their families (Chapagain et al., 2019). To overcome this, farmers utilize terrace farming, which creates step-like patterns on sloping hillsides, where the flat surfaces are cultivated; however the vertical walls are typically unused (Chapagain et al., 2019). For smallholder farmers, every inch of land counts - so taking advantage of these unused walls by vertically growing yam in sacks is an option to consider as shown in Figure 1. Yams can also be grown in sacks on flatlands, to save labour at harvest, fertilizer/manure and conserve water. </p>
<p>[[Image:YTR.jpg|thumb|centre|Figure 1. Practice of growing yam in sacks (Ghimire et al., 2016).]]</p>
<P>It is important to note that this practice is not reserved for hillsides, but yams can be grown in sacks against any wall, such as the side of a house or even leaning against one another. Growing yams in sacks not only utilizes unused space and provide yams with adequate sunlight, but it prevents leaching of critical fertilizers and water, and critically the practice also helps cut down on labour especially at harvest time – the bag can simply be opened rather than having to dig out a large and very heavy tuber (Chapagain et al., 2019). The practice appears to have started in Nepal in 2014 (Chapagain et al., 2019), but has now spread to West Africa where some farmers grow up to 5000 yams in sacks.</P>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Implementation of Yam in Sacks</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>This section will explain how to grow yam in sacks. According to the Food and Agriculture Association (FAO), yams are not typically grown from seeds and are instead grown by planting cut pieces of adult yam (Henderson, 1977).<p>

<P><B>How to Plant:</B></P>
<p>While seeds can produce yam, propagation is preferred to maintain high yields and similar traits of the parent tuber. To start, cuttings from the tuber are taken, preferably from the crown, which is the top section containing stems, or with a small whole tuber, weighing 250-400 grams each (Henderson, 1977). A sack or bag to grow the yam in is also needed. Appropriate sacks should be long enough to contain the average fully grown tuber, and a great option would be to use an empty seed sack or an empty fertilizer bag. The sack is filled up halfway, or enough so that it can be lifted, and then transported to rest against a wall or terrace or other bags, where it will remain for the duration. The bag should not contain any large stones, as this will impede the growth of the yam. In addition, the area should be exposed to the sun, as yams are light-loving, shade-sensitive plants which require warm temperatures after planting (Lebot, 2020). The remainder of the sack should then be filled with soil, leaving some space at the top for fertilizer or manure. The soil must be light, sandy, well-drained, and crumbly, as the tuber penetrates the soil while expanding during growth (Lebot, 2020). Subsequently, about five inches (12 cm) of soil near the back of the sack as opposed to the center should be dug to plant the yam. According to a video entitled “How to Plant Yam in Bags” which documented this process, the yam should be placed horizontally, so that the crown is in the centre of the soil, but the cut end of the yam is against the side of the sack. This is done because the growth of the yam will come from the crown; if it were not central, the yam could break through the bag (1/3 TV, 2021). The tuber should then be covered with soil. To protect the yam, dry, dead leaves and grass should be placed over top of the soil.</p>

<P><B>How to Fertilize:</B></P>
<p>The last step to planting the yams is to fertilize the soil. Fertilizing could be the key to healthy yams and a good harvest. One option is to simply scatter compost, manure or fertilizer on top of each bag in addition to the dry leaves. Fertilizing yams in sacks is different than in the ground, as the yam roots cannot travel when confined to the sack. When growing yams in a sack, the roots are planted near the top of the bag. Referencing the above video again, it was found that spreading fertilizer over top of the soil, or at the bottom of the bag, is an ineffective method. The concentration of the fertilizer is simply too strong if directly applied, which is why it is suggested to fertilize in batches (1/3 TV, 2021). Five to six weeks after planting, only seven or eight balls of fertilizer should be scatter on top of the dry leaves. Rain should dissolve the fertilize, or the sacks can be watered at least three times a week. This fertilizing process should be repeated weekly, for 1 month (1/3 TV, 2021).</p>

<P><B>How to Harvest:</B></P>
<p>Mature yams are distinguishable by the yellowing of leaves, and most edible yams reach maturity in 8-11 months after planting (Opara, 2003). To harvest, the sacks should be torn down the side. A shovel can be used to remove some of the soil but then the actual yam should be dug by hand as it is possible to damage the tuber. The stem of the yam should then be cut and removed. It is possible to recycle the sacks by lying them on their sides and emptying the contents. The soil can be reused again. The yams should be stored in a cool, dark area until ready for use. It is important to note that yams contain toxic substances when raw and must be sliced and soaked in water or cooked before consumption (Opara, 2003). </p>
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</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Critical Analysis </h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>While harvesting yams in sacks requires much less labour than harvesting on land, planting is slightly more difficult and requires more resources. Growing yams is typically a highly laborious and tiresome process. Yams grown in the ground require standing, bending, and squatting for long amounts of time, which is very intensive considering some yams can grow to weigh larger than 100 lbs or 45 kg (Opara, 2003). Planting in sacks cuts down on intensive labour, but it is more time-consuming as each individual sack must be prepared. As each tuber requires one sack, many sacks and pieces of the tuber will need to be acquired. A farmer may already have some empty sacks or fertilizer bags, or they can be acquired at the market, but accessing these materials may also be difficult. Acquiring sacks large enough to accommodate the size of the growing yam may also be difficult, as smaller bags will limit the size of the tuber. In addition, the disposal of the unusable sacks will create plastic waste, so consideration should be given to biodegradable bags. If materials needed to grow yam in sacks are accessible, some benefits are that it cuts down on hard labour, especially at harvest time, utilizes unused space, and mitigates weeds, soil fertility decline via reduced leaching, soilborne and leaf pests and diseases -- all of which comprise the highest constraints to yam production (Wanasundera & Ravindran, 1994). It also permits yams to be grown in regions with otherwise heavier (clay soil). Another aspect to consider when growing yams is their storage ability. Storage losses can be detrimental, as a yam can lose 10-20 percent of its weight after three months of regular storage in a cool, dry area. These figures include an element of moisture loss, and a decrease in the food value of the yam tubers also occurs (Coursey, 1967). Yams cannot be stored in cold storage, as they will suffer chilling damage, and yams are susceptible to insects and plant pathogens (Coursey, 1967). There are also added costs for materials, purchasing yam tubers, sacks, and fertilizer, but these items may already be common-place, or easy to acquire from the market. The range cost of yams per plant is $2 USD. This added source of income can make a dramatic difference to a smallholder farm if this technique is successfully adapted. </p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Picture Based Lesson to Train Farmers</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
[[Image:4.1 page-0001.jpg|thumb|centre|Picture Based Lesson to Train Farmer|Click on the image to access a higher resolution image as well as lessons adapted for different geographic regions.]]</p>
<p>Sub-Saharan, Africa/Caribbean version: http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/4.1subsaharan_africa_carribean.pdf</p>
<p>South Asian version:
http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/4.1_south_asian.pdf</p>
<p>East/Southeast Asian version:
http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/4.1e.s.a.pdf</p>
<p>Latin American version:
http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/4.1latin_america.p</p> df
<p><b>Source: </b></p>
<p>MN Raizada and L Smith (2016) A Picture Book of Best Practices for Subsistence Farmers: Edition (note geographic region). eBook, University of Guelph Sustainable Agriculture Kit (SAK) Project, June 2016, Guelph, Canada. Available online at: www.SAKBooks.com</p>
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</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Links to Useful Resources</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dV_D99fow4M
- Step by step process on planting yam in sacks</p>
<p>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PPJ-LBuVCzY&t=1431s
- Harvesting yam in sacks</p>
<p>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yTbG3GmavCU
- Benefits to planting yam in sacks</p>
<p>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bOtpdL8KFJo
- Alternate video showing the process of planting yam in sacks</p>
<p>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_m95fQ6rCOs
- Growing yam in sacks in Nigeria</p>
<p>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oHzV2DI0EEg
- Commercial yam farming</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">References</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>1. Chapagain, T., & Raizada, M. N. (2017). Agronomic Challenges and Opportunities for Smallholder Terrace Agriculture in Developing Countries. Frontiers in Plant Science, 8, 331. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2017.00331</p>
<p>2. Chapagain, T., Ghimire, B., Pudasaini, R., Gurung, K., Choi, K., Rai, L., Magar, S., Bishnu, B. K., & Raizada, M. N. (2019). The Underutilized Terrace Wall can be Intensified to Improve Farmer Livelihoods. Agronomy for Sustainable Development, 39(3), 2–11. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13593-019-0574-2 </p>
<p>3. Coursey, D. G. (1967). Yam Storage—I: A Review of Yam Storage Practices and of Information on Storage Losses. Journal of Stored Products Research, 2(3), 229–244. https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-474x(67)90070-7 </p>
<p>4. Henderson, A. (1977). How to Propagate Yams. In Roots and Tubers (pp. 30–38). Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy.</p>
<p>5. Ghimire, B., Dhakal, R., Pudasaini, R., Devkota, R., & Chaudhary, P. (2016). Demonstration of yam cultivation in sacks at Laitak village [Photograph]. Leisa India. https://leisaindia.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/Demonstration-of-yam-cultivation-in-sacks-at-Laitak-village-300x169.jpg </p>
<p>6. Lebot, V. (2020). Yams: Agronomy. In Lebot, V, Tropical Root and Tuber Crops: Cassava, Sweet Potato, Yams and Aroids, (pp. 273–292). CABI. https://doi.org/10.1079/9781789243369.0273 </p>
<p>7. Opara, L. U. (2003). Yams - Food and Agriculture Organization. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Retrieved November 8, 2022, from https://www.fao.org/fileadmin/user_upload/inpho/docs/Post_Harvest_Compendium_-_Yams.pdf</p>
<p>8. 1/3 TV. (2021, May 17). Step by Step Process How to Plant Yam in Bags [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dV_D99fow4M</p>
<p>9. Wanasundera, J. P., & Ravindran, G. (1994). Nutritional Assessment of Yam (Dioscorea alata) Tubers. Plant Foods for Human Nutrition, 46(1), 33–39. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf01088459</p>

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Template:Chapter 1.1

2026-01-15T08:01:09Z

Mamta:

<div>
<div class="title"><h3>1.1 - Gloves to help subsistence farmers</h3><br><h3 class="ch-owner">Mitchell van Schepen, University of Guelph, Canada</h3></div>
<div class="hero-img-2">
[[File:Chap 1.jpeg|300px]]

<p><b>Related video(s)</b>: Gardening gloves (English subtitles) (Source: Access Agriculture)</p>
<p><i> https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=E5uZKv3nJm0</i></p>

<p>Suggested citation for this chapter.</p>
<p>Van Schepen,M. (2022) Gloves to help subsistence farmers. In Farmpedia, The Encyclopedia for Small Scale Farmers. Editor, M.N. Raizada, University of Guelph, Canada. http://www.farmpedia.org</p>
</div>
<div class="ch-navber" style="display: flex; justify-content: space-between;">
<div class="center-side" style="max-width: 100%;margin-right: 3%;">
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Background</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>The world’s 1 billion women and girls participating in subsistence farming pull weeds by hand to improve their crops and also collect firewood for cooking, resulting in their hands becoming rough and sore (Figure 1). This can be caused by wood splinters being lodged into their skin (Schaffner, 2013). Pulling weeds for hours on end can peel away layers of skin (Food and Agriculture Organization, 2016). The hands of those farmers can also become dirty and smelly from planting seeds in the soil or spreading manure by hand. To avoid the common aforementioned problems as well as hand injuries, such as cuts and scrapes, they could wear gloves on their hands, see the second picture, (Schaffner, 2013). Gloves are very common in the modern world and can be used for construction, farming, and medical practices. Gloves provide a durable layer between the skin on your hands and whatever you are working with (Espasandín-Arias & Goossens, 2014). There are a few different materials used to make gloves, along with different sizes and grips. With over one billion women and girls working on farms around the world, this grueling work can be made safer and more efficient when wearing gloves.</p>

<p>Rubber and cloth are the two main kinds of gloves produced (Melco, 2016). They both have their own benefits and drawbacks respectively. A benefit from rubber gloves is their ability to resist water from coming in contact with a farmer's skin, see part two, (Espasandín-Arias & Goossens, 2014). While cloth gloves can be beneficial because they can draw moisture away from their hands and can be easily washed to be cleaned. Because rubber gloves are usually meant to be disposed of after single use they tend to be cheaper to make and thus cheaper to buy. Yet some rubber gloves can be made thicker to reuse and are slightly more durable (Melco, 2016). Cloth gloves are designed to be washed after being used and last a long time under normal working conditions.</p>

<p>Along with the different materials gloves are made of, there are also different arm lengths. Some gloves are cut off just in front or around the wrist. While others can be up to and over the elbow and everywhere in between (Melco, 2016). The benefits of the shorter gloves is comfort, no bunching around wrist or elbow, and they can be quickly put on or removed. The benefits of the long gloves are more protection, the entire forearm will be covered. All the while there is less of a chance of getting debris in their gloves because the opening is farther away from what you are working with. Farmers can also work in deeper water or mud with the long rubber gloves without getting your hands wet.</p>

<p>When working with smooth items such as hoes and some fruits and vegetables they can be slippery (Food and Agriculture Organization, 2016). A way to help farmer's hold on to the tools is to get gloves with grips (Melco, 2016). Both rubber and cloth gloves can have grips. Rubber gloves will have ridges in the molds to form grips and granular materials can be added to the outside before drying (Melco, 2016). Another option is to make the rubber gloves out of a non-slip rubber (Melco, 2016). Because cloth alone does not provide grip, cloth gloves must be dipped in liquid rubber to be able to grip smooth objects. The rubber used for grips on cloth gloves can either be non-slip smooth rubber or be rigid (Melco, 2016). </p>

<p>When working with smooth items such as hoes and some fruits and vegetables they can be slippery (Food and Agriculture Organization, 2016). A way to help farmer's hold on to the tools is to get gloves with grips (Melco, 2016). Both rubber and cloth gloves can have grips. Rubber gloves will have ridges in the molds to form grips and granular materials can be added to the outside before drying (Melco, 2016). Another option is to make the rubber gloves out of a non-slip rubber (Melco, 2016). Because cloth alone does not provide grip, cloth gloves must be dipped in liquid rubber to be able to grip smooth objects. The rubber used for grips on cloth gloves can either be non-slip smooth rubber or be rigid (Melco, 2016). </p>
</div>
</div>

<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Physical Protection</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Protection is the main benefit from using gloves. Repetitive motions, such as when pounding grain, can cause irritation to the skin. When collecting firewood the sticks and logs can scratch or cut the skin (Food and Agriculture Organization, 2016). Weeds can be rough and by scratching their hands many times they can become cut and sore (Espasandín-Arias & Goossens, 2014). By lifting and pulling heavy items the top layer of your skin will separate from the next, causing a blister, by wearing gloves they now will prevent blistering because the glove will act as the top layer of skin and prevent the actual skin from separating (Schaffner, 2013). Manure has a lot of bacteria in it which are harmful if they are swallow, so keeping them away from the hands used to eat with is very beneficial (Furlong, et al., 2015). If farmers are working with firewood or in construction the cloth gloves will work better because they are more durable (Food and Agriculture Organization, 2016). The disposable rubber gloves would be the worst to use in this scenario because they are so thin, stick to jobs were the main goals are to keep hands dry and dirt free when using disposable rubber gloves.</p>
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</div>

<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 style="background: #FBB03B;padding: 15px;font-weight: 600;color: #000;font-size: 22px;margin:unset;text-align:center;">Defense Against Moisture and Chemicals</h1>
<div style="background: #FFD8A4;padding: 15px;font-weight: 400;color: #212529;font-size: 16px;margin:unset;line-height: 1.5;">
<p>Moisture blocking is a way gloves can prevent your skin from drying out and from getting too wet and dehydrating farmer's hands. By keeping the moisture from the hands inside the gloves they will prevent the skin from cracking and becoming infected (Schaffner, 2013). As well when working in wet conditions your hands can shrivel and become dehydrated if they are constantly in contact with water.</p>
<p>Pesticides can be absorbed by your skin and become harmful to the body, gloves provide an extra barrier to block them from entering in a farmer's body (Furlong, et al., 2015). Fertilizers such as nitrogen can also be caustic, and these are usually spread through broadcasting by hand. Mud can get under your nails and into cracked or cut skin and can infect a farmer's hands. Gloves will keep the mud out and keep hands clean. Both liquid pesticides and dry fertilizers can irritate skin if they come into contact with it (Kim, et al., 2013). Wearing the proper gloves, rubber ones in this case, can save their hands from becoming itchy (Keeble et al., 1996). Human skin can also absorb the pesticides which are harmful to your body, wearing gloves would prevent the pesticides from ever touching your skin.</p>
</div>
</div>

<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Wearable</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Comfortable gloves help farmer's work longer because their hands will not hurt from completing your task. Sizing is very important when finding comfortable gloves (Melco, 2016). Make sure gloves are the proper length and width, as not to restrict movement. There will be less pain from pulling weeds and they will be able to pull more weeds because they would not have to wait a long for the pain to subside between pulling each weed, because there will be no pain if wearing gloves (Food and Agriculture Organization, 2016). If farmer's find they are working hard and their hands start to sweat the gloves should be removed , dry your hands, and put on a new pair. Cloth gloves are more breathable then rubber ones, using them is another way to prevent hands from getting sweaty. The cloth gloves can also be softer and easier to clean, but are more restricting to movement due to their durability and tougher material. Since children will also be farming, smaller glove sizes can be found. Gloves are designed to fit a farmer's hand snugly, so children should not wear adult sized gloves when working. </p>
</div>
</div>

<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Constraints To Adoption</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Gloves are very useful to farmers, but there can still be some drawbacks. Possible culturable taboos might vary from location to location. Gloves might seem feminine and not easily adopted by men in the community. Gloves act as a second, tougher skin, but they are not a farmer's skin and can slide around while working. This may feel odd and uncomfortable but farmers can get used to the new feeling over time. Gloves can come in many colours and thicknesses, which may make a farmer's hands look funny or larger. Human skin is very stretchy and flexible, while glove materials tend to be tougher than skin and will reduce movement, but not enough to hinder work. Rubber gloves can stretch well, but make hands sweat, while cloth gloves are breathable but reduce dexterity.</p>
<p>Farmers can find gloves to use and get started from local vendors (European Commission For The Control Of Foot-And-Mouth Disease, 2016). Once you have completed your work for the day you can clean them are reuse them, or dispose of them if they were ripped or torn (Kim, et al., 2013). You can get gloves made of rubber and like materials as well as ones made of durable cloths. The thin rubber gloves tend to be made for a single use only. A trick that the European Commission For The Control Foot-And-Mouth Disease mentions that you can wear two pairs of rubber gloves at the same time for extra protection (European Commission For The Control Of Foot-And-Mouth Disease, 2016).</p>
</div>
</div>

<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Picture Based Lesson to Train Farmers </h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
[[Image:2.1 page-0001.jpg|thumb|centre|Picture Based Lesson to Train Farmer|Click on the image to access a higher resolution image as well as lessons adapted for different geographic regions.]]</p>
<p><i>For the South Asian version (pictures only, text for you to insert), click this link for lesson 2.1:http://www.sakbooks.com/chapter-2---land-preparation-and-sowing9.html</i></p>
<p><i>For the East/South Asian version (pictures only, text for you to insert), click this link for lesson 2.1:http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/2.1e.s.a.pdf</i></p>
<p><i>For the Sub-Saharan Africa/Caribbean version (pictures only, text for you to insert), click this link for lesson 2.1:http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/2.1subsaharan_africa_carribean.pdf</i></p>
<p><i>For the Latin-America version (pictures only, text for you to insert), click this link for lesson 2.1:http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/2.1latin_america.pdf</i></p>
<p><i>For North Africa And Middle East version (pictures only, text for you to insert), click this link for lesson 2.1:http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/2.1n._africa_middleeast.pdf</i></p>
<p><i>Source: MN Raizada and LJ Smith (2016) A Picture Book of Best Practices for Subsistence Farmers. eBook, University of Guelph Sustainable Agriculture Kit (SAK) Project, June 2016, Guelph, Canada. </i></p>

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</div>

<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Helpful Links To Get Started </h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Here are websites to find more information about how to obtain gloves:</p>
<p>[https://www.alibaba.com/ Alibaba]</p>
<p>[https://www.indiamart.com/ Indiamart]</p>
<p>[https://www.adenna.com Adenna</p>
<p>[https://www.farmcity.co.za/ Farmcity]</p>
<p>[https://www.crazystore.co.za/ Crazystore]</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">References</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>1.Espasandín-Arias, M., & Goossens, A. (2014). Natural rubber gloves might not protect against skin penetration of methylisothiazolinone. Contact Dermatitis, 70(4), 249-251. doi:10.1111/cod.12221</p>
<p>2.European Commission For The Control Of Foot-And-Mouth Disease. Suggested FMD PPE guidelines - Food and Agriculture, (2016)
Food and Agriculture Organization. Rural women in household production: Increasing contributions and persisting drudgery. (2016).
</p>
<p>3.Furlong, M., Tanner, C. M., Goldman, S. M., Bhudhikanok, G. S., Blair, A., Chade, A., . . . Kamel, F. (2015). Protective glove use and hygiene habits modify the associations of specific pesticides with Parkinson's disease. Environment International, 75, 144-150. doi:10.1016/j.envint.2014.11.002</p>
<p>4.Keeble, V. B., Correll, L., & Ehrich, M. (1996). Effect of Laundering on Ability of Glove Fabrics to Decrease the Penetration of Organophosphate Insecticides Through in vitro Epidermal Systems. J. Appl. Toxicol. Journal of Applied Toxicology, 16(5), 401-406. doi:10.1002/(sici)1099-1263(199609)16:53.3.co;2-6</p>
<p>5, J., Kim, J., Cha, E., Ko, Y., Kim, D., & Lee, W. (2013). Work-Related Risk Factors by Severity for Acute Pesticide Poisoning Among Male Farmers in South Korea. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 10(3), 1100-1112. doi:10.3390/ijerph10031100</p>
<p>6.Melco, M. (2016). Gardening Gloves. Retrieved from [http://garden.lovetoknow.com/wiki/Gardening_Gloves Garden Lovetoknow]</p>
<p>7.Schaffner, A. D. (2013). Minimizing Surgical Skin Incision Scars with a Latex Surgical Glove. Aesthetic Plastic Surgery, 37(2), 463-463. doi:10.1007/s00266-013-0071-y</p>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

Template:Chapter 4.4

2026-01-14T18:56:33Z

Mamta:

<div>
<div class="title"><h3>4.4 - Contour farming on hillsides to prevent erosion</h3><br><h3 class="ch-owner">Colton Lanthier, University of Guelph, Canada</h3></div>
<div class="hero-img-2">
[[File:Capture_4.3.JPG|300px]]

<p><b>Related video(s)</b>: Contour bunds (Source: Access Agriculture)</p>
<p><i> https://www.accessagriculture.org/contour-bunds?cat_id=1499</i></p>

<p>Suggested citation for this chapter.</p>
<p>Lanthier,C. (2022) Contour farming on hillsides to prevent erosion. In Farmpedia, The Encyclopedia for Small Scale Farmers. Editor, M.N. Raizada, University of Guelph, Canada. http://www.farmpedia.org</p>
</div>
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<h1 class="title-bg">Background</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Soil degradation and erosion is one of the most prominent issues that subsistence farmers face. Impacts of soil erosion are wide ranging, and the amount of erosion around the world has been accelerated due to human activity. In South Africa for example, recent studies show that soil has eroded at 12.6 tons/ha/year under cropland whereas natural soil erosion is 5 tons/ha/year (Le Roux & Smith, 2014). In India, over 45% of all geographical surface area (130 million hectares) is seriously affected by soil erosion (India Netzone, 2012). Simpson (2010) defined soil degradation as, “ (the) decline in the productive capacity of the soil as a result of soil erosion and adverse changes in the hydrological, biological, chemical and physical properties of the soil.” It is also worth mentioning that soil erosion has impacts ranging much further than the agricultural sector. Although the immediate impacts can be felt on the farm with the loss of soil fertility and stability, the effects of erosion can leave communities in a state of chronic hunger, can flood lowland plains as sediment fills river systems, and can ruin the land for future generations of subsistence farmers (Simpson, 2010). </p>

<p>Contour farming is a simple, yet underused practice to prevent erosion along hillsides. The practice consists of sowing crops in rows, perpendicular to the slope (Sussman, 2007). It improves yields and greatly reduces soil erosion, including preserving soil fertility along slopes and works best in combination with hedgerows. This is a low cost, low labour practice that requires few materials that are often readily available on the farm already. Additionally, the practice of contour farming is easy to teach and once a farmer is comfortable with the process they are able to further demonstrate the practice to others farming on sloping lands. Contour farming consists of measuring lines perpendicular to the hillside and planting crops along these lines. The use of an A-Frame device can help quickly identify these lines and furthermore improve yields immediately.</p>

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<h3 class="title-bg">Process</h3>
<div class="cont-bg">

<p>Implementing contour farming is the most labour intensive part of the practice. It begins by assembling an A-frame. This tool is used to mark out level pathways perpendicular to the slope of the hill. A level pathway is a measured line across a hillslope that farmers identify in order to plant their crops on level ground even when attempting to cultivate on a hillside (Sussman, 2007). An A-frame is easy to make and can use locally found materials. To make an A-frame one will need two poles around two meters long, another shorter pole about one meter long, some string and a stone (Evans et al, 2012). To assemble the A-frame, the two-meter poles and the one-meter pole need to be tied tightly (or nailed if available) together in the shape of a letter A. Once the poles have been connected use the rope to hang a stone from the top of the frame so that it hangs below the cross bar (Evans et al, 2012). Refer to Figure 1 for an illustration. This tool is used to measure out contour lines by marking out level pathways perpendicular to the slope of the hill.</p>

<p>After the contour lines have been marked its time to prepare hedgerows. Hedgerows allow uphill water to absorb into the hillside as opposed to running down the slope washing away nutrient rich soil (Evans et al, 2012). An optional intervention is the use of ditches which help in erosion prevention, irrigation, and cash crop yields. Hedgerows can be created by digging ditches along the previously marked contour lines, for an illustration as the how the process appears, refer to Figure 2 of the appendix. The ditches should be about 60 cm wide and 30 cm deep. The distance between hedgerows down a hillside is determined by the gradient of the slope. Refer to Table 1 for guidance. When excavating the ditches farmers are taught to dig from an uphill position as to maintain structural integrity of the uphill slope (Sussman, 2007). As the ditches are carved out the excavated sediment is to be placed downslope along the edge of the trench and packed in to create berms. Another optional intervention is to plant grasses, legumes or perennials along the berms as their root structures are capable of holding the berms in place and in the long run eases labour for the farmers, as they will no longer need to repair the berms after harvest. It is advised to mulch the berms while the roots develop over the first few seasons to maintain berm integrity (Sussman, 2007). If a farmer elects to plant legumes or perennials, such as pigeon peas or cassava, the farmer can harvest these vegetables to either consume or sell for money (Humphries, 2000).</p>
</div>
</div>

<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">Labour, Time, and Materials Involved

</h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>The most labour intensive aspect of contour farming, as previously mentioned, is the initial stages of preparing the land. After the contours have been marked, the ditches excavated, and the berms packed and mulched, substantial additional labour is not required. Sussman (2007) reported that contour farming requires little maintenance from season to season, with the most labour intensive aspect of this practice being the periodic removal of collected sediment in the trenches. The benefit of clearing this sediment, other than maintaining the integrity of the hedgerows, would be transporting the collected sediment to the top of the slope. The transported sediment highly fertile as it would have been collecting nutrients from organic matter, as it is the top layer of soil.</p>

<p>The materials required to run a successful contour and hedgerow practice would be the aforementioned A-frame device for measuring and leveling purposes, stakes are used to mark out contour lines, and shovels, hoes, or other tools used to dig out the trenches.</p>
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<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 style="background: #FBB03B;padding: 15px;font-weight: 600;color: #000;font-size: 22px;margin:unset;text-align:center;">
Benefits of Reducing Soil Erosion</h3>
<div style="background: #FFD8A4;padding: 15px;font-weight: 400;color: #212529;font-size: 16px;margin:unset;line-height: 1.5;">
<p>By using hedgerows to catch rainwater this in turn prevents soil erosion from occurring. This is beneficial to farmers as it saves valuable nutrients in the soil from being washed away during heavy rainfall seasons. Steudel et al (2015) reported that contour banks (hedgerow berms) increased trapping capabilities by as much as 90% compared to hillsides with no soil conservation approaches. Reducing erosional discharge allows for intact soil and berms to absorb water and increase nutrient intake to the roots of crops, again improving yields (Simpson, 2010). By using these approaches to prevent soil erosion and degradation a farmer can preserve soil fertility and integrity for generations.</p>

<p>Farmers are influenced to measure the rate at which their hillside farms erode using a “Jumbie” (Simpson, 2010). A Jumbie is a metal rod or a stick that is driven into the ground to a depth between 30-60cm, or to the point in which it is securely anchored into the land. Placing multiple Jumbies evenly down and across a slope allows a farmer to figure out where along the hill needs the most maintenance and treatment. The farmer is to make a mark on the Jumbie where the tip protrudes from the ground. Farmers should check the Jumbies monthly and compare how much more of the tip is exposed compared to the previous markings. Hudson (1987) documented that 1mm of soil depth change measured is equivalent to the loss of 15 tons of sediment per acre per year. This figure further represents the importance of implementing contour plowing and hedgerows into a hillside farm. Therefore, Jumbies are a simple yet effective method to demonstrate to farmers the severity of erosion and the effects it can have.</p>
</div>
</div>

<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">Problems </h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>The challenge for farmers to adopt this practice is the labour and time required to integrate contour farming into their practice. Humphries et al (2000) brought to light the idea of sensitizing farmers to the issue of soil degradation. This is a problem that requires government assistance to overcome. Without the population of farmers cultivating on a hillside becoming aware of the importance of maintaining soil fertility they will not be in a hurry to alter their traditional farming practices.</p>

<p>Another problem that arises in regards to hillside contour farming is the gradient of the slope the farmer is trying to cultivate. Contour plowing and hedgerow implementation is an extraordinarily effective method for reducing soil erosion and degradation and improves harvest yields but is only effective to a certain point. Referring to Table 1 again, the highest degree of the slope this practice is useful for is up until 33 degrees (Sussman, 2007). Beyond that measurement the contour lines would have to be measured too closely together in order to reap the benefits of the practice. Additionally, it becomes increasingly difficult to have livestock assisted labour as the slope a farmer chooses to cultivate becomes steeper and steeper.</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Picture Based Lesson to Train Farmers</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
[[Image:5.4.jpg|thumb|centre|Picture Based Lesson to Train Farmer|Click on the image to access a higher resolution image as well as lessons adapted for different geographic regions.]]</p>
<p><i>For the South Asian version (pictures only, text for you to insert), click this link for lesson 5.4:http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/5.4_south_asian.pdf.</i></p>
<p><i>For the East/South Asian version (pictures only, text for you to insert), click this link for lesson 5.4:http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/5.4e.s.a.pdf</i></p>
<p><i>For the Sub-Saharan Africa/Caribbean version (pictures only, text for you to insert), click this link for lesson 5.4:http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/5.4subsaharan_africa_carribean.pdf</i></p>
<p><i>For the Latin-America version (pictures only, text for you to insert), click this link for lesson 5.4:http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/5.4latin_america.pdf</i></p>
<p><i>For North Africa And Middle East version (pictures only, text for you to insert), click this link for lesson Chapter 5. 4.3:http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/4.3n._africa_middleeast.pdf</i></p>
<p><i>Source: MN Raizada and LJ Smith (2016) A Picture Book of Best Practices for Subsistence Farmers. eBook, University of Guelph Sustainable Agriculture Kit (SAK) Project, June 2016, Guelph, Canada. </i></p>
</div>
</div>

<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">Additional Readings and Information</h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>The following link will direct the reader to an informative and descriptive video produced by CropLife (a global organization in the plant science industry (CropLife, 2016) on their efforts to teach and implement contour farming practices in the Philippines.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fpdcEf-npr4.</p>

<p>This link will bring the reader to a simple manual describing and further illustrating the process of contour farming and hedgerow construction.
http://www.bebuffered.com/downloads/sussman_contour_trenches.pdf.</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">Appendix</h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
[[File:Appendix.JPG]]

[[File:Contour.JPG]]

[[File:Image_3.JPG]]
</div>
</div>

<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">References</h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>1."About." CropLife International. N.p., 2016. Web. 23 Nov. 2016.</p>
<p>2.Evans, Chris, Laxman Rana, Hari Dhungana, and Malati Lakoul. The Farmers' Handbook, Part 5 - "Forest, Soil and Other Topics" Kathmandu: Formatting Printing, 2012. Print.</p>
<p>3.Hudson, Norman. Soil and Water Conservation in Semi-arid Areas. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 1987. Print.</p>
<p>4.Keeble, V. B., Correll, L., & Ehrich, M. (1996). Effect of Laundering on Ability of Glove Fabrics to Decrease the Penetration of Organophosphate Insecticides Through in vitro Epidermal Systems. J. Appl. Toxicol. Journal of Applied Toxicology, 16(5), 401-406. doi:10.1002/(sici)1099-1263(199609)16:53.3.co;2-6</p>
<p>5.Humphries, Sally, Juan Gonzales, Jose Jimenez, and Fredy Sierra. Searching for Sustainable Land Use Practices in Honduras: Lessons from a Programme of Participatory Research with Hillside Farmers. London: Overseas Development Institute, 2000. Agricultural Research and Extension Network. Web.</p>
<p>6.Le Roux, Jay, and Hendrick Smith. "Soil Erosion in South Africa - Its Nature and Distribution." Soil Erosion in South Africa - Its Nature and Distribution. Grain SA, Nov. 2014. Web. 02 Dec. 2016.</p>
<p>7.Simpson, Leslie A. "A Manual of Soil Conservation and Slope Cultivation." Mainstreaming and Capacity Building for Sustainable Land Management (2010): 9-30. Print.</p>
<p>8."Soil Erosion in India." Soil Erosion in India. India Netzone, 30 Nov. 2012. Web. 02 Dec. 2016.</p>
<p>9.Steudel, Thomas, Richard Bugan, Holm Kipka, Pfennig, Manfred Fink, Willem DeClercq, Wolfgang-Albert Flugel, and Helmschrot. "Implementing Contour Bank Farming Practices into the J2000 Model to Improve Hydrological and Erosion Modelling in Semi-arid Western Cape Province of South Africa." Hydrology Research 46.2 (2015): 192. Web.</p>
<p>10.Sussman, Daniel. Design Manual: Contour Trenches (n.d.): n. pag. University of California Santa Barbara, 2007. Web.</p>
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</div>

Template:Chapters 8.8

2026-01-14T18:51:09Z

Mamta:

<div>
<div class="title"><h1>8.8 - Manual maize kernel sheller</h1><br><h3 class="ch-owner">

<p><b>Related video(s)</b>: Good shelling, sorting and drying of maize (Source: Access Agriculture)</p>
<p><i>https://www.accessagriculture.org/good-shelling-sorting-and-drying-maize?cat_id=1499</i></p>

<p><i><b>COMING SOON</b></i></p>

Template:Chapters 8.10c

2026-01-14T18:44:38Z

Mamta:

<div>
<div class="title"><h3>8.10c - Chili Peppers As a Value Addition </h3><br><h3 class="ch-owner">Lucas Gaiger,University of Guelph, Canada</h3></div>
<div class="hero-img-2">
[[File:4.jpg|300px]]

<p><b>Related video(s)</b>: Making a chilli seedbed, Solar drying of chillies, Making chilli powder, Drying and storing chillies, Transplanting chillies (Source: Access Agriculture)</p>
<p><i> https://www.accessagriculture.org/making-chilli-seedbed?cat_id=1499</i></p>
<p><i>https://www.accessagriculture.org/solar-drying-chillies?cat_id=1499</i></p>
<p><i> https://www.accessagriculture.org/making-chilli-powder?cat_id=1499</i></p>
<p><i> https://www.accessagriculture.org/drying-and-storing-chillies?cat_id=1499</i></p>
<p><i> https://www.accessagriculture.org/transplanting-chillies?cat_id=1499</i></p>

<p>Suggested citation for this chapter.</p>
<p>Gaiger,L. (2025) Chili Peppers As a Value Addition. In Farmpedia, The Encyclopedia for Small Scale Farmers. Editor, M.N. Raizada, University of Guelph,Canada. http://www.farmpedia.org</p>
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<h1 class="title-bg">Introduction</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>For smallholder farmers chili peppers (Capsicum annum L.) have the potential to be a crop to which increased commercial value can be added after harvest. Many smallholder farmers do grow chilies: however, some sell them fresh, at peak harvest season, which leads to low profits and post-harvest losses (Purba et al., 2022). However, by processing chilies into value-added products, like dried chilies, pickled chilies, chili powder, and pickled chilies, farmers can increase their profitability, extend the shelf life of chilies, and create an extra source of income in the post-harvest season. Below we will explore the importance of value addition in chili processing, we will review low-cost methods accessible to smallholder farmers and look at case studies of chili farmers in countries where there are large populations of subsistence farmers. </p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Opportunities of Fresh Chili Peppers </h1>
<div class="cont-bg">

<p>At harvest, chili peppers contain between 60-85% water; this is what makes them perish quickly and prone to fungal contamination (Purba et al., 2022). Without proper handling, post-harvest losses can be between 30-50%; this reduces farmers’ earnings by a considerable amount. Additionally, the prices of fresh chilis are volatile; they often plummet at peak harvest season due to the market being flooded with them. A benefit to drying chilies is that they can be stored for months or years if done properly; this can be an opportunity for income stability (Lukas et al., 2023). So, what can be done to help farmers achieve this? </p>
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</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Processing Techniques: Low-Cost Chili Drying Methods </h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p><b>Sun Drying:</b></p> Drying chilies is great because it increases their economic value, shelf life, and makes them much easier to transport because it lowers their weight and volume (Lukas et al., 2023). Many women farmers already have experience in sun drying; I will describe a technique for sun drying chilies from Malawi to empower youth in business. The simplest method is open-air sun drying, which farmers can do with minimal equipment. In this method, farmers spread their harvested ripe chilies on a clean surface like a mat or tarpauline and leave them under direct sunlight (Munthali et al., 2023). Chilies should be cleaned and sorted before drying; this involves removing stems, leaves, and damaged chilies, which will prevent mold. For best results, farmers can build or use inexpensive drying racks that are 1 to 1.5 meters wide and 1 meter high; this is to keep the chilies off of the ground when they are drying (Munthali et al., 2023). With good sun, chilies should be able to dry between several days and a few weeks, depending on the weather; the goal is for the chilies to be around 10% moisture content by weight (Munthali et al., 2023). Simple sun drying is cheap but there are challenges: insects, dust, and rodents can contaminate the chilies when they are drying; this is also why it is important to dry them off the ground (Balana et al., 2024). Proper drying techniques can really help transform fresh chilies into a stable product that can add value for the farmers. By simply drying fresh chilies, farmers can add a value of 1.06 USD/kg (Purba et al., 2022). </p>
<p>[[Image:Dried chillis.jpg|thumb|centre| Fig 1. Dried chilies: |Click on the image to access a higher resolution image as well as lessons adapted for different geographic regions.]]</p>
<p>Fig 1. Dried chilies: This image is from Pixabay and was published prior to July 2017 under the Creative Commons CC0 1.0 Universal Public Domain Dedication license https://web.archive.org/web/20161229043156/https://pixabay.com/en/service/terms/</p>
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<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 style="background: #FBB03B;padding: 15px;font-weight: 600;color: #000;font-size: 22px;margin:unset;text-align:center;">Method for Preserving Chilies</h1>
<div style="background: #FFD8A4;padding: 15px;font-weight: 400;color: #212529;font-size: 16px;margin:unset;line-height: 1.5;">
<p><b>Pickling:</b></p> One of the most common and effective methods for preserving chili peppers is pickling them. Pickling chilies relies on the controlled breakdown of food components to prolong their shelf life and enhance flavour. Pickling is fermenting the chilies using salt to maintain texture, reduce microbial growth, and make sure there is the proper level of acidity that is required for proper preservation (Sultana et al., 2014). </p>
<p>[[Image:Pickled chillies.jpg|thumb|centre|Fig 2. Pickled chilies|Click on the image to access a higher resolution image as well as lessons adapted for different geographic regions.]]</p>
<p>Fig 2. Pickled chilies: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/</p>
<p>Steps for pickling chilies from eHingiriSoko (https://ehingirisoko.digital/eng), a Rwandan based digital market ecosystem:</p>
<p>1. Clean the chilies – Rinse well with clean water and slice the chilies to allow brine to soak in,</p>
<p>2. Fill a clean glass jar or bottle with the chilies, packing them tightly.</p>
<p>3. Make brine – by boiling:</p>
<p>- 1 cup of vinegar</p>
<p>- 1 cup of clean water</p>
<p>- 1 tablespoon of salt</p>
<p>- 1 teaspoon of sugar</p>
<p>- Add garlic or spices as desired.</p>
<p>4. Pour the hot brine over the chilies until they are covered.</p>
<p>5. Close the jar tightly and let it cool.</p>
<p>6. Store in a cool, shaded place or refrigerate if possible. Wait 2-3 days before using, as the flavour improves with time.
This method will help preserve chilies for up to months and add value to surplus harvest.</p>
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</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Market Opportunities </h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>By processing fresh chilies into dried chili, pickled chilies, chili powder, or sambal (chili sauce), farmers can increase their market value and at the same time prolong their shelf life (Purba et al., 2022). Fresh chilies spoil quickly; after 3 days at room temperature, they will be past their best before expiry date (Lukas et al., 2023). Processing those chilies into longer-lasting products can prevent post-harvest losses and create new economic opportunities. Value addition can happen through drying, grinding, and making chili-based products which can make them more usable, stabilize prices, and boost incomes for smallholder farmers. If chili input prices are stable, there is the possibility of an added value ratio of 50% (Rianti & Saputro, 2023).</p>
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</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Markets </h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p><b>● India:</b></p> In the Indian state of Karnataka, the market for dried chilies is growing, while the demand for green and red chilies slows (Sandeep & Thimmaiah, 2020). The urban demand for processed chili products like chutneys, paste, and powder is increasing, showing how value adding techniques are important to their marketplaces. Sandeep and Thimmaiah (2020) identified three major value chains, where value addition came from drying, grading, sorting, assembly, packing, and handling. Value addition costs range from 7.47 USD to 11.33 USD per quintal (100 kg) (Sandeep & Thimmaiah, 2020), depending on the processor. Even though farmers are significant contributors to the process, wholesalers and processors are the ones who capture the highest share of the value addition by using mechanization for processing, packaging, and transportation. This is because these firms have the advantage of economies of scale, and use it to their advantage to produce more for less. This does not necessarily mean farmers are being taken advantage of by these production/processing firms, but farmers should be aware they probably will not be the biggest benefactors of their own work. It is also a warning for farmers to watch out for predatory producers/processors that could be looking to take advantage of them. There are some ways for smallholder farmers to gain some more bargaining power, for example they can form farmer producer organizations which can help link smallholders to organized markets. They can do this by providing access to inputs, and reducing reliance on middlemen, however, there are some big challenges in building effective farmer producer organizations (Chowdhury et al., 2024). </p>

<p><b>Bangladesh Cost-Benefit Analysis:</b></p> Islam et al. (2020) did a thorough analysis of the risks and rewards of chili production in Bangladesh, however no value adding activities were included.</p>
<p><b>1. Total Cost of Chili Production</b></p>
<p>a. The average total production cost per hectare was USD $4,468. These included expenses like buying seeds, fertilizers, pest control, and land preparation.</p>
<p>b. Hired labour was the highest single cost component (15%) followed by pesticide costs (12%).</p>
<p><b>2. Revenue and Profitability</b></p>
<p>a. Gross margin (revenue minus variable costs) was USD $6,354 per hectare.</p>
<p>b. Net return (after deducting all costs) was USD $4,274 per hectare.</p>
<p>c. The cost-benefit ratio was 1.96, meaning for every 1 dollar spent on production, farmers would earn USD $1.96 in revenue, nearly doubling their investment. </p>
<p>d. Islam et al. (2020) found that 86% of farmers reported net returns, and were making a profit from growing chilis.</p>
<p><b>3. Challenges affecting profitability</b></p>
<p>a. Disease: anthracnose (mentioned below) caused a 4% loss of yield, resulting in a loss of USD $479 per hectare.</p>
<p>b. Chemical pesticides: Farmers spent USD $525 per hectare on pesticides.</p>
<p>The above numbers were gathered by Islam et al. (2020). It is important to note that these farmers did not use any value additions, so it would be possible to improve economic returns by trying some strategies already reviewed like pickling or drying chilis. </p>

</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Challenges and Solutions</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Anthracnose is a disease that poses the biggest risk to chili pepper production around the world. It is a fungus which naturally inhabits the soil; plants become affected when already contaminated surfaces come into contact with the stems, fruits, or leaves (Islam et al., 2020). This usually happens through unclean farm tools, hands, or splashing water carrying dirt (Saxena et al., 2015). Some symptoms of anthracnose on chilies are sunken or discolored tissue with rings, eventually turning parts of the chili brown, then black (Islam et al., 2020). This infection puts the chili at risk of being infected by other fungal diseases, like Aspergillus flavus, which could create the production of aflatoxins which are dangerous to humans.</p>
<p>What are some cheap and effective solutions to reduce the likelihood of anthracnose? To reduce the risk of fungi, farmers can use mulches to mitigate water splashing, crop rotations with non-host species, thoroughly clean their farm tools, and ensure that they are maintaining proper farm-worker hygiene (Islam et al., 2020). Farmers should also ensure they wear long sleeves, safety goggles, and gloves when handling chili peppers in any manner. They should also make sure they avoid touching their eyes or bare skin with their gloves or hands before washing them as chili peppers will burn. </p>
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<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Conclusion and Gender Implications </h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>The goal of using chili peppers as a value addition product should be to help women farmers earn some extra income to scale up production to the point where they can produce vegetables consistently. Doing this will help them send their children to school (especially girls), pay for medicine/healthcare and hopefully improve their overall quality of life. For example, Njuki et al. (2011) found that when women retain control over income, especially from locally traded crops, they tend to spend more on food, education, and clothing for their children. In the study men spent 6% of their income on food compared to the 23% spent by women on food, so if women can make improve their income with value addition crops, this will benefit the children as well. It is also fair to say that the same would happen with other areas like education, especially for young girls. However, the study also warned that as crops become more profitable, men often try or find a way to take control, reducing women’s economic gains. So, ensuring that women can retain control over chili-based enterprises is key for not only their economic empowerment but for their childrens’ development as well. By focusing on chilies, a crop that can be preserved, processed, and sold in many different ways, women can access both local and niche markets to generate income and hopefully can keep autonomy over how that income is to be used.</p>

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<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Helpful Links to Get Started</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>This is a video for sun drying chilies: https://www.accessagriculture.org/drying-and-storing-chillies</p>
<p>his is a video for solar drying techniques which can reduce drying time by 50% (Watson et al., 2021) but is a more complex operation than sun drying: https://www.accessagriculture.org/solar-drying-chillies </p>
<p>Once a farmer has dried chilies, a good option is to make chili powder with them. Chili pepper seasoning is a good value-addition because it will last a long time and has exceptionally good value added at 4.24 USD/kg (Purba et al., 2022). Sambal (chili sauce) varies by region, but in Indonesia is has an added value of 19.54 USD/kg.</p>

<p>Here is a great video on making chili powder: https://www.accessagriculture.org/making-chilli-powder
FAO Standard for Dried or Dehydrated Chili Pepper and Paprika: https://www.fao.org/fao-who-codexalimentarius/sh-proxy/en/?lnk=1&url=https%253A%252F%252Fworkspace.fao.org%252Fsites%252Fcodex%252FStandards%252FCXS%2B353-2022%252FCXS_353e.pdf</p>
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<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">References</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>1.Balana, B., Popoola, O., Yamauchi, F., Olanipekun, C., Totin, E., Salaudeen, K., Muhammad, A., Shi, W., Liu, Y. (2024). Solar Drying Technology for Post-harvest Loss Management of Horticulture Products: Findings from Baseline Survey in Nigeria. International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI), World Vegetable Center (WorldVeg), & Nigerian Stored Products Research Institute (NSPRI). https://cgspace.cgiar.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/16c5937c-a315-4ed4-84cb-2ede6b33b4ea/content</p>
<p>2.Chowdhury, S. R., Ghosh, D., & Rao, T. J. (2024). Sentiment and success potential of farmers’ producer organizations: A systematic literature review. Local Economy the Journal of the Local Economy Policy Unit, 39 (1-2), 92-104 https://doi.org/10.1177/02690942241292724</p>
<p>3.eHingirisoko (2025) Chilies as a Value Addition and Food Safety Module https://ehingirisoko.digital/eng/articles/chillies/value_addition#:~:text=The%20stems%20and%20leaves%20are,mould%20growth%20and%20fungal%20contamination</p>
<p>4.Islam, A. H. M. S., Schreinemachers, P., & Kumar, S. (2020). Farmers’ knowledge, perceptions and management of chili pepper anthracnose disease in Bangladesh. Crop Protection, 133, 105139. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cropro.2020.105139</p>
<p>5.Lukas, A., Kairupan, A. N., Hendriadi, A., Arianto, A., Manalu, L. P., Sumarno, L., Munarso, J., Hadipernata, M., Elmatsani, H. M., Benyamin, B. O., Junaidi, A., Djafar, M. J., Elizabeth, R., Sahlan, N., Nasruddin, N., Astuti, P., Subandrio, N., Yohanes, H., Koeslulat, E. E., . . . Polakitan, A. (2023). Fresh Chili Agribusiness: opportunities and problems in Indonesia. In IntechOpen eBooks. https://doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.112786</p>
<p>6.Munthali, C., Banda, D., & Corporate Institute of Horticulture. (2023). A Guide to Commercial Chilli Cultivation in Malawi. Corporate Institute of Horticulture, Malawi. https://agrijobs.snrd-africa.net/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/Chilli-AgriBusiness-Course-Training-Manual-for-trainers_MW_EN_09.2023.pdf</p>
<p>7.Njuki, J., Kaaria, S., Chamunorwa, A., & Chiuri, W. (2011). Linking smallholder farmers to markets, gender and Intra-Household dynamics: Does the choice of commodity matter? European Journal of Development Research, 23(3), 426–443. https://doi.org/10.1057/ejdr.2011.8</p>
<p>8.Purba, H. J., Ariningsih, E., Septanti, K. S., Suharyono, S., & Sinuraya, J. F. (2022). Gaining added value of chili (Capsicum annum L.) through processing and its challenges: A case in Bandung, West Java. E3S Web of Conferences, 361, 01011. https://doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/202236101011</p>
<p> 9.Rianti, T. S. M., & Saputro, A. J. (2023). An added value of chili processing results in providing contribution for SMEs. In Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Multidisciplinary Sciences for Humanity in Society 5.0 Era (ICOMSH 2022) (pp. 94–102). Atlantis Press. https://doi.org/10.2991/978-2-38476-204-0_9</p>
<p>10.Sandeep, K. T., & Thimmaiah, N. (2020). Significance of value chain analysis for chilli - the case of Karnataka chilli market. The Journal of Research ANGRAU, 48(1), 46–52. https://www.cabdirect.org/cabdirect/abstract/20203306926</p>
<p>11.Saxena, A. (2015). Epidemiology and management of anthracnose of chilli [Doctoral dissertation, Dr. Yashwant Singh Parmar University of Horticulture and Forestry].Shodhganga. https://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/handle/10603/220269</p>
<p>12.Watson, A. G., Aleckovic, S., & Nallamothu, R. (2021). A novel and improved solar drying system appropriate for smallholder farmers. Drying Technology, 40(11), 2274–2282. https://doi.org/10.1080/07373937.2021.1931295</p>
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<div class="title"><h1>8.8 - Manual maize kernel sheller</h1><br><h3 class="ch-owner">
<p><b>Related video(s)</b>: Good shelling, sorting and drying of maize (Source: Access Agriculture)</p>
<p><i>https://www.accessagriculture.org/good-shelling-sorting-and-drying-maize?cat_id=1499</i></p>
<p><i><b>COMING SOON</b></i></p>

Template:Chapters 7.1

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<div class="title"><h1>7.1 - Crop rotation with a legume (bean) reduces pests/diseases**</h1><br><h3 class="ch-owner">

<p><b>Related video(s)</b>: Crop rotation with legumes (Source: Access Agriculture)</p>
<p><i> https://www.accessagriculture.org/crop-rotation-legumes?cat_id=85</i></p>

<p><i><b>COMING SOON</b></i></p>

Template:Chapters 6.12

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<div class="title"><h3>6.12 - Cono Weeder for Small Scale Paddy Rice Farmers </h3><br><h3 class="ch-owner">Izah Sajad, University of Guelph, Canada</h3></div>
<div class="hero-img-2">
[[File:Bag 5.jpg|300px]]

<p><b>Related video(s)</b>: Rotary weeder, Effective weed management in rice (Source: Access Agriculture)</p>
<p><i> https://www.accessagriculture.org/rotary-weeder?cat_id=495</i></p>
<p><i> https://www.accessagriculture.org/effective-weed-management-rice?cat_id=1499</i></p>

<p>Suggested citation for this chapter.</p>
<p>Sajad,I. (2022) Cono Weeder for Small Scale Paddy Rice Farmers. In Farmpedia, The Encyclopedia for Small Scale Farmers. Editor, M.N. Raizada, University of Guelph, Canada. http://www.farmpedia.org</p>
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<h1 class="title-bg">Introduction to Paddy Rice and Cono Weeders </h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Paddy rice is cultivated in small, level, flooded fields — known as paddies (Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2023). It is a significant food source for South and East Asian rural populations (Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2023). Rice is also a staple food for more than 50% of the world's population, with rice making up 80% of their dietary requirements (FAO, 2002). The sale of rice in regions that suffer from poverty — such as the Greater Mekong Sub-region in Southeast Asia — has been linked with poverty reduction (Zorya, 2015). Furthermore, increased rice production typically results in increased family income (Rajindra et al., 2021), which underscores the positive impact of rice farming on economic well-being and poverty reduction. As demonstrated in Cambodia, a significant factor in poverty reduction is the development of the agriculture sector. From 2004 to 2012, poverty in Cambodia was reduced by 35%, with 63% of the poverty reduction attributed to improvements in agriculture (Zorya, 2015). Hence, improving the rice farming sector will positively influence crop yield, potentially increasing family income and reducing poverty (Rajindra et al., 2021).
Weed maintenance is a crucial component of rice cultivation, contributing to almost 33% of the cultivation costs and 25% of the total labour demand (Ningthoujam & Shrivastava, 2018). Weeds compete with rice crops for essential nutrients, light and space, thereby reducing crop yield and quality (Suryakant, 2016). Weeding to maintain rice crops is typically done via traditional methods (e.g., manual removal); however, these practices require extensive labour and time (Ningthoujam & Shrivastava, 2018). Use of weeding tools, such as the Cono weeder, provides additional advantages that traditional practices lack (Ningthoujam & Shrivastava, 2018).</P>
<p>Cono weeders are manually operated machinery used to remove weeds in lowland rice fields, including paddy rice (Selvan et al., 2014). The rotating cones on the Cono weeder provide the additional advantage of irrigating and aerating the soil, increasing water intake capacity (Shakya et al., 2016). This leads to better soil health, healthier root growth, and higher crop yield (Materu et al., 2018). Furthermore, Cono weeders integrate weeds into the soil, which act as an organic fertilizer to increase crop yield (Shakya et al., 2016). It provides more weeding efficiency than manual weeding, resulting in improved weed control and higher crop yield (Narwariya et al., 2016).
<p>[[File:Bag 5.jpg]]</p>
<p>Figure 1. Image of the Cono weeder (Packleader, 2017).
<p>[[File:Bag 11.jpg]]</p>
<p>Figure 2. Parts of the Cono weeder (Growin Enterprises, n.d.).</p>

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<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Step-by-Step Instructions </h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Start at the edge of the paddy field and position the weeder between rows of rice crops, with the cones facing downwards (“User’s Manual,” n.d.). Begin to push the weeder forward, employing a back-and-forth motion to trap weeds in the rotating cones (see Figure 3) (“User’s Manual,” n.d.). Continue to use this rolling motion technique, overlapping each pass until you reach the end of the row. Use water to clean all parts of the Cono weeder (Figure 2), and store the machine in a dry, moisture-free area to prevent rusting (“User’s Manual,” n.d.).</p>
<p>[[File:Bag 7.jpg]]</p>
<p>Figure 3. Diagram depicting the rolling motion technique used for weed removal via the Cono weeder (Original illustration from Izah Sajad, University of Guelph).</p>

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<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Cost Analysis of the Cono Weeder </h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Poverty among smallholder families in Asia is widespread (Rapsomanikis, 2015). In Bangladesh, smallholder families earn approximately US$ 2.90/person/day - US$ 3.40/person/day (Rapsomanikis, 2015). However, for 1 acre of land, the approximate cost of labour with maintenance cost is US$ 19.49/acre/day — with a weeder machine, and US$ 29.24/acre/day — without a weeder machine (Devanathan et al., 2021). With rice being a significant source of food for these populations (Zorya, 2015), rice farmers may benefit from investing in the Cono weeder, which will increase crop yield and decrease daily labour costs/time (Narwariya et al., 2016; Khandai et al., 2018).</p>
<p>[[File:Bag 9.jpg]]</p>

<p>Table 1 indicates that use of Cono weeders on rice fields results in a 50% cost savings and 25% time savings per day compared to traditional weeding methods (i.e. manual weeding) (Khandai et al., 2018). However, the initial cost of Cono weeders is significantly higher than traditional methods, with the retail cost being approximately US$ 18.05 - US$ 28.81 (Watershed Support Services and Activities Network [WASSAN], 2006; KSNM Drip, n.d.). The cost of Cono weeders may be expensive relative to daily income; however, there are long-term labour and time savings benefits that traditional methods lack. </p>
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<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Labour Analysis of the Cono Weeder</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<P>The use of a Cono weeder for weed management consumes approximately 50% and 57.89% more energy from males and females, respectively, compared to manual weeding (Remesan et al., 2007). While the energy expenditure for manual weeding is lower, overall body discomfort is considerably higher in both sexes due to the drudgery required for weed removal (Remesan et al., 2007). Overall discomfort can be significantly reduced by using the Cono weeder (Remesan et al., 2007). Furthermore, the Cono weeder could improve women's pace of performance, saving them 76% of their time and doubling the productivity of women's labour (WASSAN, 2006).</p>
<p>Manual weeding requires significantly more drudgery due to the bending posture used to remove weeds (Remesan et al., 2007). The Cono weeder's ergonomic design helps reduce back pain by allowing farmers to maintain an upright position during weeding (Suryakant, 2016). Furthermore, the Cono weeder can be operated by a single person and can increase grain yield by approximately 23.88% (Balakrishnan et al., 2010).
Although the Cono weeder offers numerous benefits, there are limitations that must be addressed. First, Cono weeders are not recommended for black/loamy soils (WASSAN, 2006). Additionally, after continuous use, the axle hole — located at the point where the cone holder attaches to the rotating cones (see Figure 2) — becomes widened (WASSAN, 2006). Understanding the intricacies of weed management is crucial, as lacking such knowledge may result in damaged crops (WASSAN, 2006). Finally, the Cono weeder may not be the least costly mechanical weeder for paddy rice. The Mandava weeder has a retail cost of approximately US$ 6.60 - US$ 29.75 (WASSAN, 2006; Tools Villa, n.d.), and provides more labour-saving advantages.</p>
<p>[[File:Bag 10.png]]</p>

<p>Table 2 indicates that the Mandava weeder has approximately 23.94% more WCE and requires less energy/force to operate (Sarkar et al., 2017). Additionally, the Cono weeder typically weighs around 7.5 kg, while the Mandava weeder weighs around 5 kg and has more strength (WASSAN, 2006). Consequently, the Mandava weeder is more portable and easier to operate for women farmers (Earth Links, n.d.). A significant advantage of the Mandava weeder is that it is suitable for all soil types, whereas the Cono weeder has limitations (WASSAN, 2006). Ultimately, the decision between adopting the Cono or Mandava weeder or using traditional weeding practices is dependent on individual preferences and environmental factors, such as soil type. </p>
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<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Adoption by Small-Scale Farmers</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>The Climate Smart Irrigated Agriculture Project (CSIAP) is a program committed to improving smallholder agriculture by supporting farmers in hot spot areas in Sri Lanka (The World Bank Group, n.d.). The CSIAP has already introduced the Cono weeder to the Anuradhapura district (CSIAP Sri Lanka, 2019). For more information on the availability of subsidies or similar programs, contact local agricultural offices. Additionally, the Cono weeder can be purchased through various online retailers (see Purchase Links for Cono Weeders). </p>
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<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">helpful links</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p><b>Further Readings</b></p>
<p>https://www.fao.org/fileadmin/templates/tci/pdf/Investment_Days_2013/17_December/1c._System_of_Rice_Intensification__SRI__-_Selvaraju.pdf</p>
<p>https://www.fao.org/3/x6905e/x6905e0f.htm</p>
<p>https://www.fao.org/3/cb8681en/cb8681en.pdf</p>

<p><b>Links to Online Training Resources</b></p>
<p>How to use Cono weeder (English): https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=baVMvEBrz9g</p>
<p>How-to/function of Cono weeder (Hindi): https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WBxsVPVThmA</p>
<p>How-to/function of Cono weeder (Tamil): https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3lfDwbHMG78</p>
<p>How to use and clean Cono weeder: https://youtube.com/shorts/OTQYvtNg9-I?feature=shared</p>
<p>Training manual (English): https://drumseeders.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/04/User-Manual-Cono-Weeder.pdf</p>

<p><b>Links to Purchase Cono Weeders</b></p>
<p> IndiaMART: https://dir.indiamart.com/impcat/cono-weeder.html</p>
<p>KSNM Drip: https://ksnmdrip.com/products/drum-seeder/cono-weeder</p>
<p> Badikheti Agrolink: https://www.badikheti.com/weeder/pdp/cono-weeder/wh4u7fi5</p>
<p>Justdial: https://www.justdial.com/india/Cono-weeder</p>
<p>Krushikendra: https://krushikendra.com/Cono-weeder-online</p>

<p><b>Links to Picture-Based Lessons on Cono Weeder</b></p>
<p>http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/7.2_south_asian_eng.pdf#page=3</p>
<p>http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/7.2a_to_d_south_asia__nepali_uncaptioned.pdf#page=2</p>
<p>http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/7.2east_southeast_asia_englishversion.pdf#page=3</p>
<p>http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/7.2subsaharan_africa_carribean_engversion.pdf#page=3</p>
<p>http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/7.2latin_america_eng_version.pdf#page=3</p>
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<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">References</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>1.Balakrishnan, M., Ravisankar, N., Swarnam, T. P., & Din, M. (2010). Influence of prickly sesban (Sesbania cannabina) intercropping in wet-seeded rice (Oryza sativa) on productivity, profitablilty, energetics and nitrogen balance under island ecosystem. Indian Journal of Agricultural Sciences, 80(1), 21-23.</p>
<p>2.CSIAP Sri Lanka. (2019, December 3). The Cono Weeder is introduced to farmers in Anuradhapura by CSIAP. Climate Smart Irrigated Agriculture Project, Ministry of Agriculture, Sri Lanka. Retrieved March 29, 2024, from https://csiaplk.blogspot.com/2019_12_03_archive.html</p>
<p>3.Devanathan, C., DineshKumar, P., Selvaramkumar, A., Giri, R., & Dhandapani, S. (2021). Design and development of cost effective agricultural weeder. Materials Today: Proceedings, 47, 6590–6593.</p>
<p>4.Encyclopaedia Britannica (2023, December 13). Paddy (C. Parrott-Sheffer, Ed.). Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved from: https://www.britannica.com/topic/paddy</p>
<p>5.Earth Links. (n.d.). Mandava Weeder. Retrieved March 29, 2024, from https://earthlinksinc.org/equipments/mandava-weeder/</p>
<p>6.Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations [FAO]. (2002). FAO Rice Information (Vol. 3). Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. https://www.fao.org/3/Y4347E/y4347e00.htm#Contents</p>
<p>7.Growin Enterprises. (n.d.). Kisankraft Manual Cono Weeder, For Agriculture. IndiaMart. Retrieved March 25, 2024, from https://www.indiamart.com/proddetail/manual-cono-weeder-20477262491.html</p>
<p>8.Khandai, S., Tripathi, A., Kumar, V., Kerketta, A. K., & Pal, S. (2018). Modification of existing power weeder and study on the cost economics of different weeding methods. International Journal of Pure and Applied Bioscience, 6(6), 60–63. https://doi.org/10.18782/2320-7051.7108</p>
<p>9.KSNM Drip. (n.d.). Cono weeder. Retrieved January 28, 2024, from: https://ksnmdrip.com/products/drum-seeder/cono-weeder</p>
<p>10.Materu, S. T., Shukla, S. K., Sishodia, R. P., Tarimo, A. K. P. R., & Tumbo, S. D. (2018). Water use and rice productivity for irrigation management alternatives in Tanzania. Water, 10(8), 1018. https://doi.org/10.3390/w10081018</p>
<p>11.Narwariya, B. S., Tiwari, K. B., & Shrivastava, P. (2016). Performance evaluation of different manual operated weeding equipment for Paddy crop in vertisols. Ecology, Environment and Conservation Journal, 22, S357–S363. </p>
<p>12.Ningthoujam, B., & Shrivastava, A. K. (2018). Development and evaluation of self-propelled Cono weeder for rice cultivation in Vertisol. Indian Journal of Hill Farming, 31(2), 307–313. https://kiran.nic.in/pdf/IJHF/Vol_31_2/16%20Edited.pdf</p>
<p>13.Packleader. (2017, August 28). KSNM Cono Weeder. Engineering for Change. Retrieved March 25, 2024, from https://www.engineeringforchange.org/solutions/product/ksnm-cono-weeder/</p>
<p>14.Rapsomanikis, G. (2015). The economic lives of smallholder farmers: An analysis based on household data from nine countries. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome. https://www.fao.org/3/i5251e/i5251e.pdf</p>
<p>15.Remesan, R., Roopesh, Remya, N., & Preman, P. S. (2007). Wet land paddy weeding - A comprehensive comparative study from South India. Agricultural Engineering International: The CIGR Journal, 9, 1-21.</p>
<p>16.Sarkar, B., Singh, S., Kumar, R., Mishra, J. S., Kumar, A., Yadav, V. K., Reddy, R., & Bhatt, B. P. (2017). Comparative performance of manual weeders under system of rice intensification in Indo-Gangetic plains. Indian Journal of Weed Science, 49(1), 82. https://doi.org/10.5958/0974-8164.2017.00020.X</p>
<p>17.Selvan, M. M., Annamalai, S. J. K., Kathirvel, K., Thambidurai, S. (2014). Human factors intervention and design improvement of manual single row Conoweeder for gender neutrality in lowland rice. Agricultural Mechanization in Asia, Africa and Latin America, 45(4), 51–57.</p>
<p>18.Shakya, H. B., Parmar, M. R., Kumpavat, M. T., & Swarnkar, R. (2016). Development and performance evaluation of manually operated Cono-Weeder for Paddy Crop. International Refereed Journal of Engineering and Science, 5(7), 6–17. http://irjes.com/Papers/vol5-issue7/B570617.pdf</p>
<p>19.Suryakant, C. S. (2016). Development of women friendly Cono weeder for paddy [College of Agricultural Engineering and Technology]. https://earthlinksinc.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/05/Development-of-Women-Friendly-Cono-Weeder-2.pdf</p>
<p>20.The World Bank Group. (n.d.). Climate Smart Irrigated Agriculture Project - P163742. Retrieved January 30, 2024, from https://projects.worldbank.org/en/projects-operations/project-detail/P163742</p>
<p>21.Tools Villa. (n.d.). Manual Mandva weeder for removing weeds from Paddy Crops. Retrieved March 29, 2024, from https://www.toolsvilla.com/manual-mandava-weeder</p>
<p>22.User’s manual: Venus Cono weeder. (n.d.). In ASPL. Retrieved March 25, 2024, from https://drumseeders.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/04/User-Manual-Cono-Weeder.pdf</p>
<p>23.Watershed Support Services and Activities Network [WASSAN]. (2006). Weeders: A reference compendium (1st ed.). http://sri.ciifad.cornell.edu/countries/india/extmats/SRIWeederManual06.pdf</p>
<p>24.Zorya, S. (2015, December 15). Five facts about rice and poverty in the Greater Mekong Sub-region. World Bank Blogs. Retrieved March 25, 2024, from https://blogs.worldbank.org/en/eastasiapacific/five-facts-about-rice-and-poverty-in-the-greater-mekong-sub-region</p>

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Mamta:

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<div class="title"><h1>2.3 - Vegetable seed packages for home gardens</h1><br><h3 class="ch-owner">
<p><b>Related video(s)</b>: Health and nutrition gardens (Source: Access Agriculture)</p>
<p><i> https://www.accessagriculture.org/health-and-nutrition-gardens?cat_id=1499</i></p>

<p><i><b>COMING SOON</b></i></p>

Template:Chapter 1.2.

2026-01-14T18:19:09Z

Mamta:

<div>
<div class="title"><h3>1.2 - Low-Cost Grain Moisture Sensor for Drying and Storing Grain</h3><br><h3 class="ch-owner">Amanda Poulton, University of Guelph, Canada</h3></div>
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[[File:Img3 1.jpeg|300px]]
<p><b>Related video(s)</b>: Good shelling, sorting and drying of maize (Source: Access Agriculture)</p>
<p><i> https://www.accessagriculture.org/good-shelling-sorting-and-drying-maize?cat_id=1499</i></p>

<p>Suggested citation for this chapter.</p>
<p>Poulton, A (2022) Low-Cost Grain Moisture Sensor for Drying and Storing Grain. In Farmpedia, The Encyclopedia for Small Scale Farmers. Editor, M.N. Raizada, University of Guelph, Canada. http://www.farmpedia.org</p>
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<h1 class="title-bg">Introduction to Grain Moisture </h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>On average, farmers living in the tropics experience 1000-2000 mm of rain per year accompanied by intense humidity (FAO, 2001). Having a dry and safe environment is critical in terms of storage to ensure that seeds remain viable for consumption (FAO, 1988). If the drying process is performed incorrectly, it can have a very detrimental impact on the grain. In order to address issues regarding excess moisture, it is critical to look into effective and low-cost solutions that prevent moisture increases during storage. With no solution, there is an inherent risk for increased pests, molds, and pathogens, allowing for the quality of grain to degrade. Seed germination post-harvest will decrease in the presence of excess grain moisture. Within Africa, smallholder farmers experience 20% to 30% post-harvest losses which economically results in an annual loss of $4 billion USD (Armstrong, 2017). Each grain has an exact moisture content that must be achieved to ensure sale, safe transportation and storage. Moving forward, simple technologies are essential for farmers to measure the moisture content level of their grain.</p>
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<h1 class="title-bg">Implications of Wet Seeds</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>seeds fail to adequately dry, they risk exposure to fungi; this occurs as a result of cool temperatures and high humidity, trapping the moisture within the grain (Danao et al., 2015). When moisture is retained within the grain during storage, respiration increases, ultimately triggering the grain to germinate prematurely (FAO, 1988; Danao et al., 2015). When these seeds are contaminated by fungus/mold, they are no longer viable and cannot be harvested or sold for the upcoming seasons, resulting in an economic loss and increasing the potential for malnourishment (FAO, 1988).</p>
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<h1 class="title-bg">Wet Seeds Attract Insects and Mold</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>While grain and seeds are in storage, humidity and grain moisture interact. If a seed fails to properly dry and/or experiences temperatures increases, the seed will release moisture into the air, creating an excess amount of humidity (Taruvinga et al., 2104). Seeds consumed by moisture will invite primary and secondary pests to infect the grains (Taruvinga et al., 2014). A primary pest is one in which will attack undamaged grains as well as damaged grains, and a secondary pest will attack previously invaded grains from primary pests (Taruvinga et al., 2014). Examples of primary insects in Africa are the grain weevil, the larger grain borer, the lesser grain borer, the grain moth and the cowpea weevil; and examples of secondary pests that arise in Africa are the red rust flour beetle and the tropical warehouse moth (Taruvinga et al., 2014). Mold has a huge impact on agricultural seeds and grains in storage, causing nutrient degradation, changes in odour and colour, and causes seed inability to germinate (Taruvinga et al., 2014).</p>
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<h1 class="title-bg">Proper Moisture Content for Diverse Seeds </h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Table 1 shows the ideal grain moisture percentage for different crops present in 27°C environments. If seeds are intended for human consumption, they should be dried an extra 2% to ensure the absence of all fungal growth which may otherwise deposit mycotoxins (FAO, 1988). When examining seeds that have been in storage, a small-holder farmer should conduct a germination test to ensure the viability of the seeds before planting. This consists of planting fewer seeds before planting all seeds to prevent a decrease in food production.</p>
<p>Table 1: Target Equilibrium Moisture Content (EMC) (FAO, 1988)</p>
[[File:Capture_301.JPG]]
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<h1 class="title-bg">Introduction to Low Cost Grain Moisture Sensors </h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>The grain moisture sensor assists in measuring levels of moisture in the grain using a probe. The size of the meters varies from relatively small to large units. These meters are quick, simple and efficient and take only 1 minute to produce a moisture reading. In order for moisture to be measured, grain is dropped into the barrel of the meter. The funnel which is attached to the top of the barrel is taken off and all seeds are collected in the chamber. From here, the moisture readings are available to be read.</p>
<p>There are two relatively small low-cost solutions that can easily be accessed. The first product is a “Digital Grain Moisture Meter” (Fuzhu, 2011). This meter costs $10.80 USD and can measure moisture content in up to 14 different crops. This meter can measure moisture ranging from 7.5% to 50%, by utilizing robust moisture probes. This probe does require 4 AAA batteries, but it is reported to have a slightly longer battery life than other models. Another low-cost option is the “LGS-1G Cup Grain Moisture Meter”; however it costs $58.00 USD, and can measure the moisture content in the ranges of 3-35% (Haosen, 2016). The advantage of this more expensive option is that it can be applied to 24 different kinds of grain and comes with manual instructions inside a briefcase to keep everything organized and protected. This meter provides readings for moisture, the capacity as well as the weight of the grains/seeds, however a downfall is its battery requirement in addition to an electric outlet. This meter can also be purchased on the website “Alibaba”.</p>
<p>Additionally, a project directed by Kansas State University focused on giving a particular grain moisture meter to several small-holder famers to measure the benefits (Armstrong, 2107). This meter is called the PHL, which stands for “Post-Harvest Loss” (Armstrong, 2107). This meter was used to measure the moisture content in seeds of maize and other crops specifically focusing on the temperature and the humidity. The probe was able to read moisture from bags and bulk seeds (Armstrong, 2107). PHL meters cost $28 USD and were effective for small-holder farmers: the feedback suggested to add a newer sensor model which would reduce the price to $3 USD, manufactured by Sensirion (Armstrong, 2017).</p>

Durability and Ease of Use
These products were said to have strong durable probes (Fuzhu, 2011), along with lasting batteries that therefore do not have to be changed as frequently. Nevertheless, a common problem would consist of having to purchase new batteries which might be costly and inaccessible in remote regions; to prevent this problem, the meters should be turned off at all times when inactive and only be used when necessary. The more expensive meter comes with a briefcase, as already noted, in order to ensure the durability and safe keeping of the meter (Haosen, 2016). Small-holder farmers can share the probes which can reduce the costs. These meters come with instructions on how to use them and how to read the moisture content. Language translation may be helpful, along with picture-based instructions for low literacy populations.
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<h1 class="title-bg">More expensive moisture sensor probes</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">

<p>In addition to the low cost grain moisture sensor, there are a variety of more expensive options. A more elaborate grain moisture probe consists of 4 chambers and includes a total of 6 probes (Danao et al., 2015). These probes are highly priced at $1500 USD each; the breakdown of the cost is $1000 per sensor, $100 for hardware and $400 for required power and electrical components, which would be out of reach of small-holder farmers (Danao et al., 2015).</p>
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<h1 class="title-bg">Free, Alternative Methods to Determine if Seeds are Dry </h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Some moisture meters can be shared between small-holder farmers and may be available at public grain storage facilities (Taruvinga et al., 2014). However, public storage facilities may be remote or inconvenient as specific times; therefore other solutions may be needed to measure grain moisture content. These methods include using one’s teeth to bite the hard seeds; pinching the seeds; or shaking the seeds (Taruvinga et al., 2014). When determining the moisture within the seeds, the seed is dry enough if the seed is hard to the touch, makes sharp sounds or cracks (Taruvinga et al., 2014). Another free and relatively efficient method consists of placing grains in a jar with dry salt for a few minutes. After a few minutes, if the salt is detected on the sides of the jar, then the moisture content is too high; however if the salt is absent from the glass, it has an acceptable moisture content for storage (Taruvinga et al., 2014).</p>
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<h1 class="title-bg">Other grain storage issues</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>When focusing on the viability of the seeds, one should make certain each seed is dry before being placed in storage (Taruvinga et al., 2014). Aside from proper grain drying, temperature and other issues must also be considered for storing grain. The most effective conditions for storing seeds are at low temperature with little to no moisture: the maximum being 27˚C and 70% relative humidity (FAO, 1988). It is important to note grains being stored in stacks can accommodate temperatures 1-2% higher (FAO, 1988). If temperatures exceed 25°C or fall below 35°C, insects achieve an optimal temperature to destroy the grains, and if the temperature ranges from 15°C and 30°C mold will thrive; however a temperature below 15˚C prevents insect and mold growth (Taruvinga et al., 2014). Grain can easily become affected by insects, mold, and rodents. To ensure the best insect resistant grain, all dust and contaminants should be removed before storing; this can be achieved through threshing (e.g. beating grain heads on the ground) to ensure the removal of insects and pests (FAO, 1988).
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<h1 class="title-bg">Helpful Links To Get Started </h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p> https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NqnNfTqOkhk&ab_channel=Bry-Air%28Asia%29Pvt.Ltd.</p>
<p> YouTube video explaining seed retardation and giving other viable seed drying options.</p>

<p> https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WztV5c5Hlxk&ab_channel=ThomasTKtungnung</p>
<p> A video describing the vital importance of having dry seeds in storage.</p>

<p> https://www.fao.org/3/AD230E/AD230E04.htm</p>
<p> A text providing useful tips for seed storage and seed handling.</p>

<p> https://www.fao.org/3/i1816e/i1816e00.pdf</p>
<p> A textbook providing the attributes of seeds, and whether or not they are healthy, also allows for information in seed testing and seed sampling.</p>

<p> https://www.fao.org/3/CA1495EN/ca1495en.pdf</p>
<p> A textbook chapter on proper and effective seed storage.</p>

<p> https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dLwDQZmALvQ&ab_channel=PARISATECHNOLOGY.</p>
<p> This video included shows how to put together and how to utilize the “Digital Grain Moisture Meter”.</p>

<p> https://www.alibaba.com/product-detail/Grain-Moisture-Digital-Grain-Moisture-Meter_1600093027696.html?spm=a2700.galleryofferlist.normal_offer.d_title.79c23bb0asKvXw&s=p</p>
<p> A website (Alibaba) where you can purchase a “Digital Grain Moisture Meter” for $10.80 USD.</p>

<p> https://www.alibaba.com/product-detail/Grain-Moisture-Factory-Wholesale-LGS-1G_1600227103518.html?spm=a2700.galleryofferlist.normal_offer.d_title.79c23bb0P73T0S&s=p</p>
<p> A website (Alibaba) where you can purchaser a “LGS-1G Cup Grain Moisture Meter” for $58.00 USD.</p>

<p> https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wTgZzF-MiK0&ab_channel=SKZINDUSTRIAL</p>
<p> A video giving descriptions on how to use the “LGS-1G Cup Grain Moisture Meter”.</p>
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<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">References</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>1. Armstrong, P. R. (2017). Development and Evaluation of a Low-Cost Probe-Type Instrument to Measure the Equilibrium Moisture Content of Grain Applied Engineering in Agriculture, 33(5), 619–627. https://doi.org/10.13031/aea.12266</p>

<p>2. Haosen (Shenzhen) Electronics Technology (2016). Cup Grain Moisture Meter. Alibaba.com. Retrieved November 11, 2021 from https://www.alibaba.com/product-detail/Grain-Moisture-Factory-Wholesale-LGS-1G_1600227103518.html?spm=a2700.galleryofferlist.normal_offer.d_title.79c23bb0P73T0S&s=p </p>

<p>3. Fuzhu Heado Thade (2011). Digital Grain Moisture Meter Hygrometer use for Corn Wheat Rice Bean Peanut Grain Measurement Moisture Humidity Tester AR991. Alibaba.com. Retrieved November 11, 2021 https://www.alibaba.com/product-detail/Grain-Moisture-Digital-Grain-Moisture Meter_1600093027696.html?spm=a2700.galleryofferlist.normal_offer.d_title.79c23bb0asKvXw&s=p</p>

<p>4. Danao, M.-G. C. (2015). Development of a Grain Monitoring Probe to Measure Temperature, Relative Humidity, Carbon Dioxide Levels and Logistical Information During Handling and Transportation of Soybeans. Computers and Electronics in Agriculture, 119, 74–82. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compag.2015.10.008</p>
<p>5. FAO (1988). Farm Structures in Tropical Climates: Chapter Grain Crop Drying, Handling and Storage. Food and Agriculture Organization, Rome. Retrieved November 2, 2021, from https://www.fao.org/3/i2433e/i2433e10.pdf.</p>
6. FAO (2001). Global Ecological Zoning for the Global Forest Resources Assessment 2000 Final Report. Food and Agriculture Organization, Rome. Retrieved November 2, 2021, from https://www.fao.org/3/ad652e/ad652e00.htm</p>

<p>7. Kandala, C. V. K. (2012). Non-destructive Measurement of Moisture Content of Different Varieties of Wheat Using a Single Calibration with a Parallel-Plate Capacitance Sensor. Transactions of the ASABE, 55(4), 1583–1587.</p>

<p>8. Taruvinga C., Mejia D., & Alvarez S.J. (2014). Appropriate Seed and Grain Storage Systems for Small-scale Farmers: Key practices for DRR Implements. FAO, Rome.E-ISBN 978-92-5-108335-2. https://www.fao.org/3/i3769e/i3769e.pdf</p>

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Template:Chapters 2.6

2026-01-14T18:05:21Z

Mamta:

<div>
<div class="title"><h3>2.6 - Grafting to improve tree propagation</h3><br><h3 class="ch-owner">Gryphon Theriault-Loubier, University of Guelph,Canada</h3></div>
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[[File:Chapter2 imgs.jpg|300px]]

<p><b>Related video(s)</b>: Grafting mango seedlings (Source: Access Agriculture)</p>
<p><i> https://www.accessagriculture.org/grafting-mango-seedlings?cat_id=40</i></p>

<p>Suggested citation for this chapter.</p>
<p>Theriault-Loubier,G. (2022) Grafting to improve tree propagation. In Farmpedia, The Encyclopedia for Small Scale Farmers. Editor, M.N. Raizada, University of Guelph, Canada. http://www.farmpedia.org</p>
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<h1 class="title-bg">Introduction</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Grafting is a horticultural technique that holds much promise for farmers around the world. To graft, a branch of a tree or shoot of a plant is cut (“scion”) and joined onto a decapitated rootstock (“rootstock”). In a successful graft, the vascular tissues of the scion and rootstock will fuse together. With trees or perennials, a primary benefit of grafting is that it permits rapid propagation of a shoot that has desirable characteristics (e.g. desirable fruits) by taking advantage of an already established root system. Grafting allows mixing and matching of traits from different cultivars (e.g. rootstock that is disease resistant to a shoot that bears desirable fruits). Grafting can usually only take place between two plants of the same genetic family. For instance, successful grafting can occur between plants of the Solanaceae family which includes tomatoes, eggplants, potatoes and tobacco (Kudo, 2007). Remarkably, grafts can be successful not only within the same species (e.g. tomato with tomato) but also between species (e.g. tomato with eggplant).</p>

<p>One of the main reasons that a plant would be grafted would be out of a desire to maintain certain characteristics of a plant, such as in a fruit tree that would otherwise produce asexually. The offspring of an apple tree, for instance, are not very likely to mimic the parent in terms of flavor, texture. By grafting a branch of the tree with the desired fruit onto a rootstock, the fruit of the resultant tree will be highly similar to those of the parent, and allow for predictable cultivation of specific ‘varieties’ at a large scale.</p>

<p>Grafting is an effective way to not only replicate traits that are culinary, but also agricultural traits such as drought tolerance, cold tolerance, and salinity tolerance, amongst others. For example, rootstock of a plant may have good tolerance to the cold, but may produce less fruit than another variety. When the ‘scion’ of the highly productive plant is placed on the ‘rootstock’ of the cold hardy plant, the plant will often survive and become both cold tolerant and highly productive (Mudge, 2009). </p>

<p>Grafting allows for individual fruit farmers to respond to market changes faster than if they were to plant a young tree, since fruit will be produced quicker from the combination of mature rootstock and scion than from a younger tree (Hart, 2005). Consequently, there remains a stronger possibility that this individual will have access to larger markets and higher asking prices for in-demand fruits and vegetables. </p>

<p>Some trees, such as the Baobob tree from the Sahel countries of Africa, are grafted quite easily, with success rates ranging from 80-95% (Maranz, 2008). However, this is not consistent across all species, and does not account for the ‘learning curve’ in practicing proper technique. Maranz (2008) notes that ‘exotic’ varieties of Baobob (those from other Sahel countries) have superior nutritional benefits, and determines that grafting represents an interesting possibility for developing a market for the new varieties, since the local variety has far superior basal diameter, tree height, and resistance to termites. Assah (2011) details the possibility of an emerging market for three novel Alanblackia species in Africa for its nutritive, medicinal, cosmetic, and detergent properties. These species could be grafted onto locally available rootstock for local production to take place. Mudge (2009) details the grafting of Ceara rubber tree onto a cassava rootstock, for the purpose of invigorating the rootstock. The resulting yield of cassava tubers was increased by 30-100% depending on the combination of species. </p>

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<h3 class="title-bg">Critical analysis</h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Grafting at a large scale is labour intensive, and does require some training. The success rate of grafting is highly variable depending on species; research should be performed on the specific species to determine average success rates, or a test plot should be initiated (Mudge, 2009).
There is an ongoing debate about the possibility of the transference of genetic material from scion to rootstock and how this affects the ‘heritage’ of traditional varieties (Mudge, 2009).</p>
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<h1 class="title-bg">Picture Based Lesson to Train Farmers</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
[[Image:IMAGE 3.jpg|thumb|centre|Picture Based Lesson to Train Farmer|Click on the image to access a higher resolution image as well as lessons adapted for different geographic regions.]]</p>
<p><i>For the South Asian version (pictures only, text for you to insert), click this link for lesson 3.6:http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/3.6_south_asian.pdf</i></p>
<p><i>For the East/South Asian version (pictures only, text for you to insert), click this link for lesson 3.6:http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/3.6e.s.a.pdf</i></p>
<p><i>For the Sub-Saharan Africa/Caribbean version (pictures only, text for you to insert), click this link for lesson 3.6:http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/3.6subsaharan_africa_carribean.pdf</i></p>
<p><i>For the Latin-America version (pictures only, text for you to insert), click this link for lesson 3.6:http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/3.6latin_america.pdf</i></p>
<p><i>For North Africa And Middle East version (pictures only, text for you to insert), click this link for lesson 3.6:http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/3.6n._africa_middleeast.pdf</i></p>
<p><i>Source: MN Raizada and L Smith (2016) A Picture Book of Best Practices for Subsistence Farmers. eBook, University of Guelph Sustainable Agriculture Kit (SAK) Project, June 2016, Guelph, Canada.</i></p>
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<h3 style="background: #FBB03B;padding: 15px;font-weight: 600;color: #000;font-size: 22px;margin:unset;text-align:center;">Practical tips</h3>
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<p>The University of Minnesota has a comprehensive manual on grafting, including timing, species selection, and materials needed. </p>
<p>The University of Arizona publishes free ‘how-to’ videos on vegetable grafting. While limited to tomatoes, curcubits and eggplants, many of the principles remain the same. </p>
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<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">References</h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>1.Asaah, E., Tchoundjeu, Z., Ngahane, W., Tsobeng, A., Kouodiekong, L., Jamnadass, R., & Simons, A. (2011). Allanblackia floribunda: A new oil tree crop for africa: Amenability to grafting. New Forests, 41(3), 389-398.</p>

<p>2.Hart, T., & Burgess, R. (2005). Grafting keeps farmer in the export market. Appropriate Technology, 32(3), 13-14. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/200037126?accountid=11233</p>

<p>3.Kudo, & Harada, T. (2007). A graft-transmissible RNA from tomato rootstock changes leaf morphology of potato scion. HortScience : A Publication of the American Society for Horticultural Science., 42(2), 225-226.</p>

<p>4.Maranz, S., Niang, A., Kalinganire, A., Konaté, D., & Kaya, B. (2008). Potential to harness superior nutritional qualities of exotic baobabs if local adaptation can be conferred through grafting. Agroforestry Systems, 72(3), 231-239.</p>

<p>5.Mudge, K., Janick, J., Scofield, S., & Goldschmidt, E. E. (2009). A history of grafting. Horticultural Reviews.,437-493.</p>

Template:Chapter 1.8

2026-01-14T18:02:09Z

Mamta:

<div>
<div class="title"><h3>1.8 - Tools to transplant seedlings</h3><br><h3 class="ch-owner">Selena Caltagirone, University of Guelph, Canada</h3></div>
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[[File:Img 8 1.jpeg|300px]]

<p><b>Related video(s)</b>: Rice transplanting (Source: Access Agriculture)</p>
<p><i> https://www.accessagriculture.org/rice-transplanting?cat_id=44</i></p>

<p>Suggested citation for this chapter.</p>
<p>Caltagirone,S (2022) Tools to transplant seedlings. In Farmpedia, The Encyclopedia for Small Scale Farmers. Editor, M.N. Raizada, University of Guelph, Canada. http://www.farmpedia.org</p>
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<h1 class="title-bg">Introduction</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Many smallholder farmers transplant vegetables and other seedlings manually, which can cause negative consequences (Jorg et al., 2021). Smallholder farmers may transplant seedlings because it can help reduce pests as well as help crops to fight off weeds (Volente, 2021). This can in turn help women farmers who are especially given the laborious task of removing weeds manually (Volente, 2021). Transplanting is also undertaken to jumpstart crops in small irrigated nurseries, prior to the onset of rainfall, to help extend the growing season. Manual transplanting causes musculoskeletal problems including lower back pain by having to work in awkward positions, as well as hip and knee pain, by forcing farmers to kneel, bend and assume an uncomfortable posture (Xiao et al., 2012). In recent years, tools to transplant vegetable crops have increased, as manual labour becomes more expensive and is also prone to human error such as non-uniform spacing between seedlings (Jorg et al., 2021). In this chapter, I will describe 3 types of transplanting tools, which differ in design, cost and efficiency. </p>
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<h1 class="title-bg">Pottiputki Transplanting Tool (Expensive)</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p><b>Background:</b></p>
<p>The Pottiputki transplanting tool is shown in Figure 1 below. This tool has become very popular amongst some farmers (BCC, n.d.). To use this tool, farmers stab the hollow tube into the soil, open the jaws of the tool by stepping on the pedal, drop the seedling in the tool so it can travel down the hollow tube into the ground, pull the tool out of soil, close the jaws and repeat (Bare Mountain Farm, 2017). This tool also has lots of flexibility: farmers can change how deep the seedling goes into the soil (Bare Mountain Farm, 2017). It is also very efficient, able to transplant 400-500 seedlings per hour (Bare Mountain Farm, 2017). The tool is used to transplant a diversity of crops including most flowers, vegetables, and fruits (Bare Mountain Farm, 2017).</p>
<p>[[Image:Lkj.jpg|thumb|centre|Figure 1. The Pottiputki transplanting tool (https://stuewe.com/product/55mm-pottiputki/)]]</p>
<p><b>Benefits</b></p>
<p>The Pottiputki planting tool offers many benefits for farmers. It is very important for farmers to maintain an ergonomically correct working position to avoid any pain or discomfort (BCC, n.d.). The Pottiputki tool is tall and works in a way that the farmer can stand while using the tool and not have to bend down. This can reduce back and knee problems. The Pottiputki tool is also lightweight (2.92 kg) and comfortable, making it possible for women and people of different strengths to use the tool for hours (BCC, n.d.). This tool is able to plant seedlings of many types of crops, has a sturdy construction, and increases the chances of seedling establishment success due to its mechanics which make the soil less compact (BCC, n.d.). The tool reduces the tiredness of farmers and makes them able to transplant 40% more seedlings than if done manually in the same amount of time (BAP Equipment, n.d). </p>
<p><b>Cost and access</b></p>
<p>The Pottiputki planting tool can be bought online or in stores for around $275 USD (BAP Equipment, n.d). However, if this is unaffordable, small scale farmers can buy cheaper versions made by different companies (Walmart, n.d). Farmers can also share these tools at the village level using a cooperative, or a local entrepreneur can purchase it using a microfinance loan and make it into a fee-for-service business.</p>
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<h1 class="title-bg">Widger Stainless Steel Seedling Transplanting Tool (Not expensive)</h1>
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<p><b>Background:</b></p>
<p>Some farmers may want a smaller and less expensive tool for smaller scale plantings (e.g. home gardens). For this, the Widger Stainless Steel Seedling tool is ideal, as shown in Figure 2 below. This smaller tool, which is about the size of a hand, a farmer should make an indentation in the soil with the end of the tool, pick up small seedlings with the tool using the correct end depending on the seedling size, place the seedlings in the hole and cover with soil (TerroirSeeds, n.d). The tool has been shown to be helpful for multiple crops, including small radish or beets (Gardens, n.d.).</p>
<p>[[Image:Lpo.jpg|thumb|centre|Figure 2. The Widger stainless steel seedling transplanting tool (Source: https://store.underwoodgardens.com/Widger-Stainless-Steel-Seedling-Tool/productinfo/T1095/]]</p>
<p><b>Benefits</b></p>
<p>The Widger seedling tool has numerous benefits. One end of the tool is smaller and curved perfectly to carry seedlings that are very small. The tool is strong and therefore not easily breakable; it fits into the average hand; the curved support helps prevent injuring fragile seedlings; and the tool is the ideal size to open up spaces in the soil before transplanting (Burgon & Ball, 2022).</p>
<p><b>Cost and access:</b> The Widger stainless steel tool costs only $10 USD on many websites (TerroirSeeds, n.d).</p>
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<h1 class="title-bg">Gripper Tools to Transplant Vegetable Seedlings</h1>
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<p><b>Background:</b></p>
Tools designed specifically to transplant vegetable seedlings include the the needle gripper and the two-finger gripper. These tools are shown in Figure 3 and Figure 4 below, respectively. These two types of grippers work very similar to each other with just a few differences (Jorg et al., 2021). For the two-finger gripper, a farmer can change the closing angle of the gripper as well as have a soft touch on their fingers due to the polyurethane foam which can stop any pain that may arise from continuous gripping (Jorg et al., 2021). On the other hand, the needle gripper grasps the seedlings with two needles, and the farmer is able to regulate the distance between the needles to fit the size of the seedlings they are transplanting (Jorg et al., 2021). To use the grippers, one should grip the handles with their fingers, put the tool into the soil over the seedling, and push the handles together to grip the seedling for transplanting (Jorg et al., 2021).</p>
<p>[[Image:Hyti.jpg|thumb|centre|Figure 3. Two-finger gripper vegetable seedling transplanting tool (Source: https://www.mdpi.com/2624-7402/3/3/43/htm)]]</p>
<p>[[Image:Jhn.jpg|thumb|centre|Figure 4. Needle gripper vegetable seedling transplanting tool (Source: https://www.mdpi.com/2624-7402/3/3/43/htm)]]</p>
<p><b>Benefits:</b></p>
<p>Gripper tools for vegetable transplanting have many benefits. Just like the previous tools discussed, the grippers transplant seedlings at a faster rate than traditional methods, saving labour time and money for farmers (Jorg et al., 2021). In one study, farmers tested both gripper tools on four different vegetable crop for their ability to transplant seedlings and the subsequent success of the seedlings (Jorg et al., 2021). Both grippers had great success lifting the seedlings from their tray; the two finger gripper had a success rate of 95%, while the needle gripper had a success rate of 81.75% (Jorg et al., 2021). Overall, the two finger gripper worked best and was most successful with lettuce and chicory.</p>
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<h1 class="title-bg">Critical Analysis </h1>
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<p>The Pottipuki planting tool is a good tool overall to transplant large numbers of seedlings; however it may have difficulty transplanting soft seedlings that are floppy at early stages which causes them to roll around inside the tool (e.g. Dianthus ornamental plants) (Baremtnfarm, 2017). As for the Widger tool, it is only effective for tiny seedlings (TerroirSeeds, n.d). A tool that is able to transplant seedlings of all sizes could potentially benefit farmers and reduce the money they spend on tools. The two gripper tool for vegetable crops is very successful at lifting seedlings without damaging the plant (Jorg et al., 2021). However, when the needle gripper was tested with leek vegetable seedlings, when the tool lifted the seedlings, the soil frequently got detached from the roots and sometimes shattered (Jorg et al., 2021). Additionally, overlapping leaves of different seedlings sometimes made it difficult for the two-finger gripper to transplant seedlings, although this problem did not occur with the needle gripper (Jorg et al., 2021). These tools can save a farmer time which in turn saves money, and also saves the farmer strain and pain from manual transplanting. </p>
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<h1 class="title-bg">Picture Based Lesson to Train Farmers </h1>
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[[Image:2.8a page-0001.jpg|thumb|centre|Picture Based Lesson to Train Farmer|Click on the image to access a higher resolution image as well as lessons adapted for different geographic regions.]]</p>
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<h1 class="title-bg">Practical Links To Get Started </h1>
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<p>Alibaba and Indiamart have inexpensive seedling transplanters starting at $10 USD: Search “Seedling transplanter” at Alibaba.com and Indiamart.com</p>

<p>How to use Pottiputki planting tool
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RDVr6X_jfh8.</p>

<p>Where to buy Pottipuki planting tool
https://www.walmart.ca/en/ip/Garosa-Seedling-Transplanter-Transplanting-Tool-1pc-Seedling</p>

<p>More cost efficient Pottipuki planting tool
g-Planter-Vegetable-Young-Plant-Garden-Greenhouse-Manual-Transplanting-Tool/19L9E962BMWV </p>

<p>Stainless steel transplant tool
https://store.underwoodgardens.com/Widger-Stainless-Steel-Seedling-Tool/productinfo/T1095/ </p>
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<h1 class="title-bg">References</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>1.Bare Mountain Farm (2017) Pottiputki- Great Planting Tool. www.baremtnfarm.com (Retrieved September 29, 2022)</p>

<p>2.BAP Equipment (n.d.). Pottiputki planting tool. BAP Equipment Ltd. Retrieved September 29, 2022, from https://www.bapequipmentstore.com/index.php?l=product_detail&p=1031m,</p>
<p>3.BCC (n.d.). Retrieved September 29, 2022, from http://pottiputki.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/Planting_email.pdf </p>
<p>4.Jorg, O. J., Sportelli, M., Fontanelli, M., Frasconi, C., Raffaelli, M., & Fantoni, G. (2021). Design, development and testing of feeding grippers for vegetable plug transplanters. AgriEngineering 3(3), 669-680. https://www.mdpi.com/2624-7402/3/3/43/htm </p>
<p>5.Burgon and Ball. (2022). Seedling Widger. Burgon and Ball company website. Retrieved September 29, 2022, from https://www.burgonandball.com/products/seedling-widger</p>
<p>6.Walmart. (n.d.). Garosa seedling transplanter: Walmart Canada. Walmart.ca. Retrieved September 29, 2022, from https://www.walmart.ca/en/ip/Garosa-Seedling-Transplanter-Transplanting-Tool-1pc-Seedling-Planter-Vegetable-Young-Plant-Garden-Greenhouse-Manual-Transplanting-Tool/19L9E962BMWV </p>
<p>7.Volente, G. (2021, March 23). Transplanting plants: Reasons, methods, & examples. Greenhouse Today. Retrieved December 2, 2022, from https://www.greenhousetoday.com/transplanting-plants-reasons-methods-examples/ </p>
<p>8.Widger stainless steel seedling tool. Terroir Seeds, Underwood Gardens. (n.d.). Retrieved September 29, 2022, from https://store.underwoodgardens.com/Widger-Stainless-Steel-Seedling-Tool/productinfo/T1095/ </p>
<p>9.Xiao, H., McCurdy, S. A., Stoecklin-Marois, M., Li, C.-S., & Schenker, M. (2012). Agricultural work and chronic musculoskeletal pain among Latino Farm Workers: The MICASA study. American Journal of Industrial Medicine 56(2) 216-225 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3593628/</p>
<p>10.YouTube. (2017). Cool Tool Speeds up Planting. YouTube. Retrieved September 29, 2022, from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RDVr6X_jfh8. </p>
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Template:Chapter 1.7

2026-01-14T17:57:47Z

Mamta:

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<div class="title"><h3>1.7 - Reducing seedling crowding after sowing (thinning)</h3><br><h3 class="ch-owner">Ethan Brock, University of Guelph, Canada</h3></div>
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<p><b>Related video(s)</b>: Sowing and thinning sorghum (Source: Access Agriculture)</p>
<p><i> https://www.accessagriculture.org/sowing-and-thinning-sorghum?cat_id=44</i></p>

<p>Suggested citation for this chapter.</p>
<p>Brock,E. (2022)Reducing seedling crowding after sowing (thinning). In Farmpedia, The Encyclopedia for Small Scale Farmers. Editor, M.N. Raizada, University of Guelph, Canada. http://www.farmpedia.org</p>
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<h1 class="title-bg">Introduction to Seedling Crowding</h1>
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<p>The success or failure of a smallholder farmer's crops is influenced by several variables, including germination percentage, seed planter accuracy, cost per seed, plant space per block, and costs of handling, thinning, and transplanting labour, among others (Steenis, 1970). The most common direct sowing practice, especially amongst smallholder farms, is to plant multiple seeds in the same place, due to the expectation of low rates of seed germination (Steenis, 1970). However, when crops are too close to each other, they will compete for the nutrients, water and sunlight they need (Steenis, 1970). Such competition results in lower initial growth rates, but ultimately one plant in the crowd becomes dominant, taking up most of the nutrients in the space. Thinning should be done as soon as possible to start this dominant plant’s full rate of growth potential when it is young. </p>
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<h1 class="title-bg">Thinning Requires Labour</h1>
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<p>It is evident that eventually, adding more seeds does not increase the final yield but rather overcrowds the plants and adds labour due to the benefit of reducing the plant population (thinning plants). For example, sowing one seed with an 85% germination success rate per space will result in only 15% empty space. Sowing two seeds with the same rate may decrease the empty space to only 2% but can add thinning labour by 72% (Dumroese, 2009). In this case, it would have been better to over sow a smaller percent of the crop to reduce the time required for subsequent thinning (Dumroese, 2009).</p>
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<h1 style="background: #FBB03B;padding: 15px;font-weight: 600;color: #000;font-size: 22px;margin:unset;text-align:center;">Grain versus Fodder</h1>
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<p>If a farmer has a need to grow fodder grain for livestock, there may be an option for them to produce fodder and grain more efficiently at the same time. A seed lot with an 80% germination rate is an example. The likelihood of at least one surviving seed in 96% of the seedling slots is achieved by sowing two seeds per slot, but this method necessitates thinning and still would leave 4% of the slots empty. These unfilled cavities can be justified by an over-sow factor of 105% at the very least. Over-sowing factors above this minimum can be used to raise the "green stem count." The green stem count is useful to raise fodder, but otherwise, oversowing should stay to the minimum followed by thinning if required. No more than a small percentage of slots should be vacant after seeding (Steenis, 1970).</P>
<P>A test was done with maize, revealing a method to follow when thinning that allows farmers to grow more green fodder. Variations of two, three, and four seeds of maize were sown in each hole with regular spacing, and after eight and fourteen weeks the smallest plant or the second-largest plant was removed from each space. For producing grain, two plants per hole were allowed to grow. With no discernible impact on the grain production, increasing the planting density to three and four seeds per hole enhanced the output of green fodder. Without influencing the grain output, thinning large plants as opposed to small plants, resulted in more green forage thinning. On small farms, forage output could be increased by planting maize at higher densities than usual than thinning the crop (Methu, 2001).</p>
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<h1 class="title-bg">Lessons From Weeds Among Maize</h1>
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<p>During its early growing stages, maize is the crop that is one of the most susceptible to weed competition (Rajcan, 2001). Weeds fight with maize plants for resources including light, nutrients, space, moisture, and water, similarly, to overplanting in crops. It is the same concept as when two seeds are sown together and one plant takes nutrients from the other, resulting in a lower or lesser quality yield (Rajcan, 2001). Lessons can therefore be learned about thinning, from weed studies. It has been shown that weed control is a crucial management technique for yield that should be implemented to guarantee the highest grain output months later. It has been shown that weed control is essential during the first 4 to 6 weeks after crops are planted to prevent weeds from reducing crop yields. The point is that early season weed competition lowers yields further than late in the season, and so by extrapolation, thinning should occur as early as possible after sowing (Rajcan, 2001). </p>
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<h1 class="title-bg">Lessons from Maize in Kenya</h1>
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<p>Most Kenyan small-scale farmers sow a sizable number of acres of maize each year, making it the country's main food crop, with grain being the primary reason maize is farmed (Njoka, 2004). The suggested planting method for Kenyan hybrids and synthetics is one seed per space, which many farmers typically implement to maximise grain yield (Njoka, 2004). This method does not, however, allow for the thinning-based generation of feed. Farmers can use high planting densities along with a suitable thinning regiment during the vegetative phase of maize crops to reduce empty space in the crop and produce fodder through the season (Njoka, 2004).</P>

<P>In this study, the most suitable number of maize seeds per hole to produce fodder was 8. However, it produced the least amount of grain of any thinning strategy. It was hypothesised that the competition for available resources caused the grain yield to decline as the seeding rate increased. A significant amount of grain and fodder yields were produced with 2 seeds per hole and thinning (Njoka, 2004).</p>
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<h1 class="title-bg">Lessons From Intercropped Sunflower And Soybean </h1>
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<p>A field study was conducted to examine the forage potential, in terms of productivity and quality, of thinned sunflower and soybean intercrops. The study used three nitrogen (N) fertiliser rates (70, 105, and 140 kg N per ha) and three ages at forage removal (thinning), namely 15, 30, and 45 days after sowing for sunflower, and 30, 45, and 60 days for soybean (Nawar, 2020). The evaluated soybean and sunflower fodder characteristics were not significantly affected by changing the nitrogen rate. With increasing the nitrogen rate, soybean fiber content greatly dropped while the crude protein and dry matter contents of sunflower and soybean significantly rose. The study's findings showed that after thinning, the removed sunflower and soybean plants could be used as feed while the remaining plants in the field could be used to produce seeds. Nitrogen fertiliser rate had no effect on forage yield and quality in the trial; however, forage removal at 30 and 45 days after sowing for sunflower and soybean, optimised forage yield and quality (Nawar, 2020). Primarily attempting to produce seeds, delaying thinning until a later maturity stage, would have a negative impact on the final seed output. This method would optimise the intercropping system's advantages, particularly on smallholder farms (Nawar, 2020).</p>
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<h1 class="title-bg">Lessons From Cotton In Africa </h1>
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<p>Contrary to many other annual crops, cotton yields are mostly unaffected by differences in plant spacing (Robinson, 1994). The main issue is that the operations of planting and thinning, which are carried out when there is labour scarcity, are made more difficult by closer spacing. Additionally, it makes labor-intensive processes like harvesting and sorting more difficult.</p>
<p>Typically, the first effort includes hand thinning. Initiatives that assist farmers in overcoming labour shortages in their fields during initial weeding would help to expedite thinning, which might increase yields by 10 to 15 percent. A common spacing used by smallholders in Africa for cotton is 37,000 plants per ha (Robinson, 1994).</p>
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<h1 class="title-bg">Labour and Cost of Thinning </h1>
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<p>The cost per seed, if determined, offers a compelling reason to spare seed. To plant the crop, there is a basic fee per space. The price varies based on how many extra seedlings need to be thinned in each space. A percentage of seedling production costs can be considered to carry less weight when growing larger and more desirable seeds, which counter balances the cost of thinning. This has to do with how much it costs to have each empty space, which is more expensive for higher quality seed. A more expensive seed can raise costs, but also lower costs and labour when it comes to thinning after they are sown. With a higher success rate of the seed, there is less needed waste in the form of putting 2 or 3 seeds in one space. This will encourage there to be less required thinning and less vacant space (Steenis, 1970).</p>

<p>As a lesson, a farmer can imagine a scenario of a one cent per seed price based on Steenis’ study. Depending on a farmer’s circumstances, this may appear high or low. If the germination rate was 94% and single seeding resulted in a 1 cent increase in the minimal cost per seedling, and any increase in sowing raised the cost of each seedling by similarly substantial amounts from seed and thinning expenses, then planting up to 2 seeds per space progressively increases the costs. But after that, the law of diminishing returns prevails. In this instance, 1 seed per slot (hole) results in the lowest cost per seedling generated, however, one can think about sowing up to 2 seeds per slot if the growth space is limited, thus reducing the required growth space by 8%. Beyond 2 seeds in each space, it would become expensive, and the farmer is also not saving any further land area. Single seed planting becomes more economically feasible with smaller crop sizes, good for smallholder farms (Steenis, 1970).</p>

<p>It is expensive, risky, and takes time to transplant thinned seedlings into empty slot, but if done correctly, it may be rewarding. This strategy can be applied to lower both the sowing factor and the oversowing factor. To generate enough thinned seedlings to enable transplanting to 100% crop fill, the sowing factor simply must be slightly increased. Compared to just planting multiple seeds and throwing away the thinned seedlings, far less seed is needed. By doing this, it is also possible to lower the green stem count and reach 100% fill. However, the seedlings may not survive transplanting (Dumroese, 2009). When transplanting is the plan, a transplanting tool can be very helpful.</p>
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<h1 class="title-bg">Picture Based Lesson to Train Farmers </h1>
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[[Image:2.7 page-0001.jpg|thumb|centre|Picture Based Lesson to Train Farmer|Click on the image to access a higher resolution image as well as lessons adapted for different geographic regions.]]</p>
<p>http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/chapter_2.7_s.a.e.pdf
5 versions</p>
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<h1 class="title-bg">Practical Tips And Further Reading</h1>
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<p>Competition between plants: https://www.jstor.org/stable/2462213#metadata_info_tab_contents</p>
<p>Harvest and planting costs: https://www.fao.org/3/ca6411en/ca6411en.pdf</p>
<p>Growing cotton in Africa: https://doi.org/10.1017/s0014479700024856 </p>
<p>Intercropping sunflower and soybean: https://orgprints.org/id/eprint/19489/4/19489.pdf</p>
<p>Effects of weeds within crops: https://zaszambia.wordpress.com/2020/11/22/effects-of-weeds/</p>
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<h1 class="title-bg">References</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>1. Steenis, E. van. (1970, January 1). Calculating optimum sowing factor: A tool to evaluate sowing strategies and minimize seedling production cost. US Forest Service Research and Development. Retrieved November 10, 2022, from https://www.fs.usda.gov/research/treesearch/45630 </p>
<p>2. Rajcan, I., & Swanton, C. J. (2001). Understanding maize–weed competition: Resource competition, light quality, and the whole plant. Field Crops Research, 71(2), 139–150. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0378-4290(01)00159-9 </p>
<p>3. Methu, J.N, Owen, E, Tanner, J.C, Abate, A.L. (2001). The effect of increasing planting density and thinning on forage and grain yield of maize in Kenyan smallholdings. Tropical Science, 41(2): 68-73. From, https://hdl.handle.net/10568/29813 </p>
<p>4. Nawar, A. I., Salama, H. S. A., & Khalil, H. E. (2020). Additive intercropping of sunflower and soybean to improve yield and land use efficiency: Effect of thinning interval and nitrogen fertilization. Chilean Journal of Agricultural Research, 80(2), 142–152. https://doi.org/10.4067/s0718-58392020000200142</p>
<p>5. Dumroese, R. K., Luna, T., & Landis, T. D. (2009). Nursery Manual for native plants: A guide for tribal nurseries. U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Forest Service https://www.fs.usda.gov/rm/pubs_series/wo/wo_ah730/wo_ah730_153_175.pdf</p>
<p>6. Meland, M. (2009). Effects of different crop loads and thinning times on yield, fruit quality, and return bloom inmalus×domesticaborkh. ‘elstar.’ The Journal of Horticultural Science and Biotechnology, 84(6), 117–121. https://doi.org/10.1080/14620316.2009.11512607 </p>
<p>7. Robinson, J. B. (1994). Improving cash crops in Africa: Factors influencing the productivity of cotton, coffee and tea grown by smallholders (World Bank Technical Paper No. 216.) by S. J. Carr. The World Bank, Washington DC. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0014479700024856 </p>
<p>8. Njoka, E. M., Muraya, M. M., & Okumu, M. (2004). Plant density and thinning regime effect on maize (Zea mays) grain and fodder yield. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture, 44(12), 1215. https://doi.org/10.1071/ea03015</p>

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Template:Chapters 11.02

2026-01-14T15:50:48Z

Mamta:

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<div class="title"><h3>11.02 - Community Seed Banks</h3><br><h3 class="ch-owner">Madison Paul,University of Guelph,Canada</h3></div>
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<p><b>Related video(s)</b>: Community seed banks (Source: Access Agriculture)</p>
<p><i> https://www.accessagriculture.org/community-seed-banks?cat_id=1499</i></p>

<p>Suggested citation for this chapter.</p>
<p>Paul,M. (2025) Community Seed Banks. In Farmpedia, The Encyclopedia for Small Scale Farmers. Editor, M.N. Raizada,University of Guelph, Canada. http://www.farmpedia.org</p>
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<h1 class="title-bg">1.1 Introduction to Community Seed Banks</h1>
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<p>Community Seed Banks are long-term storage facilities that store and distribute seeds (e.g. local landraces) for use by farmers and for conservation practices (Figure 1). At these facilities, farmers can pool their resources and properly store seeds for use by the whole community. It is one of the many ways that a small-scale farmer can utilize to source seeds, which can typically range from local exchanges and national seed programs (Vernooy et al., 2022).</P>
<P>Community Seed Banks not only improve the storage environments of these seeds but also enhance access to genetic resources by providing varieties that responsive to local needs and preferences (Vernooy et al., 2022). All activities that run under a Community Seed Bank facility occur under the direct control of the community (Vernooy et al., 2024), therefore making it farmer-managed and collaborative. </P>
<P>Because small-scale farmers depend on the outcomes of their harvests for the quality of their livelihoods, Community Seed Banks are vital to ensuring resilient seeds are accessible and available.</p>
<p>[[Image:COMMUNITY SEED BANK.jpg|thumb|centre|Figure 1. Example community seed bank (Source: Kamble, 2014).|Click on the image to access a higher resolution image as well as lessons adapted for different geographic regions.]]</p>
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<h1 class="title-bg">1.2 How to Implement</h1>
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<p>To begin a Community Seed Bank, a location for the facility must be determined based on the land use, centrality of the location to the communities, accessibility by villagers, and the presence of water, since dry conditions are critical (Vernooy et al., 2020a). The initial costs for a seed bank will depend on the materials used for the facility, which can be diverse. Examples of Community Seed Bank facilities include train/ocean shipping containers, foam-insulated cold rooms, earth-bag houses, and buried clay cisterns which, if seeds are stored and sealed properly, can be effective and affordable (Trail et al., 2021).</P>
<P>Next, after seeds are selected to be saved, it is important that they are cleaned and dried. Cleaning can be done by rinsing with water on a sieve or screen (Figure 2) and later dried on a towel/cloth (especially for seeds in the flesh), or by winnowing or screening to separate debris (Echo, 2016). Because a high moisture content in seeds can make them unviable for long-term storage, they must be properly dried either outdoors (must be protected from pests and rain), or, if electricity is available, in a temperature-controlled cabinet on racks for up to 3 days (Echo, 2016). Costs associated with cabinet drying include the heating source (which can be an incandescent lightbulb), a fan for air circulation, and optionally a thermostat to prevent the temperature of the cabinet from exceeding 38 degrees Celsius (ECHO, 2016).</P>
<p>[[Image:PALMER 1.jpg|thumb|centre|Figure 2. (Source: Palmer, 2011)|Click on the image to access a higher resolution image as well as lessons adapted for different geographic regions.]]</p>
<P>Keeping the humidity of the facility relatively low is another vital component of running the Community Seed Bank. If an electric dehumidifier is unavailable, seeds can be stored alongside dried rice (desiccant) in a sealed container or a thick plastic bag, and/or vacuum sealed in the container using a bicycle tire pump (Echo Staff, 2016). These containers can be recycled glass or plastic that has been cleaned and sanitized (Figure 3).</P>
<p>[[Image:GAURAV.jpg|thumb|centre|Figure 3. (Source: Gaurav, 2019)|Click on the image to access a higher resolution image as well as lessons adapted for different geographic regions.]]</p>

<P>Furthermore, establishing a business model for the Community Seed Bank is important to its viability overall. According to Vernooy et al., developing a locally suited business model helps Community Seed Banks prosper regardless of funding sources, potentially evolving into stronger local development organizations.</P>
<P>Establishing focus groups where farmers in the community can discuss the problems and needs of the community can help to establish and operate a Community Seed Bank. For example, FAO’s Farmer Field School program was able to assist a group of farmers to start a Community Seed Bank in the Chemba district of Mozambique in Africa through the facilitation of these focus groups (FAO 2021).</P>
<P>Since Community Seed Banks are locally and farmer-managed, they require the establishment of roles and responsibilities amongst all leaders and members to carry out their tasks and ensure cooperation. For example, the Community Seed Bank in Chemba required a group agreement as a prerequisite for the facility, and the site’s security is in the hands of a ‘seed custodian’ and the seedbank’s president (FAO, 2021).
Establishing a seed database is a key element of a Community Seed Bank and can be used daily (Figure 4) (Diversifood, 2019). An efficient database serves as a valuable tool for storing information and analyzing data about the farmers and seed varieties in order to maintain the crop diversity over time (Diversifood, 2019).</P>
<p>[[Image:WANG.jpg|thumb|centre|Figure 4. (Source: Wangchuk, 2019)|Click on the image to access a higher resolution image as well as lessons adapted for different geographic regions.]]</p>
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<h1 class="title-bg">1.3 Benefits </h1>
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<p>The benefits of Community Seed Banks are extensive. Community Seed Banks have proven to be effective in increasing the diversity of seeds as well as the quality of local landraces. Farmers in marginal areas with access to this crop genetic diversity can have access to important genes and combinations for crop improvement (Almekinders, 2001). Results from a case study of a Community Seed Bank in India tested more than 5000 varieties from 20 crops and found 300 native varieties potentially able to address diverse needs (Vernooy et al., 2024). </P>
<P>Landraces maintained by Community Seed Banks, or improved varieties that are introduced, have potential to be resilient to environmental variation, especially in the face of climate change, through their high capacity to withstand extreme weather conditions and adaptation to the local weather environment (Song et al., 2021).</P>
<P>Food security and nutrition outcomes are improved by the harvest of “safe, healthy and diversified food (Song et al., 2021),” especially when highly nutritious varieties are prioritized to meet deficiencies in the community.</P>
<P>Women are important actors in small-scale farming, being disproportionately affected by hardships, as male rural-to-urban migration is predominantly high (Song et al., 2021). Community Seed Banks have the ability to act as a platform for women’s empowerment through their strong participation in decision-making (some Community Seed Banks are all-female managed) (Vernooy et al., 2024) and by receiving technical training which can include how to handle and safely store seeds. </P>
<p>Establishing Community Seed Banks and providing low-cost seeds and genetic resources can address problems such as expensive, inaccessible and unadopted varieties that are produced in commercial systems (Vernooy et al., 2022). </p>
<p>Community Seed Banks can also protect the rights of farmers as outlined by the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (ITPGRFA), specifically the right to protect traditional knowledge. For example, three Community Seed Banks in Zimbabwe operate with a community biodiversity register and passport data for local crops, their varieties, and their traditional knowledge, protecting the rights of the local farmers (Vernooy et al., 2020b). </p>
<p>[[Image:Mincer.jpg|thumb|centre|Figure 5. (Source: Mincer, 2015)|Click on the image to access a higher resolution image as well as lessons adapted for different geographic regions.]]</p>
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<h1 style="background: #FBB03B;padding: 15px;font-weight: 600;color: #000;font-size: 22px;margin:unset;text-align:center;">1.4 Critical Analysis</h1>
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<p>Unfortunately, policies and laws in many nations have failed to recognize Community Seed Banks, because they operate under diverse political regimes and in various contexts, politically and legally, causing them to be at the margins, as they are not legally recognized (Vernooy et al., 2020b). In many cases, their rights are limited in terms of their capacity to sell seed. In Zimbabwe, local farmers cannot sell their farm-saved seeds beyond the local community (Vernooy et al., 2020b).</p>
<p>According to Vernooy et al. (2024), Community Seed Banks require financial investment and expertise to ensure the viability and sustainability of their operations, especially when the initial support to establish them ceases (i.e., from an NGO). Regulations that restrict flows of income from beyond local sales can inhibit the ability of Community Seed Banks to grow into strong institutions in the long-term.</p>
<p>Agricultural cooperatives are a crop and livestock production model operated by farmers, including women farmers (Figure 6), that can help share and distribute resources to facilitate Community Seed Banks; such cooperatives can increase business productivity and yields (EOS Data Analytics, 2025). Establishing one can help protect farmers who are a part of the cooperative economically, as they face lower risks, and gain access to larger markets, and greater profits, and even help to secure their rights by improving democracy and access to legal support (EOS Data Analytics, 2025).
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<p>[[Image:Bordoni.jpg|thumb|centre|Figure 6. (Source: Bordoni, 2014)|Click on the image to access a higher resolution image as well as lessons adapted for different geographic regions.]]</p>
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<h1 class="title-bg">1.5 Cost Benefit Analysis </h1>
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<p>Initial establishment of a Community Seed Bank is typically funded by one or more organizations, such as the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization or a local NGO. Establishing and operating a Community Seed Bank entails its facility maintenance, organization of its activities, engagement with stakeholders, and providing incentives for its members and leaders (Vernooy et al., 2024). Farmers often access the seeds from the seed bank through a membership fee and a seed loan/repayment system which help cover expenses of the facility (Vásquez & Anderson, 2023). This loan can be generous in times of hardship, and due to the collective nature of Community Seed Banks, there is often the social pressure to repay loans (Vásquez & Anderson, 2023). Social and economic returns outweigh the costs that are required to establish and operate a Community Seed Bank, making it an excellent opportunity for small-scale agricultural development.</p>
<p>While there may be an initial fee for access to hybrid seeds, responses from farmers have noted they have been able to reduce their seed costs and increase their incomes (Vásquez & Anderson, 2023). Moreover, local varieties from Community Seed Banks allow for reduced overall production costs by farmers not having to opt for chemical fertilizers and instead being able to use their own organic fertilizer (Vásquez & Anderson, 2023).
The seeds and training offered by seed banks have increased agricultural productivity and crop variety access, meaning improved access to food and additional income earnings from surpluses (Vásquez & Anderson, 2023). Through Community Seed Banks and their storage capacities, farmers can also sell grains when commodity prices increase rather than all at the end of the growing season when prices are low -- although this requires a larger storage facility.</p>
<p>Community Seed Banks have a positive impact on the social outcomes for farmers and the communities they operate in. With a wide range of empowerment and technical activities, Community Seed Banks have the potential to grow into rural community development organizations (Vernooy et al., 2022).</p>
<p>As already noted, effective food and seed storage is one of the many benefits of Community Seed Banks, so their practice is incredibly important. Proper technical training on cleaning and storage can help prevent pests and diseases, reducing costs and barriers to a successful harvest.
Furthermore, studies by Song et al. (2021) found that Community Seed Banks can contribute to organic farming through its diversity in seeds, supplying to an emerging market where regulations are not restrictive</P>

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<h1 class="title-bg">Additional Resources to Get Started</h1>
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<p>This video explains Community Seed Banks and their importance (available in multiple languages), it can be viewed at https://www.accessagriculture.org/community-seed-banks</p>
<p>Another video about how Community Seed Banks operate with interviews in the community. Viewed at https://youtu.be/XraRiYPmkfg?si=iNWdSyowSZhvUix-</p>
<p>A simple practice abstract on how farmers can start their own Community Seed Bank: https://www.liveseed.eu/wp-content/uploads/2020/11/PA51_How-to-set-up-a-community-seed-bank.pdf</p>
<p>Seed storage in the tropics: https://www.echocommunity.org/en/resources/f938a2af-bb1d-4128-a7e7-440c3419e48f</p>
<p>Vacuum-sealing options and how to: https://www.echocommunity.org/en/resources/49954b28-cefb-46f3-9c46-ffd1723c329b</p>
<p>How to make a seed drying cabinet: https://www.echocommunity.org/en/resources/2c81b308-b224-4d53-bf4e-5cf57a9717dd</p>
<p>Farmer’s handbook on establishing a Community Seed Bank: https://cgspace.cgiar.org/items/9f60448d-f143-4c31-a6f7-e7123f89b457</p>
<p>Cold room construction for seed storage: https://www.echocommunity.org/en/resources/5e9f55ab-f8e9-42aa-9410-431927afc37a</p>
<p>How to make a seed germination chamber (video): https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=k6lux5EVUuI</p>
<p>Seed cleaning and testing poster: http://edn.link/k3hfpz </p>
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<h1 class="title-bg">References</h1>
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<p>1. Bordoni, P. (2014). Community seed bank in India [Photo]. Flickr. https://www.flickr.com/photos/bioversity/14570269984/in/photolist-ocwrDs-NnV3pn-cWBJjU-NjCJVz-cWBRWm-cWBHE5-2pberj4-2pbfUfJ-aGVT3k-aGVSu4-aGVSDP-aGVSNe-2obaphT-2pberE9-Y7S9BX-XJn8er-P3kDDh-YUACof-27YHZbs-EBfAoB-2bYB925-WVsbFN-YNuHHj-sftiTn-2nnywXj-NHvjAN-2nnvXWu-kFYE4c-JLMqVD-Prqq4j-GtJmeE-oEbWHs-cWBKpG-NGixyf-NjX74C-cWBThs-2ky6HXM-NzJPkb-iK69z7-XC1kQg-NVzzcp-2mPEhYf-FnALAK-25EHzry-kEVj2R-riVbre-ND7SPf-2mJeoLp-P6XRa3-NSR3Dn</p>
<p>2. Diversifood. (2019). Data Management in Community Seed Banks. https://www.diversifood.eu/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/IF-19-Data-management-in-Community-Seed-Banks.pdf</p>
<p>3. ECHO. (2016). Seed Storage in the Tropics. https://www.echocommunity.org/en/resources/f938a2af-bb1d-4128-a7e7-440c3419e48f</p>
<p>4. EOS Data Analytics. Agricultural Cooperatives: Specifics, Role, Pros & Cons. https://eos.com/blog/agricultural-cooperatives/</p>
<p>5. FAO. (2021). “The gatekeepers of Mozambique’s community seed Banks.” FAO Newsroom. https://www.fao.org/newsroom/story/The-gatekeepers-of-Mozambique-s-community-seed-banks/en</p>
<p>6. Gaurav, D.K. (2019). Seed Bank [Photo]. Wikimedia Commons. https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=79054414</p>
<p>7. Kamble, A. (2014). Community seed bank. Wikimedia Commons. https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?search=community+seed+banks&title=Special:MediaSearch&type=image</p>
<p>8. Mincer, K. (2015). Keeping Seeds Native [Photo]. Flickr. https://www.flickr.com/photos/mypubliclands/20391372789/in/photolist-x4V7GV-fpKotd-9iPwJP-Jvd6ba-7YsWVx-9HD1Dd-vGi3WD-yv9q5-aDJyf1-2aCqX2K-yv9Ai-7u8mvW-yv9E9-yv9tf-2mkF3rd-vGi3Tc-yv9nw-EqUcwK-wmEYrF-yv9u2-yv9LC-2ja8uXW-yv9UK-yv9Qy-yv9yS-2qxPUYC-yv9pc-2hiRSsd-2kspiwy-ERc21i-2nafYpN-Nv2DBY-2mHxZtg-86B2oE-cibuTL-9TiBS-2jJ3RTf-kxt15G-9HD2yQ-2nodxiC-2nghe2Q-mo7DWG-2iPYKny-wmEYtz-4SFSA6-2mkBeDc-7uErxU-25nGkuJ-YpvfAb-7TWv5o</p>
<p>9. Palmer, N. (2011). Genebank 2011 8 [Photo]. Flickr. https://www.flickr.com/photos/ciat/5446139048/in/photostream/</p>
<p>10. Song, X., Li, G., Vernooy, R., & Song, Y. (2021). Community Seed Banks in China: Achievements, challenges and prospects. Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems, 5(630400). https://doi.org/10.3389/fsufs.2021.630400</p>
<p>11. Trail, P., Danmalidoi, Y., Pler, S.M., Bicksler, A., & Thansrithong, B. (2021). Low-Cost Natural Building Options for Storing Seed in Tropical Southeast Asia. ECHO Asia Note 2(2). https://www.echocommunity.org/en/resources/45b93e03-2c0f-45b0-8a4c-a89bfdc606ed</p>
<p>12. Vernooy, R., Bessette, G., Sthapit, B., Dibiloane, A., Lettie Maluleke, N., Abner Matelele, L., Mokoena, M., Phora, G., Sema, P., & Thabo, T. (2020a). How to develop and manage your own community seed bank: Farmers’ handbook (updated version). Establishing a community seed bank: Booklet 1 of 3. Bioversity International and the International Center for Tropical Agriculture. https://cgspace.cgiar.org/items/9f60448d-f143-4c31-a6f7-e7123f89b457</p>
<p>13. Vernooy, R., Mulesa, T. H., Gupta, A., Jony, J. A., Koffi, K. E., Mbozi, H., … Wakkumbure, C. L. K. (2020b). The role of community seed banks in achieving farmers’ rights. Development in Practice, 30(5), 561–574. https://doi.org/10.1080/09614524.2020.1727415</p>
<p>14. Vernooy, R., Rana, J., Otieno, G., Mbozi, H., & Shrestha, P. (2022). Farmer-led seed production: Community Seed Banks enter the national seed market. Seeds, 1(3), 164-180. https://doi.org/10.3390/seeds1030015</p>
<p>15. Vernooy, R., Adokorach, J., Gupta, A., Otieno, G., Rana, J., Shrestha, P., & Subedi, A. (2024). Promising strategies to enhance the sustainability of community seed Banks. Sustainability, 16(19), 8665. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16198665</p>
<p>16. Vásquez, V.M & Andersen, R. (2023) Community seed banks: Instruments for food security or unsustainable endeavour? A case study of Mkombezi Community Seed Bank in Malawi. Food, 15, 1087–1108. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12571-023-01374-4</p>
<p>17. Wangchuk, S.K. (2019). Dungsam Seed Bank [Photo]. Wikimedia Commons. https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=146784388</p>
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Template:Chapter 10.16

2026-01-14T15:48:13Z

Mamta:

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<div class="title"><h3>10.16 -Fish hatcheries for small scale farmers </h3><br><h3 class="ch-owner">Owen Robinson ,University of Guelph, Canada</h3></div>
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[[File:Lan 18.jpg|300px]]
<p><b>Related video(s)</b>: Stocking fingerlings in a nursery pond (Source: Access Agriculture)</p>
<p><i> https://www.accessagriculture.org/stocking-fingerlings-nursery-pond?cat_id=1499</i></p>

<p>Suggested citation for this chapter.</p>
<p>Robinson,O. (2022) Fish hatcheries for small scale farmers, M.N. Raizada, University of Guelph, Canada. http://www.farmpedia.org</p>
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<h1 class="title-bg">Introduction </h1>
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<p>Protein is considered the most expensive portion of the human diet (Schönfeldt & Hall, 2012) while playing a vital part in facilitating growth and maturity for children (Xiong et al., 2023). Undernutrition is defined as the lack of adequate nutritional intake, caused by not consuming enough food containing substances necessary for growth and overall health (Oxford Dictionary, 2024), including protein. Protein deficiency continues to be a prevalent issue within developing countries, especially across Africa and Asia (Schönfeldt & Hall, 2012). According to the World Health Organization (2023), protein-energy malnutrition has slowly declined since 2000 but still lies in the top twenty causes of mortality among Africans. About 140 out of 1000 African children are likely to die before the age of 5 due to malnutrition, with the survivors only having a life expectancy of 45 years (Schönfeldt & Hall, 2012). These statistics can be decreased by increasing the quantity and quality of available protein for citizens of developing nations residing on all scales, both minor and major.</P>
<P>Developing nations are generally limited to cereals for primary protein sources (Temba et al., 2016), while animal-based proteins have been observed to be of higher quality in terms of delivering all essential dietary amino acids (Lim et al., 2021). Among the different types of animal-based proteins, fish is typically considered the best option for maximizing protein quality and minimizing further health risks (Schönfeldt & Hall, 2012).</P>
<P>Approximately 200 million Africans currently obtain high-quality protein from fish products (Obiero et al., 2019), yet it is apparent its consumption is still not fully exploited. Aquaculture, specifically, fish hatcheries have been a growing practice within Africa over the last few decades, whose contributions have gradually contributed to an increase in the continent's food security while improving the economic value of the region in which they exist (Obiero et al., 2019). However, as of today, it is still only practiced within a few African countries (Obiero et al., 2019).</P>
<P>A fish hatchery is a place where artificial or “controlled” propagation of fish species occurs on varying scales (Fisch et al., 2015). The goal of every hatchery is to maximize the amount of fish biomass that can be produced, either for conservation purposes or as a food supply (Fisch et al., 2015). Regardless of size, fish hatcheries typically consist of several units containing water. These units can serve different purposes like larviculture, broodstock holding, water treatment, wastewater treatment, or larval rearing (Jayakumar & Nazar, 2013). During a production season, fish hatcheries require nothing less than full dedication by well-trained personnel who have developed the specialized skills necessary for the success of the operation (Jayakumar & Nazar, 2013), which may present issues in under resourced areas in developing nations. Fish hatcheries can be operated commercially; however, the literature shows small-scale operations are generally more feasible to implement successfully. This paper will assess the potential benefits and costs of improving and expanding the fish hatchery industry across Africa and Asia as a solution to combat malnutrition, undernutrition, and poverty, especially among small-scale, poor, and isolated communities. </p>
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<h1 class="title-bg">Benefits of fish hatcheries</h1>
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<P>Fish hatcheries are expected to improve the overall quality of fish products compared to traditional fish farming due to several factors. First, traditional fish farming in developing nations like Laos (South-Eastern Asia) relies on the importation of fish from foreign countries (Demoulin, 1999). Commonly, the fish product undergoes extreme transportation stress, lowering its quality significantly (Demoulin, 1999). In some cases, fatalities during transportation occur, creating contaminates. This lowers the product yield acquired by the buyers (Demoulin, 1999). Fish hatcheries, both large and small-scale, would mitigate the need for transportation, improving the overall quality and quantity available for human consumption.</P>
<P>According to Schönfeldt and Hall (2012) protein consumption follows the principle of quality over quantity. That is, consuming less, high-quality protein like fish is favorable over consuming more, lower-quality proteins like cereals in terms of preventing undernutrition and malnutrition and maintaining health (Schönfeldt & Hall, 2012). Therefore, by increasing the quality of the protein, people will need to consume less. Small-scale farmers will be able to expand the market they provide to increasing personal income and contributing to the local economy. Small-scale hatcheries not only benefit the farmers but the locals as well, as observed in Bali and Situbonda, Indonesia, where small-scale fish hatcheries make up 95% and 88% of fish hatcheries within the respective regions. In 2016, it was estimated that 4000-5000 local peoples were directly employed by the local fisheries in northern Bali alone. Furthermore, this number did not include the indirect employment possibilities associated with the construction of new hatcheries and expansion of pre-existing ones (Fachry et al., 2018). Fachry et al. (2018) assessed the average construction cost of small-scale fish hatcheries within Northern Bali and Situbonda, Indonesia, which they highlighted to be relatively low. From surveying 10 different small-scale hatcheries, this cost was determined to range from USD 4450 to USD 15,750, depending on the overall size of rearing tanks, but the labour cost would be lower in many parts of Africa due to lower labour costs. </p>
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<h1 class="title-bg">How to start a fish hatchery</h1>
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<p>These guidelines have been released by members of the FAO:</P>
<P><b>1. Selecting a suitable location:</b></p> A hatchery should be located relatively close to an already-existing fish farm, so larvae can be easily transported on-site to provide initial stocks, or in case of emergency. Access to electricity is vital to most equipment, which can present a problem for many poor regions of Africa/Asia that frequently experience power outages. Fortunately, the installation of a standby generator is possible. Finally, the area must be on a sloped section plot to provide nursery fish at the highest point as it helps prevent water contamination and the spread of disease (Demoulin, 1999). It should be noted that if a pre-existing body of water is available, a small hatchery can be created from simple materials (Kungvankij, n.d.).</p>
<P><b>2. Choosing the desired species:</b></p> Smallholder farmers will want to select a species of fish with high resistance to environmental stressors that are, preferably, native to the region. For example, farmers in Africa should acquire an initial stock of Tilapia, while those in Asia should acquire some species of common carp. These species possess high resistance to oxygen deprivation, water pollution, and disease, while only requiring a year to become sexually active (Demoulin, 1999).</p>
<P><b>3. Size of hatchery:</b></p> This is determined by the intended production target and the survival rate of selected species, see Figure 1.
<p>• Hatching troughs: A length and width of 35 cm is adequate for most species of fish (Osbourne, n.d.).</p>
<p>• Holding tanks: It is recommended that these tanks be rectangular, with a depth of 1-2.5 m, and a width of 20 m (Demoulin, 1999). If a natural water body is being implemented, mesh and screen nets can be used to create an enclosure of this size. </p>
<p>[[File:Lan 20.jpg]]</p>
<p><b>Figure 1 represents</b></p> the required dimensions and measurements of a hypothetical fish hatchery with a production target of 2 million Seabass larvae per year (Kungvankij, n.d.).</p>
<p><b>4. Separate Sexes:</b></p> Separation of sexes is recommended to ensure proper gonad development of females, who possess higher food requirements to reach maximum fertility. This should be done for most species including Tilapia and common carp. Separation should occur around 1.5 months after hatching before maturity is reached (Demoulin, 1999).</p>
<p><b>5. Recirculation of Water:</b></p> This can reduce water requirements by two-thirds, which is ideal in poorer regions in Africa/Asia with less water availability (Osbourne, n.d.). </p>
<p>[[File:Lan 21.jpg]]</p>
<p>Figure 2 illustrates basic and effective design for a medium scale fish hatchery operation. (1) This image shows the breeding tank and filtration unit which separates the eggs from particles and other debris. (2) This image shows a water-storage tank in which eggs are held and checked for further contaminations before entering nursery. (3) This image shows larval hatching and nursery tank. (4) This image shows the recirculation tank where used water is filtered and cleansed. (5) This image shows a disposal tank where contaminants are removed from the system. (6a and 6b) These images show rectangular adult holding ponds – Note, one is designated for males, and the other for females. All images were taken from (Discover Agriculture, 2019). </p>
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<h1 class="title-bg">Where can it work</h1>
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<p>As previously mentioned, fish hatcheries must be built on sloped or flat land, but also on compact soil (Kungvankij, n.d.). Modeling assessments carried out by the FAO determined that 37% of sub-Saharan African land meets the requirements for suitable, small-scale fish farming and hatcheries, creating the potential to strengthen food security in this region (Brummett et al., 2008). Another analysis suggested that 31% of land across Africa has suitable potential for small-scale fish hatcheries (CIFA Technical Paper 32, n.d.). <p>
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<h1 class="title-bg">Critical Analysis</h1>
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<p>Literature shows that the most persistent issue in fish hatcheries is disease caused by fungi, viruses, bacteria, and parasites that commonly contaminate water (Faruk & Anka, 2017). This is especially true for regions plagued with poor water quality. Hatchery yields are especially at risk of disease operating with larvae, which have underdeveloped immune systems and are highly susceptible to infections (Faruk & Anka, 2017). Overall, the only solution to combat fish disease is maintaining healthy water quality, which is difficult to do in developing nations due to the general lack of training and equipment available. A study conducted by Nasr-Allah et al. (2014) determined that the four largest fish hatcheries in Egypt did not have access to water-quality testing kits. Therefore, disease is expected to persist in small-holder hatcheries within developing nations.
The same hatcheries expressed concerns with the general lack of water availability during summer months, when spawning typically occurs (Nasr-Allah et al., 2014). As a result of a general lack of availability, Egypt has experienced the implementation of strict laws determining where a hatchery may be created, contributing to the slow growth of the industry across the continent (Nasr-Allah et al., 2014). Water availability is likely to be the biggest issue faced by smallholders in Africa and Southern Asia, as only 13/54 African countries possess a modest level of water security (United Nations University, 2023), and high-water scarcity experienced in Southern Asia is only predicted to increase in the future (UNICEF, n.d.).</p>

<p>Overall, the literature shows that water quality and availability are issues that will continue to prevent the fish hatchery industry from growing within developing continents like Africa and South Asia, despite the land potential present. These problems must be mitigated before fish hatching can become an ideal and feasible strategy to reduce protein malnutrition and undernutrition significantly. </p>
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<h1 class="title-bg">Helpful links to get started</h1>
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<p>• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hktQNjeDArM (Best fish for farming based on climate)</p>
<p>• https://www.btlliners.com/designing-a-better-fish-hatchery#:~:text=Most%20modern%20hatcheries%20will%20combine,sure%20they're%20properly%20lined. (Designing better, small scale fish hatcheries). </p>
<p>• https://www.waterprobes.com/?gclid=Cj0KCQjwwYSwBhDcARIsAOyL0fi3ymWbhG1EsOxM7cx5n6vcmaKRgYVoUEYGycM4cyZ8iNTex81DOWEaAkMAEALw_wcB (Purchasable high-quality water testing kit).</p>
<p>• http://www.glfc.org/pubs/SpecialPubs/sp83_2/pdf/chap14.pdf (Easy solutions to improve water quality through disinfection of diseases).</p>
<p>• YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xOLdDsCekQY (3D animation showing simple but effective design of a fish hatchery with all required components). </p>
<p><b>FAO Manuals:</b></p>
<p>• https://www.fao.org/publications/card/en/c/db4da0af-1243-5433-a4c0-c68e26f6b76e (Guidelines for implementing/improving fish hatchery management techniques - FAO)</p>
<p>• https://www.fao.org/3/AC014E/AC014E02.htm#pII (Guidelines and helpful tips for creating small-scale fish hatchery system).
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<h1 class="title-bg">References</h1>
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<p>1. CIFA Technical Paper 32. (n.d.). Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations. https://www.fao.org/fishery/docs/CDrom/aquaculture/a0844t/docrep/W8522e/W8522E03.htm#TopOfPage</p>
<p>2. Demoulin, F. (1999). Guidelines for Broodstock and Hatchery Management. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. https://www.fao.org/publications/card/en/c/db4da0af-1243-5433-a4c0-c68e26f6b76e</p>
<p>3. Discover Agriculture. (2019, July 14). Fish Farm 3D design | Fish Pond Design 3D animation | Discover Agriculture [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xOLdDsCekQY</p>
<p>4. Faruk, M. A. R., & Anka, I. Z. (2017). An overview of diseases in fish hatcheries and nurseries. Fundamental and Applied Agriculture, 2(3), 311. https://doi.org/10.5455/faa.277539</p>
<p>5. Fisch, K. M., Kozfkay, C. C., Ivy, J. A., Ryder, O. A., & Waples, R. S. (2015). Fish Hatchery Genetic Management Techniques: Integrating Theory with Implementation. North American Journal of Aquaculture, 77(3), 343–357. https://doi.org/10.1080/15222055.2014.999846</p>
<p>6. Integrated African Health Observatory. (June 2023). What are the leading causes of death in Africa? World Health Organization.</p>
<p>7. https://files.aho.afro.who.int/afahobckpcontainer/production/files/iAHO_Mortality_Regional-Factsheet.pdf</p>
<p>8. Kungvankij, P. (n.d.). Chapter II, Hatchery Design. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations https://www.fao.org/3/ab707e/AB707E03.htm#ch3</p>
<p>9. Lim, M. T., Pan, B. J., Toh, D. W. K., Sutanto, C. N., & Kim, J. E. (2021). Animal protein versus</p>
<p>10. plant protein in supporting lean mass and muscle strength: A systematic review and
meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Nutrients, 13(2), 661 https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13020661</p>
<p>11. Nasr-Allah, A. M., Dickson, M. W., Al-Kenawy, D. A. R., Ahmed, M. F. M., & El-Naggar, G. O. </p>
<p>12. (2014). Technical characteristics and economic performance of commercial tilapia hatcheries applying different management systems in Egypt. Aquaculture, 426–427, 222–230. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2014.02.004</p>
<p>13. Obiero, K., Meulenbroek, P., Drexler, S., Dagne, A., Akoll, P., Odong, R., Kaunda‐Arara, B., & Waidbacher, H. (2019). The contribution of fish to food and nutrition security in Eastern Africa: Emerging trends and future outlooks. Sustainability, 11(6), 1636. https://doi.org/10.3390/su11061636 </p>
<p>14. Osborn, P. (n.d.). Design of freshwater fish hatcheries for small fish farmers. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. https://www.fao.org/3/AC014E/AC014E02.htm#pII</p>
<p>15. Oxford Dictionary (2024). “Undernutrition” https://www.oed.com/dictionary/undernutrition_n?tab=meaning_and_use-paywall#140709971100.</p>
<p>16. Schönfeldt, H., & Hall, N. G. (2012). Dietary protein quality and malnutrition in Africa. British Journal of Nutrition, 108(S2), S69–S76. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0007114512002553</p>
<p>17. UNICEF (n.d.). South Asia has highest number of children exposed to severe water scarcity. UNICEF. https://www.unicef.org/rosa/press-releases/south-asia-has-highest-number-children-exposed-severe-water-scarcity-unicef </p>
<p>18. Temba, M. C., Njobeh, P. B., Adebo, O. A., Olugbile, A. O., & Kayitesi, E. (2016). The role of compositing cereals with legumes to alleviate protein energy malnutrition in Africa. International Journal of Food Science & Technology, 51(3), 543–554. https://doi.org/10.1111/ijfs.13035</p>
<p>19. Tucker, C. S. (1991) Water quantity and Quality requirements for channel catfish hatcheries., Southern Regional Aquaculture Center, & Delta Research and Extension Center, Mississippi State University. In SRAC Publication No, 461. https://aquaculture.ca.uky.edu/sites/aquaculture.ca.uky.edu/files/srac_461_water_quantity_and_quality_requirements_for_channel_catfish_hatcheries.pdf</p>
<p>20. Xiong, T., Wu, Y., Hu, J., Xu, S., Li, Y., Kong, B., Zhang, Z., Chen, L., Tang, Y., Yao, P., Xiong, J., & Li, Y. (2023). Associations between high protein Intake, linear growth, and stunting in Children and adolescents: A cross-sectional study. Nutrients, 15(22), 4821. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu15224821</p>
<p>21. United Nations University (2023). 500 million people live in 19 African nations deemed water insecure. https://unu.edu/press-release/500-million-people-live-19-african-nations-deemed-water-insecure#:~:text=Only%2013%20of%2054%20countries,to%20half%20a%20billion%20people </p>

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Template:Chapter 10.15

2026-01-14T15:44:20Z

Mamta:

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<div class="title"><h3>10.15 -Raised platforms for goats </h3><br><h3 class="ch-owner">Natasha Garces Sanchez ,University of Guelph, Canada</h3></div>
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[[File:Lan 18.jpg|300px]]

<p><b>Related video(s)</b>: Making a raised platform for sheep and goats (Source: Access Agriculture)</p>
<p><i>https://www.accessagriculture.org/making-raised-platform-sheep-and-goats?cat_id=1499</i></p>

<p>Suggested citation for this chapter.</p>
<p>Sanchez,NG. (2022) Raised platforms for goats, The Encyclopedia for Small Scale Farmers. Editor, M.N. Raizada, University of Guelph, Canada. http://www.farmpedia.org</p>
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<h1 class="title-bg">Introduction </h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>In Africa, goats are ingrained in almost every culture especially within communities that are not able to care or keep large livestock (Mataveia et al., 2021). In animal production, goats offer an advantage as they provide relatively high productivity in harsh environments, use inexpensive feed resources, have a short reproductive cycle, and have higher prolificacy compared to cows (Mataveia et al., 2021). Within Africa, the goat population has increased in the last 5 years, and now represents 41% of the world’s herd which is around 423 million goats; 35 millions of these goats are in southern Africa (Mataveia et al., 2021). In developing countries, goats are the most important livestock species as they provide, meat, hides, fibre, and can be milked for home consumption (Mataveia et al., 2021). They also have socio-economic purposes such as for festive, religious, and ceremonial occasions (Mataveia et al., 2021). They also have an economic role of providing cash-flow and are an accessible source of credit for immediate social and financial obligations, earning them the nickname of “village bank” (Mataveia et al., 2021).</p>
<p>Sheep and goats are the preferred livestock for smallholders in dry areas as they are able to convert poor quality pasture into good quality protein for human consumption (Mataveia et al., 2021). Their small size allows families to consume their entire carcass within a few days without risk of deterioration, since in developing countries, some villages do not have refrigeration (Mataveia et al., 2021). However one of the main issues is the lack of veterinary care. Dr. Tlotlo Kgasi who is the president of the South African Veterinary Council, has addressed the issue of veterinary professionals in the countries (Coleman 2022). It is noted that internationally the norm is between 200-400 veterinarians per million of a country’s population whereas South Africa has only 60 – 70 veterinarians per million people (Coleman 2022), which is likely more than some other developing nations. Due to this, smallholders must take simple pro-active approaches including raised platforms for sheep and goats which is the topic of this chapter. A raised platform improves productivity, benefits in raising goat kids and prevents transmission of certain diseases. </p>
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<h1 class="title-bg">Improved productivity</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<P>Housing and facilities are vital components in successful goat management (Chopra et al., 2023). Well-designed housing for goat and sheep significantly impacts both their welfare and productivity, as it provides a comfortable and secure environment (Chopra et al., 2023). Other beneficial outcomes with this housing is that allows them to exhibit natural behaviour, minimize stress, and overall well-being. This also contributes to optimal growth, reproduction, milk production and meat quality (Chopra et al., 2023).</p>

<p>In order for farmers to achieve successful goat management, there are a couple crucial factors that need to be considered. First, space allocation is crucial to prevent overcrowding and enable natural behaviours. Ventilation is another critical aspect in successful goat management (Chopra et al., 2023). Proper ventilation ensures good air exchange, regulates temperature, reduces the risk of respiratory issues as high humidity and poor air quality can lead to respiratory disease and growth of harmful bacteria (Chopra et al., 2023). The last crucial components concern the flooring material and design. Goats and sheep do not thrive in shallow pools, marshy or swampy grounds as they can contract parasitic infections (Chopra et al., 2023). In tropical and subtropical environments, there are several additional advantages of raised platforms (Figure 1): it eliminates the need for bedding; less labour is required for maintenance; and it facilitates easy collection of manure for crop fertilization (Chopra et al., 20230). Comfort, promoting hoof health and being easy to clean and maintain, are factors to be considered when designing floors (Chopra et al., 2023).</P>
<p>[[File:Lan 17.jpg]]</p>
<p>Figure 1. This is how an elevated goat housing could look like. With the floor elevation, farmers can go under and collect manure and overall provide hygienic living condition for their goats. With this particular housing, you can note that it was done with natural wood using material that the farmers already had around their property, further reducing material cost. Photo by Peter Hobbs Cornell University</p>
<p>In particular, slatted elevated floors (Figure 2) are known for their hygiene benefits, as they reduce the occurrence of diseases as described below. Figure 1 shows one method of creating a goat or sheep housing with elevated slatted flooring. In this method poles are anchored and tree trunks are used to secure the housing. When installing slatted floors, they should be raised between 1 to 1.5 meters above ground level to facilitate cleaning. To ensure that fecal matter passes through while simultaneously ensuring secure footing for the animal, the slats should be placed 1.4 to 1.6 cm apart (Chopra et al., 20230). However, an important factor to consider is the cost, ease of installation and safety when selecting flooring material (Chopra et al., 2023). While there are materials cheaper than wood such as bamboo, they may not provide the level of stability for goat/sheep feet like commercial wood and can only hold the weight of a small number of goats (Chopra et al., 2023). This is due to the fact that commercial wood is preferred for its strength and durability (Chopra et al., 2023). </p>
<p>[[File:Lan 18.jpg]]</p>
<p>Figure 2. How a platform comprised of individual sections looks. Note the small gaps in between the wooden slats. This design could be useful for farmers who just want to add slatted floors to goat housing that was previously built. If the platform is low to the ground, the floor would need to be removed for cleaning (e.g. manure collection) which is more labour intensive (Caldwell 2019).</p>

<p>Figure 2 shows the second method which is a deck-like elevated flooring. Figure 3 shows how the base should form a square about 120 cm on each side with one board placed along the middle for more support (Caldwell 2019). When creating the slats, starting on one edge, overlap the first board 1.3 cm (1/2 inch) at each end, and 2.5 cm (1 inch) along the long edge (Caldwell 2019). Then secure in place with two screws and place two screws on the center support (Caldwell 2019). Use a 1.3 cm spacer to place the next board and secue it in place and continue until the base is down (Caldwell 2019). This method is like an added feature if a famer cannot raise the whole goat house but instead upgrade it.</p>
<p>[[File:Lan 19.png]]</p>
<p>Figure 3. This shows the process of how to make a platform section. The left image shows how to use a ½ inch (1.3 cm) spacer (vertical stick) while adding the horizontal planks. The right side images shows the completed platform. </p>
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<h1 class="title-bg">Benefits of raised platforms for goat kids </h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>One of the main benefits to having a raised platform is reduced intake of Coccidia parasites. Little is known about the pathogenicity of each species of Coccidia, however they are considered to be host specific and do not transfer across animal species (Andrews 2022). The ones that inffect the lower part of the gut such as the intestine are the most harmful (Andrews 2022). Most goat kids are infected and tend to gain some immunity (Andrews 2022). Although goat kids are exposed to this infection, constant reinfection from poor living conditions can lead to severe diseases (Andrews 2022). However, kids who live on raised platforms can show little to no reinfection, due to the elevated floors which prevent parasite uptake from the soil (Ramachandran et al., 2017). This was seen in comparison with the conventional soil floor (Ramachandran et al., 2017). Therefore, the traditional soil floor not only required more cleaning labour but attracted parasitic infections (Ramachandran et al., 2017). With the elevated flooring, after the kids were dewormed, there was no reinfection whereas the soil flooring promoted reinfection as they were reintroduced to the parasite living in the soil (Ramachandran et al., 2017). </p>
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<h1 class="title-bg">Prevent transmission of certain diseases</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>The traditional soil floor is the most common flooring system, but it requires more labour for cleaning and facilitates parasitic infections that lead to gasto-intestinal parasitism (Ramachandran et al., 2017). First, as already introduced in the last section, Coccidiosis is a parasitic disease in goats with worldwide distribution that leads to economic losses (Kheirandish et al., 2014). This economical loss is due to high mortality, morbidity, poor growth and treatment costs (Kheirandish et al., 2014). This disease is very serious in 4-6 month old goat kids and in areas where goats are kept in overcrowded houses with stressor factors (Kheirandish et al., 2014). The oocysts are passed through feces-oral transmission (Kheirandish et al., 2014). Second, goats and sheep are susceptible to anthrax by ingesting spores through grazing highly contaminated soil. Once infected, it typically takes 3-7 days to detect; symptoms include staggering, trembling, difficulty in breathing, convulsions, and death (Alhaji Bukar et al., 2023). Third, foot rot infection can be prevented by minimizing wet conditions where mud and manure accumulate (Pezzanite & Neary, 2009).<p>
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<h1 class="title-bg">Critical analysis</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>One of the factors that is preventing the adoption of raised platforms on small scale farms is the cost of materials. Although bamboo is cheaper than wood, it provides less secure footing. However, farmers can still use bamboo, but the platforms may need frequent fixing. Depending on the size of the platform building and the amount of help, the addition of elevated slatted platforms should require 2 to 4 hours of labour to build it. The cost of material is based on what type of wood would be used and what is locally available. Another crucial factor that prevents adoption of raised platforms is a lack of knowledge. Unfortunately, there is a barrier between technology and rural African farmers, in part due to limited internet access (Kistler et al., 2022). Less than 30% of adults in rural areas have access to the internet, with the maximum speed being 2G or 3G (Kistler et al., 2022). Because of this, farmers in rural areas do not have access to knowledge, and thus do not acquire and use new technologies or techniques such as raised platforms (Kistler et al., 2022). Another factor preventing adoption of raised platforms is that farmers are resistant to changing their traditional style of farming. The main reason is the lack of awareness of the improved productivity provided by raised platforms; this can be overcome by interventions undertaken locally and nationally (Kistler et al., 2022). </p>
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<h1 class="title-bg">Practical resources to get started </h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>In this section I have provided useful links and videos for agriculturists interested in improving their goat and sheep housing for optimal productivity and reducing cleaning labour:</p>
<p>The first link provided is a manual for goat keeping: Useful management practices for smallholders. This manual goes over housing, feeding, health, diseases and parasites and more:
https://www.echocommunity.org/en/resources/40c87948-932d-4355-859d-9b1ab63710aa </p>

<p>The second link is an article on how to build raised floor sections, with slatted flooring for goats. This could be useful to farmers who just want to add slatted floors in their pre-existing goat housing. This type of method however will be more labour intensive for cleaning as the platforms would have to be removed.
https://gianacliscaldwell.com/2019/03/28/diy-goat-decks/</p>

<p>The following video compares elevated slatted, dirt and concrete floors and their feces, urine and overall hygiene:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nbZdG_XE-tk </p>
<p>The next video shows how to make a raised platform for sheep and goats using bamboo. Again, bamboo can only be used for small numbers of goats for optimum sturdiness:
https://www.accessagriculture.org/making-raised-platform-sheep-and-goats</p>
<p>The last video shows how to construct a raised goat house for approximately 200 goats:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GQlxMgjnQoA</p>
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<h1 class="title-bg">References</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>1. Alhaji Bukar, B., & Musa Mabu, I. (2023). Common Diseases of Goats, Treatment and Preventive Measures. IntechOpen, 1001377. doi: 10.5772/intechopen.1001377. </p>

<p>2. Andre Mataveia, G., Visser, C., & Sitoe, A. (2021). Smallholder Goat Production in Southern Africa: A Review. IntechOpen, 97792. doi: 10.5772/intechopen.97792</p>

<p>3. Andrews, A. (2022). Coccidiosis of goats - digestive system. Merck Vet Manual. Retrieved from https://www.merckvetmanual.com/digestive-system/coccidiosis/coccidiosis-of-goats </p>

<p>4. Caldwell, G. (2019). DIY- Goat Decks. Retrieved from https://gianacliscaldwell.com/2019/03/28/diy-goat-decks/ </p>

<p>5. Chopra, D., Misra, A. K., Chharang, D., Singh, B., & Jareda, P. (2023). CHAPTER–13 Goat Housing and Facilities: Enhancing Welfare and Productivity through Design Considerations. Indian Journal of livestock and Veterinary Research Special Issue ON, 3(1),105.</p>

<p>6. Coleman, A. (2022, May 8). Concern about livestock vet shortage in South Africa. Farmer’s Weekly. https://www.farmersweekly.co.za/agri-news/south-africa/concern-about-livestock-vet-shortage-in-south-africa/ </p>

<p>7. Kistler, H. C., Wheeler, T., Ma, Y., & Dougherty, S. M. (2022). Overcoming the barriers to technology adoption on African Farms. Brookings Institute. Retrieved from https://www.brookings.edu/techstream/overcoming-the-barriers-to-technology-adoption-on-african-farms/</p>

<p>8. Kheirandish, R., Nourollahi-Fard, S. R., & Yadegari, Z. (2014). Prevalence and pathology of coccidiosis in goats in southeastern Iran. Journal of Parasitic Diseases (1), 27–31. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12639-012-0186-0.</p>

<p>9. Pezzanite, L., & Neary, M. (2009). Footrot in sheep and goats - Purdue University. Animal Sciences. https://www.extension.purdue.edu/extmedia/AS/AS-596-footrot.pdf.</p>

<p>10. Ramachandran, N., Singh, S.P., Tripathi, M.K., Paul, S., Bhusan, S., &Jindal, S. K.
(2017). Intake, growth performance and worm load in goat kids maintained on conventional soiled or raised wooden slatted floor. The Indian Journal of Animal Sciences, 87(3), 356–360. https://doi.org/10.56093/ijans.v87i3.68877. </p>

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Template:Chapter 10.10

2026-01-14T15:39:18Z

Mamta:

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<div class="title"><h3>10.10 - Azolla as a Sustainable Animal Feed for Smallholder Farmers</h3><br><h3 class="ch-owner">Julia Oliverio,University of Guelph, Canada</h3></div>
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[[File:4.jpg|300px]]

<p><b>Related video(s)</b>: Growing azolla for feed (Source: Access Agriculture)</p>
<p><i>https://www.accessagriculture.org/growing-azolla-feed?cat_id=1499</i></p>

<p>Suggested citation for this chapter.</p>
<p>Oliverio,J. (2022) Azolla as a Sustainable Animal Feed for Smallholder Farmers, The Encyclopedia for Small Scale Farmers. Editor, M.N. Raizada, University of Guelph, Canada. http://www.farmpedia.org</p>
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<h1 class="title-bg">Introduction to Azolla</h1>
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<p>Low protein content in livestock feed is a problem for many farmers; a potential solution to this problem is Azolla. Azolla, commonly known as duckweed or mosquito fern, is an aquatic plant that floats freely on the surface of water and belongs to the Salviniaceae family (Anitha et al. 2016). Azolla has a symbiotic relationship with the bacterium Anabaena which converts abundant atmospheric nitrogen gas into ammonia; ammonia then acts as a building block for amino acids and hence protein (Thomas et al. 1978). Due to this symbiosis, Azolla can grow with little nitrogen fertilizer, but results in a high protein feed (Thomas et al. 1978). There are six known species of Azolla, including A. pinnata which is most popular in Asia, and A. filiculoides which is most popular in the Americas; these are the two the oldest known species of Azolla (Lumpkin and Plucknett 1980; FAO 1977). Azolla grows naturally in bodies of freshwater in tropical, subtropical, and warm-temperate climate zones (Wagner 1997). Azolla floats on the water surface with horizontal fronds; the size of fronds varies greatly by species and can range from 1-15 cm (FAO 1977). The colour also varies by species from green to purplish red (FAO 1977). The promotion of Azolla as an animal feed is relatively new compared to its main use as a biofertilizer (Chander 2011). Azolla is often negatively perceived by some farmers because it is often considered to be a noxious weed, which contributes to its under-use (Lumpkin and Plucknett 1980). The following analysis is meant to shed light on the benefits and challenges of Azolla cultivation and its use as animal feed for smallholder farmers.</p>
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<h1 class="title-bg">Nutrient Profile</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
The energy, protein and fibre levels of Azolla are comparable to that of lucerne hay, wheat grain, and canola meal, which are other commonly used cattle feeds (Huggins 2007). A. filiculoides contains a high protein content of between 20.3-31.2% and 9.2-11.3% of crude fibre (Shiomi and Kitoh 2001). For A. pinnata, the crude protein content is approximately 22.48% and the crude fibre is 14.70% (Anitha et al. 2016). Based on protein content, A. filiculoides is considered more suitable than A. pinnata for use as an animal feed (Brouwer et al. 2018). Azolla contains a higher proportion of essential amino acids than the common animal feed soybean meal, excluding histidine yet this is not a limiting factor (Brouwer et al. 2018). Azolla does suffer from phosphorus, calcium and sometimes potassium deficiencies which can restrict its growth; phosphorus fertilizer should be added at 2.5 kg per hectare (FAO 1977). Other components affecting digestibility of Azolla must be characterized then bred or extracted out to be domesticated as an optimal protein crop (Brouwer et al. 2018). Yet its protein content and promising amino acid profile make Azolla a good contender for a livestock feed.
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<h1 class="title-bg">How to Grow Azolla</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>There are several cost-effective methods for Azolla cultivation, as described by India’s Natural Resources Development Project (NARDEP) (Biswas and Sarkar 2013). First, an area of 2 m x 2 m should be levelled, surrounded with bricks, and covered with a plastic tarp. This area should ideally be exposed to 50% sunlight; the pits should be shaded by a tree or canopy if possible. Next, 10-15 kg of soil should be spread within the pit, followed by a slurry of 2 kg cow dung, 30 g super phosphate, and 10 litres of water; water should be added as needed to reach a depth of 10 cm, ensuring the Azolla can float. The pH of the Azolla pit should stay within 4-7.5 range. Then 0.5-1 kg of Azolla culture should be added uniformly over the water, stirred mildly, then more water should be sprinkled immediately after inoculation to ensure the Azolla grows upright. Every 5 days a mixture of 20 g superphosphate and 1 kg of cow dung should be added to ensure 500 g of Azolla can be harvested daily. To enhance mineral content, a micronutrient mix can be added on a weekly basis. 5 kg of soil should be replaced with fresh soil every 30 days, and 25-30% of the water every 10 days. The Azolla bed should be refreshed with new water, soil, and Azolla once every six months or if it becomes contaminated by pests and diseases. After the initial 10-15 days, around 500 g of Azolla should be harvested daily with a plastic sieve and washed thoroughly to remove the smell of cow dung before feeding to animals (Biswas and Sarkar 2013).</p>
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<h1 class="title-bg">Benefits to Azolla</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p> Azolla’s ability to be cultivated easily, along with its high productivity and good nutritive value, give it the potential to be a beneficial fodder supplement (Anitha et al. 2016). The above production system uses a continuous harvesting method that allows for high daily yields without the use of commercial nitrogen fertilizer; in addition, its favourable amino acid profile suits the application of Azolla as animal feed (Brouwer et al. 2018). Growing Azolla can reduce costs by roughly 20-25% compared to purchasing commercial animal feeds; Azolla typically costs farmers 0.60-0.65 Indian Rupees (US$0.015) per kg according to trials conducted by the Indian agricultural training centre, Krishi Vigyan Kendra in 2008-2009 (Chander 2011).</p>

<p>Azolla also has benefits beyond its potential as a livestock feed. The Azolla-Anabaena symbiosis generates a source of organic nitrogen fertilizer and is even considered to be aquatic green manure (FAO 1997). As a result, Azolla-Anabaena can produce 1 ton of green manure per hectare per day, containing 3 kg of fixed nitrogen (FAO 1977). Due to its high nitrogen fixation and growth rates, Azolla has traditionally been used in rice paddies as a bio-fertilizer for centuries; this has also helped to reduce greenhouse gas emissions compared to rice cultivation that relies on synthetic nitrogen fertilizer, produced using natural gas (Brouwer et al. 2018). Additionally, Azolla has been used to help purify water, as an ingredient in soup, to cure sore throats, and as a food source for humans (Lumpkin and Plucknett 1980). Azolla cultivation also presents an opportunity for female farmers as a source of income, reportedly sold at a rate of Rs. 10 per kg (Subbiah 2017).</p>
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<h1 class="title-bg">Challenges to Azolla</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>The main challenges of Azolla cultivation include its inability to grow and withstand hot and cold temperatures, pest and disease control, and its singular method of vegetative propagation through water (FAO 1977). Viable stocks of Azolla need to be kept year-round which presents problems during very hot and very cold months (FAO 1977). Elevated or low temperatures, particularly in cold regions and dry zones where the temperature exceeds 40˚C can adversely affect Azolla growth (Chander 2011). Pests and diseases are a profoundly severe problem for Azolla, particularly during summer months or in hot temperatures (FAO 1977). The main pests are larvae of lepidopterous and dipterous species which eat the leaves of Azolla; rymanae fungus is also problematic (FAO 1977). Pests can be controlled with 2.5-3 kg of Furadan pesticide per hectare; if care is not taken, pests can destroy the crop within 3-5 days, Azolla pits would then need to be rebuilt which is costly and requires labour (Lumpkin and Plucknett 1980). Additionally, the availability of water highly restricts where Azolla can and cannot be cultivated, and furthermore water must be regularly changed to maintain healthy yields; both of these issues are problematic in places that experience dry seasons (Chander 2011). This also contributes to the difficulty of storing Azolla which remains a challenge (Shiomi and Kitoh 2001). Research is being conducted towards the propagation of Azolla through spores, which if successful will make it more accessible to smallholder farmers living in areas of climate volatility (FAO 2011). Azolla’s high moisture content and short shelf-life, makes it incredibly difficult to store or transport to market (Chander 2011). Due to storage challenges attributed to Azolla's low percentage of dry matter content (roughly 6%), farmers must commit to year-round crop maintenance (Huggins 2007). This also contributes to a lack of access to Azolla-Anabaena if not cultivated nearby. This presents an opportunity within Africa for an organization dedicated to providing access to Azolla-Anabaena culture and additional informational resources to smallholder farmers interested in growing Azolla.</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Cost-Benefit Analysis </h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>The cultivation of Azolla has the potential to increase yields, minimize costs, and enhance the economic status of smallholder farmers (Wagner 1997). As discussed above, its ability to produce high daily yields, generate sufficient protein and a balanced amino acid profile, and its ability to be produced at a low cost are all reasons to advocate for the use of Azolla as an alternative animal feed. However, there are practical concerns that need to be addressed. Depending on the animals being fed, the amount of Azolla needed varies. Per day, cattle require 1.5-2 kg, goats require 200-500 g, pigs require 1.5-2.0 kg, while layers and broilers (poultry) require 20-30 g (Chander 2011). The sample pit described by NARDEP produces roughly 500 g of Azolla per day, meaning larger or multiple pits may be necessary, possibly requiring additional labour through cooperatives. Azolla's specific environmental requirements and its problems with pests and storage are all other concerns that must be considered by farmers before adopting Azolla cultivation. Farmer cooperatives could be beneficial for the cultivation of Azolla to foster widespread knowledge, ensuring the meticulous techniques of fertilization and protection from insects are properly performed (Lumpkin and Plucknett 1980). Breeding and selection for more favourable Azolla strains could prove useful for farmers situated in unfavourable climate zones for Azolla cultivation (Brouwer et al. 2018). Ultimately, the adoption of Azolla as a sustainable cost-effective animal feed alternative remains dependent on smallholder farmer preferences and physical environments.</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Additional Information Links </h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>https://www.accessagriculture.org/growing-azolla-feed
Video explaining how to make azolla pits</p>

<p>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HqbVca1elak&ab_channel=SpaceforNature
Video explaining Azolla cultivation</p>

<p>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AY-JzEMpvKU&ab_channel=SpaceforNature
Video explaining how to feed Azolla to animals</p>

<p>https://www.feedipedia.org/node/565
General and nutritional information about Azolla</p>

<p>https://www.agrifarming.in/azolla-farming-project-report
Blog about Azolla farming in India</p>

<p>http://theazollafoundation.org/azollas-uses/as-a-livestock-feed/
General information on Azolla for animal feed</p>

<p>http://theazollafoundation.org/growing-azolla/cultivation-of-azolla-as-a-livestock-feed/
Website explaining Azolla cultivation</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">References</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>1. Anitha, K. C., Rajeshwari, Y. B., Prasanna, S. B., & Shree, S. J. (2016). Nutritive Evaluation of Azolla as Livestock Feed. Journal of Experimental Biology and Agricultural Sciences., 4(6), 670–674.</p>

<p>2.Biswas, S., Sarkar, S. (2013). Azolla cultivation: A supplementary cattle feed production through natural resource management. Agriculture Update. Hind Agricultural Research and Training Institute. 8(4), 670-672.</p>

<p>3.Brouwer, P., Schluepmann, H., Nierop, K. G. J., Elderson, J., Bijl, P. K., van der Meer, I., de Visser, W., Reichart, G.-J., Smeekens, S., & van der Werf, A. (2018). Growing Azolla to produce sustainable protein feed: the effect of differing species and CO2 concentrations on biomass productivity and chemical composition. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 98(12), 4759–4768.</p>

<p>4.Chander, M. (2011). Azolla: A sustainable animal feed? In Successes and failures with animal nutrition practices and technologies in developing countries (pp. 119–123). Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations (FAO), Rome. Retrieved from https://www.fao.org/3/i2270e/i2270e.pdf</p>

<p>5.FAO. (1977). China: Azolla Propagation and Small-scale Biogas Technology. Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations, Rome. Retrieved from
https://www.fao.org/3/ar120e/ ar120e.pdf</p>

<p>6.Huggins, D. (2007). Evaluation of Azolla plant as an alternative stockfeed source. Prepared For: Goulburn Broken Catchment Authority. Retrieved from
https://www.gbcma.vic.gov.au/downloads/EnvironmentalFlows/2007-12-13_Evaluation_of_Azolla_Plant_as_an_Alternative_Stockfeed_Source.pdf</p>

<p>7. Lumpkin, T.A., Plucknett, D.L. (1980). Azolla: Botany, physiology, and use as a green manure. Economic Botany 34, 111–153. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02858627 </p>

<p>8. Shiomi, N., Kitoh, S. (2001). Culture of Azolla in a pond, nutrient composition, and use as fish feed. Soil Science and Plant Nutrition., 47(1), 27–34.</p>

<p>9. Subbiah, G. (2017). Azolla cultivation in generating income for farm women. Approaches in Poultry, Dairy & Veterinary Sciences, 1(5).</p> https://doi.org/10.31031/apdv.2017.01.000521</p>

<p>10. Thomas B. R., Peters, G. A., Toia, R. E., & Mayne, B. C. (1978). Azolla-Anabaena Relationship. VII. Distribution of Ammonia-Assimilating Enzymes, Protein, and Chlorophyll between Host and Symbiont. Plant Physiology, 62(3), 463–467. http://www.jstor.org/stable/4265459</p>

<p>12. Wagner, G. (1997). Azolla: A Review of Its Biology and Utilization. The Botanical Review, 63(1), 1–26.</p>
</div>
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Template:Chapters 10.3

2026-01-14T15:37:13Z

Mamta:

<div>
<div class="title"><h3>10.3 - Fish in rice paddies as a mid-season protein source</h3><br><h3 class="ch-owner">Chloe Zivot, University of Guelph, Canada </h3></div>
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[[File:4.jpg|300px]]

<p><b>Related video(s)</b>: Stocking fingerlings in a nursery pond (Source: Access Agriculture)</p>
<p><i> https://www.accessagriculture.org/stocking-fingerlings-nursery-pond?cat_id=1499</i></p>

<p>Suggested citation for this chapter.</p>
<p>Zivot,C. (2022) Fish in rice paddies as a mid-season protein source, The Encyclopedia for Small Scale Farmers. Editor, M.N. Raizada, University of Guelph, Canada. http://www.farmpedia.org</p>
<h3 class="title-bg">Introduction</h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Smallholder farmers are often hungry during mid-season prior to the crop harvest. Farming fish within rice paddies can help to alleviate this hunger and provide a valuable source of protein to smallholder households as well as organic fertilizer and other agronomic benefits for rice production. Believed to have originated in China approximately 1700 years ago (Guo, 2001), the practice of farming fish within rice paddies is still most widely observed in Asia (Halwart and Gupta, 2004). The following chapter will provide basic instructions regarding its implementation, benefits and constraints, and will provide further resources to help get started.</p>
</div>
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<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">Implementation of rice-fish farming systems</h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>There are two primary methods of production within rice-fish farming, namely concurrent production (characterized by the simultaneous cultivation of fish and rice within the same paddy), and rotational production (when fish and rice are grown at different times) (Halwart and Gupta, 2004). The chapter will focus primarily on concurrent production, as it is most commonly practiced (FAO, n.d.), and is considered the most efficient of the two systems in terms of water resource usage (Frei and Becker, 2005). That being said, depending on the land, growing season(s), and irrigation structure it is possible in some cases that rotational production may be more appropriate, and in some aspects more productive - please consult the additional resources provided at the end of the chapter.</p>
<p><i>Selection and preparation of land</i></p>
<p>When determining what land to use for rice-fish farming, two of the most important factors to consider are water and soil (Sollows, 2001a). In cases where the land is not evenly elevated, the selection of higher-lying land may result in a shortage of water as it will flow downwards (Sollows, 2001a). Therefore, in these cases farmers should select comparatively low-lying land (Miah et al., 2011). Yet lower-lying land is more vulnerable to flooding, therefore it is important for farmers to evaluate their ability to control flooding when selecting a location (Sollows, 2001a). Regardless, it is critical that the land selected be above maximum flood level if possible (Sollows, 2001a). Loamy or clay-based soil is ideal for rice-fish systems as it has a high water-holding capacity (Miah et al., 2011). In the event that only sandy soil is available, the farmer may have to apply manure heavily throughout the season to ensure water retention (Sollows, 2001a). An additional factor to consider is proximity of the land to the farmer’s home, as this may reduce overall time spent maintaining the paddy (Sollows, 2001a).</p>
<p>Generally speaking, there are four major adaptations that must be made to the rice paddy to implement concurrent rice-fish production; the creation of a refuge, the increase in height of surrounding dikes (or bunds), and the provision of screens and drains (Halwart and Gupta, 2004).</p>
<p>A refuge can take several forms, such as trenches, sumps or pits, and ponds. The purpose of the refuge in rice-fish system is to provide a deeper area for the fish, where they can retreat to during points in the season if/when the water level in the paddy becomes too low or dries up (Figure 1). Additionally, the refuge can be used to contain fish for further propagation as the rice is harvested, as well as to increase the convenience of harvesting the fish themselves (Halwart and Gupta, 2004). To provide fish access to the entire paddy, trenches (or canals) should be created throughout and/or around the periphery of the paddy, connecting back to the central refuge (pond, pit, or trench) (Miah et al., 2011; Bocek, n.d.). Though structure and placement of the refuge may vary, most sources recommend that the refuge be approximately 50 cm deep and 1 m wide (Halwart and Gupta, 2004; Miah et al., 2011; Bocek, n.d.), providing the fish with a sanctuary 25-30 cm below paddy level. Altogether the fish refuge(s) should only take up 5-10% of the paddy area, as to maximize rice production (Miah et al., 2011; Bocek, n.d.).</p>
<p>Additionally, the dikes (or bunds), or in other words the embankments surrounding the paddy, must be raised higher than they would be for solely rice culture, in order to prevent fish from escaping. Recommended dike height is between 40 centimetres (Halwart and Gupta, 2004; Bocek, n.d.) and 60 centimetres (Miah et al., 2011), and width between 40 and 50 centimeters (Halwart, 2004; Bocek, n.d.). They also must be strong enough to hold water (and prevent flooding), therefore the use of good quality clay is recommended (Bocek, n.d.).</p>
<p>Finally screens and (if possible) drains should be added. As the water level in the paddy must vary at different points in the season, there must be a way for water to move in and out of the paddy. In regular rice culture, farmers would create a temporary gap in the dike to allow its passage. In rice-fish culture, screens must be used to cover these openings, to prevent fish from escaping (and predatory fish or animals from entering the paddy) (Halwart and Gupta, 2004). Recommended materials to use are bamboo slats, baskets, or pieces of fish net (Halwart and Gupta, 2004). Instead of making temporary breaches in the dikes (which in rice-fish culture are larger and harder to repair) to facilitate water flow, it is highly recommended that farmers create a more permanent drain system by inserting a drain (made potentially of a bamboo tube or chute, hollow log, or pipe) (Halwart and Gupta, 2004; Sollows, 2001b). These drain pipes would require screens, as discussed above. Please refer to Figure 1 for a visual aid regarding alterations to the paddy necessary for rice-fish.</p>

<p><i>Maintenance of rice-fish systems</i></p>
<p>There are many variations within rice-fish farming systems, according to the geographical location and associated growing season, land structure, and farmers’ desired use of the fish (i.e. to sell as fingerlings, consume or sell as matured fish, etc.). As such, the following few paragraphs will provide only generalized tips for rice-fish production and the reader is encouraged to explore the more situation-specific information provided in the additional resources.</p>
<p>To withstand the environment of the rice paddy, fish species selected should be able to tolerate shallow water, high temperatures, low oxygen levels and high turbidity (Hora and Pillay, 1962). Those most commonly recommended are cyprinids and tilapias, most specifically the common carp, silver barb, and Nile tilapia (Halwart and Gupta, 2004; Sollows, 2001c), although research suggests that most major freshwater species can be farmed successfully (Halwart and Gupta, 2004). The choice of species is most likely to depend on regional preferences as well as access to seed, which is highly dependent on the availability of hatchery and nursery technologies (which may pose difficulties in many rural areas in the Global South) (Halwart and Gupta, 2004).</p>
<p>In terms of stocking, because the growing season of fish is often (but not always) limited to that of rice, usually 100 to 150 days (Halwart and Gupta, 2004), it is best to stock the fish as early as possible in order to maximize the growing season (Sollows, 2001c). Yet, it is important to make sure that the safety of the newly transplanted rice crop is not threatened in the process. While it is possible to stock small hatchlings directly after transplanting of the rice, it is safest to wait until 2 to 3 rice tillers have appeared (usually 1 to 3 weeks after transplanting or 4 to 6 weeks after direct seeding) to release fish stocks, especially in the case of large fish (Sollows and Cruz, 2001). When releasing the fish from transport bags into the paddy, the bag should be submerged in the paddy until the water temperature inside the bag is the same as that of the paddy before releasing the fish (Sollows, 2001c). It is recommended that farmers culture 2 or more fish species, as then there will less competition for food amongst the fish (as different species eat different foods) (Sollows and Cruz, 2001). It is advised that fish be stocked in the paddy at a density of 3000/ha, at which level the organic materials found in the paddy should provide sufficient food for the fish (Sollows and Cruz, 2001). At higher levels, additional feed will likely be necessary (Sollows and Cruz, 2001). Although the harvesting process varies greatly across field type, production type, and geographical location, fish are often harvested approximately a few days to a week before or after the rice has been harvested (paddy has been drained) (Miah et al., 2011; Bocek, n.d.). In terms of rice varieties, there is no knowledge of any variety that does not work with fish (Sollows and Cruz, 2001), and hence the use of local and preferred varieties should be fine. That being said, rice varieties with certain qualities are often preferred, such as those which are deep water-tolerant or that tiller rapidly (allowing fish to be stocked earlier) (Sollows and Cruz, 2001).</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">Benefits and constraints to adoption</h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Unfortunately, while it has been well documented that rice-fish farming can have widespread economic, agricultural, ecological and nutritional benefits, the practice is often underestimated and undervalued by policy-makers and development practitioners alike (Halwart and Gupta, 2004; Halwart 2006).</p>

<p><i>Food security and nutrition benefits</i></p>
<p>A primary benefit of rice-fish farming is its potential effects on food security and nutrition. As noted in the Introduction, many farm households experience increased hunger in the mid-season (sometimes referred to as the hungry season) as this period is commonly the interim between the new harvest and the depletion of food stores from the previous one (Prein and Ahmed, 2000). Practicing rice-fish farming can reduce household stress during this period as small fish can be consumed to ensure adequate food supply until the harvest. In addition to providing sustenance in times of extreme scarcity, rice-fish farming can have an important effect on household nutrition (Halwart, 2006). The consumption of fish (often eaten whole) can provide households with critical micronutrients not sufficiently found in rice, such as calcium, iron, zinc, vitamin A, as well as some fatty acids and amino acids (Halwart, 2006).</p>

<p><i>Agricultural, ecological, and economic benefits</i></p>
<p>There are many agricultural, ecological, and economic benefits to rice-fish farming. It is estimated that rice yields are increased by approximately 10% (Sollows and Cruz, 2001; Halwart and Gupta, 2004). Fish feed on weeds and many insects, greatly reducing the presence of weeds, as well as the need for both insecticides and pesticides (Halwart, 2006). Additionally, the excrement of the fish, as well as decomposition of dead fish provides nutrients to the paddy soil, which act as a natural fertilizer (Halwart and Gupta, 2004). Also, the movement of fish releases nutrients from the soil and encourages uptake by the plant (Halwart and Gupta, 2004). As a final notable benefit, studies show that rice-fish fields are better able to produce and conserve nitrogen, and fish grazing keeps pH levels lower and decreases the volatilization of ammonia (a process which can cause extreme losses in nitrogen) (Halwart and Gupta, 2004). The associated decrease in use of chemical insecticides, pesticides and fertilizers can significantly help to increase biodiversity and ecosystem health (Halwart and Gupta, 2004).</p>
<p>There are significant economic gains which can be observed through the practice of rice-fish farming, both at the household and macro-economic level. Research reveals that increases in net income on rice-fish farms, due to savings on pesticides and earnings on fish sales, are 7 to 65% higher than on rice monoculture farms (Halwart and Gupta, 2004). The increased practice of rice-fish farming could also have other beneficial effects on the economy, as the increased demand for labour, hatcheries and nurseries, and transportation of fish seed (amongst other forms of related employment) can contribute to national income (Halwart and Gupta, 2004).</p>

<p><i>Constraints to adoption</i></p>
<p>It is important to mention a few important constraints surrounding the implementation and practice of rice-fish farming. Firstly, the preparation of land as well as farming itself is more labour-intensive than rice monoculture (Halwart and Gupta, 2004). Although purely speculative, it is possible that if a farm household is not able to afford additional labourers, the increase in labour may fall on women and children. This could result in negative societal impacts such as lower school attendance levels and related negative future livelihood impacts.</p>
<p>Additionally, farmers may be resistant to adopt rice-fish farming as it restricts the use of pesticides, which they may be accustomed to using. In the event that pesticides or nitrogen rich fertilizers are applied (or accidentally enter the paddy with the flood water), due to the associated increase in the concentration of ammonia (poisonous to fish in its unionized form), death of the fish could occur (Halwart and Gupta, 2004; Sollows 2011d). This could cause a significant and devastating shock to farm household income, and fear of such an occurrence may lower adoption levels.</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Picture Based Lesson to Train Farmers </h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
[[Image:11.3 page-0001.jpg|thumb|centre|Picture Based Lesson to Train Farmer|Click on the image to access a higher resolution image as well as lessons adapted for different geographic regions.]]</p>
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</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">Additional Resources</h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>The resources below provide detailed descriptions of rice-fish farming practices across countries, climates, and land structures, as well as more detailed information on rice and fish species, and the benefits constraints of rice-fish culture:</p>

<p>Additional practical instructions for rice-fish paddy adaptations and practice:</p>
<p>http://www.fao.org/3/a-a0823e.pdf</p>
<p>http://www.fao.org/docrep/005/Y1187E/y1187e00.htm#TopOfPage</p>
<p>Curriculum for farmer field school on rice-fish culture</p>
<p>Handout for the use of NGO partners, agricultural extension officers, and other relevant actors</p>
[[File:capture 215.JPG]]
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</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">References</h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>1.Bocek, A. (n.d.). Introduction to Fish Culture in Rice Paddies. International Center for Aquaculture and Aquatic Environments, Auburn University</p>
<p>2.FAO. (n.d.). Rice-Fish Culture System (RFC). Technologies and practices for small agricultural producers, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.</p>
<p>3.Frei, M. & Becker, K. (2005). Intergrated rice-fish culture: Coupled production saves resources. Natural Resources Forum, 29(2), 135-143. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1477-8947.2005.00122.x</p>
<p>4.Guo, Y.(2001). Rice-fish systems in China. In Integrated agriculture-aquaculture: a primer. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper, No. 407. Retrieved from http://www.fao.org/docrep/005/Y1187E/y1187e21.htm#y</p>
<p>5.Halwart, M., & Gupta, M. V. (2004). Culture of Fish in Rice Fields. FAO and The WorldFish Center. Retrieved from http://www.fao.org/3/a-a0823e.pdf
<p>6.Halwart, M. (2006). Biodiversity and nutrition in rice-based aquatic ecosystems. Journal of Food Composition and Analysis, 19(6–7), 747–751. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfca.2006.03.012</p>
<p>7.Hora, S.L., & Pillay, T.V.R. (1962). Handbook on Fish Culture in the Indo-Pacific Region. FAO Fish. Biol. Tech., (14), 203p.</p>
<p>8.Miah, M. A., Ali, H., & Rahman, H. (2011). Training Manual on Improved Rice-Fish Culture and Dyke Cropping. World Fish Center. Retrieved from http://pubs.iclarm.net/resource_centre/CSISA-Training-manual-rice-fish.pdf</p>
<p>9.Prein, M. & Ahmed, M. (2000). Integration of aquaculture into smallholder farming systems for improved food security and household nutrition. Food Nutrition Bulletin 21, 21(4), 466–471. https://doi.org/10.1177/156482650002100424</p>
<p>10.Sollows, J. & Cruz, C.D. (2001). Rice management in rice-fish culture. In Integrated agriculture-aquaculture: a primer. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper, No. 407. Retrieved from http://www.fao.org/docrep/005/Y1187E/y1187e30.htm#ii</p>
<p>11. Sollows, J. (2001a). Site selection: where to culture fish with rice?. In Integrated agriculture-aquaculture: a primer. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper, No. 407. Retrieved from http://www.fao.org/docrep/005/Y1187E/y1187e26.htm#ee
<p>12.Sollows, J. (2001b). Preparation of field for rice-fish culture. In Integrated agriculture-aquaculture: a primer. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper, No. 407. Retrieved from http://www.fao.org/docrep/005/Y1187E/y1187e27.htm#ff</p>
<p>13.Sollows, J. (2001c). Stocking for rice-fish culture. In Integrated agriculture-aquaculture: a primer. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper, No. 407. Retrieved from http://www.fao.org/docrep/005/Y1187E/y1187e28.htm#gg</p>
<p>14.Sollows, J. (2001d). Rice-fish benefits and problems. In Integrated agriculture-aquaculture: a primer. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper, No. 407. Retrieved from http://www.fao.org/docrep/005/Y1187E/y1187e31.htm#jj</p>

Template:Chapters 8.51

2026-01-14T15:34:59Z

Mamta:

<div>
<div class="title"><h3>8.51-Pineapple Value Addition</h3><br><h3 class="ch-owner">Ashleigh Pulford, University of Guelph, Canada </h3></div>
<div class="hero-img-2">
[[File:4.jpg|300px]]
<p><b>Related video(s)</b>: Solar drying pineapples (Source: Access Agriculture)</p>
<p><i> https://www.accessagriculture.org/solar-drying-pineapples?cat_id=1499</i></p>

<p>Suggested citation for this chapter.</p>
<p>Pulford,A. (2022) Pineapple Value Addition,In Farmpedia, The Encyclopedia for Small Scale Farmers. Editor, M.N. Raizada, University of Guelph, Canada. http://www.farmpedia.org</p>
<h3 class="title-bg">Introduction</h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<P>In Africa, the number of people suffering from chronic undernourishment has risen from 20.8 to 22.7 percent (FAO, 2017). Even though Africa is bestowed with a vast array of natural resources, the continent still suffers from the highest rates of poverty globally. The majority of these people are smallholder subsistence farmers that farm enough produce to feed themselves and their families. The raw commodity crop is grown by these farmers, which obtains a poor market value. One relatively simple solution is to increase the value of these crops after harvest. Value Addition in agriculture involves processing a raw product into something manufactured so that it is of higher value when sold. Selling these higher value products both locally and through exporting to international markets would bring greater wealth to the farmer and boost the countries economy.</p>

<p>Pineapple (Ananas comosus) is a perennial monocot that takes approximately 2-3 years to develop. It is a tropical fruit that has numerous health benefits as a rich source of vitamins, mineral and antioxidants. Currently it is the third most important tropical fruit crop grown after bananas and citrus fruits (Hossain, 2016) and 11th as the most cultivated fruit globally. Representing Africa, Nigeria ranks 7th as one of the top 10 producer countries and the leading pineapple producer in Africa with 1, 420, 000 tonnes in 2014 (UNCTAD, 2016). As an important economic crop, pineapple has the potential to increase the national income of the African people through higher production which increases local industries involved with its manufacturing.</p>

<p>In countries such as Nigeria and Ghana, where pineapple production is highest, the majority of the fruit is sold as fresh produce at local markets for domestic consumption. However, “due to production inefficiencies, post-harvest losses, low level of technology to facilitate processing of quality pineapple products and inefficient marketing system” (Adegbite, Oni & Adeoye, 2014) it still has the lowest productivity compared to the other top producing countries.</p>

<p>There are many affordable ways in which small hold farmer in Africa can add value to their commodity. Value addition for pineapple farmers can be categorized into separate groups: 1. Food, and 2. Medical.</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">Value Addition Ideas</h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p><b><i>Pineapple juice:</i></b></p>
<p>Pineapples are harvested and peeled, before being passed through a fruit crusher and screw juicer. Jars and bottles can pack well and are easily transported without the risk of breakage “The juice is heated to approximately 80˚C for 5 minutes” (Orwa, 2017), poured into jars and sealed. Agricultural scientist and engineers from the Department of Agricultural and Environmental Engineering in Nigeria have built a portable multipurpose extractor (Aremu & Clement, 2016) as an affordable machine for farmers. They also provide the relevant training and safety instruction on how to operate the machinery. In Ghana the recommended price of approximately half – litre bottle of pineapple juice, or mixed juice with other fruits is 1.5 cedis ($1 USD) (Ross, 2009). Although this is almost 3 times the price of bottled Coke, the population is willing to support farmers.</p>

<p><i>Additional Resources for Further Information:</i></p>
<p>Capitol Foods is a beverage manufacturing company in Sierra Leone (West Africa) that provides videos on how pineapples can be processed and juiced; https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rWJwY4zEv9w </p>
<p>Alibaba.com is an international trade site that connects suppliers and consumers with products that they need, the economic value of pineapple concentrate, can be found as well; https://www.alibaba.com/product-detail/Pineapple-Juice-Concentrate-clarified-65-Brix_50045489804.html?spm=a2700.7724838.2017115.19.1fd27932Wumgwc</p>

<p><b><i>Pineapple jams and chutneys:</i></b></p>

<p>Value can be added by making preserved products from excess products or fruit that is not of the quality for the fresh fruit market. For jams, the pineapple is finely diced and cooked over heat, mixed with sugar and then cooled and packaged into jars. With the chutney, the addition of vinegar and other spices are added to the pineapple. If available other fruits can be added to the chutney; this could add value to the final product. This can be placed into jars and packed for the local and international market given its extended shelf life. These could be used as an additive for other meals, packaged for boutique markets (e.g. local tourists hotels) where they could fetch a higher price. A jar of pineapple jam can be sold in Kenya for 199KSh ($2 USD) which is considerably higher than the price of a fresh whole pineapple (Zesta Pineapple Jam, 2018).</p.
<p><i>Additional Resources for Further Information:</i></p>
<p>Practical Action is a charity, that provides funding to people in Africa for their business ideas. For methods on how to make jams and chutneys refer to; https://www.ctc-n.org/sites/www.ctc-n.org/files/resources/4f78af5f-cea4-45b8-b13e-08e31661b3dc.pdf</p>

<p><b><i>Solar dehydration for pineapple chips:</i></b></p>

<p>Dehydrating of excess pineapple is a low-cost option that can be implemented by farmers, once given the specific training. The driers are built from wood and polythene which can be sourced and built (Figure 1) locally, with the only other expenses being labour and upkeep (Tiwari, 2016). The pineapples are peeled and cut into desired shapes, placed onto ventilated sheets and placed into the drier for 12 – 48 hours depending on climatic conditions. As these solar dehydrators can be expensive to purchase at first a solution is for multiple farmers to invest in a large scale dryer (Dryers For Africa, n.d.). Once dried, is sorted weighed and packaged for the local and international markets. Pineapple dried using this method can be stored for up to one year. Appealing packaging labels make the product more appealing to the consumer therefore making it more economically viable. A 1 kilo bag of pineapple chips sells in Uganda Shs10, 000 ($2.70 USD) and could be increased in the international market (Muzaale, 2017). Dried fruit is susceptible to less damage so is suited for transportation. Bakeries and other food companies may purchase the dehydrated product to use in other food products are to rehydrate pieces at a later date.</p>
<p><i>Additional Resources for Further Information:</i></p>
<p>Dryers For Africa is a design and manufacturing company of agricultural processing equipment for farmers in Africa. Its aims to assist farmers with processing solutions including dehydrators; http://dryersforafrica.co.za/products.html</p>
<p><b><i>Figure 1: Example of a low-cost solar dehydrator construction Source: https://www.omicsonline.org/open-access/a-review-on-solar-drying-of-agricultural-produce-2157-7110-1000623.php?aid=80529</i></b></p>
[[File:Capture 915.JPG]]
<p><b><i>Skewered pineapple</i></b></p>
<P>Pineapples are harvested, peeled and cut into 2-3 cm chunks. The pieces are placed on wooden skewers and can be served fresh, frozen or grilled. As grilled, it can be served as it or with other locally sourced spices for additional flavours. Each of the skewers can have additional seasonal fruits or even meats added to them for increased market value.</P>
<p><i>Additional Resources for Further Information:</i></p>
<p>The Spruce Fruits provides a detailed method on how to prepared pineapple skewers as well as serving options; https://www.thespruceeats.com/grilled-pineapple-dessert-recipe-3217382 </p>

<p><b><i>Alcoholic pineapple beverages:</i></b></p>
<p>The pineapples are thoroughly washed and peeled. The fruit can be used for other products while the peel is boiled in a pot with water and sugar. Yeast is then added to the mixture after it has been reduced before it is placed in jars</p>
[[File:Capture_916.JPG]]
<p>and sorted for the fermentation process. The biggest cost factor would be the purchasing of the yeast. Some farmers may choose to leave pineapple pieces in the beverage for additional sweetness and decorative measures. In Uganda a 750 ml bottle of wine may sell for approximately Shs12, 000 ($3.20 USD) but is worth more during holiday and festive seasons (Muzaale, 2017). Figure 2 is an example of how pineapple farmers would sell their fermented pineapple product.</p>
<p><b><i>Additional Resources for Further Information:</i></b></p>
<p>The following article shows how a small Ugandan farmer who has turned to producing pineapple wine to add value to her pineapples. It also include a recipe on how she makes her product; https://www.monitor.co.ug/Magazines/Farming/Making-money-from-pineapple-wine/689860-3872856-3wf3oa/index.html </p>
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<h3 class="title-bg">Critical Analysis</h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>As a raw product pineapple is consumed as ripened fresh produce. It has a sweet flesh that makes it a popular product. An issue is that during the harvest season many markets are faced with an oversupply of products and without processing or preservation methods, pineapples are wasted or become undervalued on the market. However, unfortunately fresh pineapple has a relatively short shelf life (1-2 days) after harvest, so it has the ability to take advantage of value addition methods. Farmers do need to be trained to learn when is the optimal time to harvest pineapples, as under-ripe and over-ripe fruits are of a lower quality which results in low prices. Due to the short shelf life of the product, many of the processing facilities would have to be in close proximity to the farms. The key is to have the value adding process at the farm rather than at a factory. Farming equipment is relatively cost effective and the majority is already market available making processing cheaper and more accessible. Processing would give small hold farmer a way to maximise the potential of their crops yield for an extended time rather than just the harvesting season. Eye-catching marketing and sales techniques are required for all of the value addition products. Farmers can achieve this by forming cooperatives or by community collaboration. For example many farmers (even of different products) may chose to together purchase storage or refrigeration to reduce costs or may put their products together on the same transportation vehicle.</p>

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<h3 class="title-bg">References </h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>1. Adegbite, O., Oni, O., & Adeoye, I. (2014). Competitiveness of Pineapple Production in Osun State, Nigeria. Journal Of Economics And Sustainable Development, 5(2), 1 - 10. Retrieved from https://s3.amazonaws.com/academia.edu.documents/34228025/Competitiveness_of_Pineapple_Production_in_Osun_State__Nigeria.pdf?AWSAccessKeyId=AKIAIWOWYYGZ2Y53UL3A&Expires=1541970724&Signature=p2RAwNoPyfNWBFJq%2Bk5b8XKcOI4%3D&response-content-disposition=inline%3B%20filename%3DIISTE_international_journals_2014_editio.pdf</p>
<p>2. Aremu, A., & Clement, O. (2016). Development and Evaluation of a Multipurpose Juice Extractor. New York Science Journal, 9(6), 7-14. doi: 10.7537/marsnys09061602</p>
<p>3. Capitol Foods. (2017). Sierra Juice - Pineapple Juice Processing [Video]. Sierra Leone.</p>
<p>4. De La Cruz Medina, J., & Garcia, H. (2018). Pineapple: Post-harvest Operations (pp. 2-29). Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome. Retrieved from http://www.fao.org/fileadmin/user_upload/inpho/docs/Post_Harvest_Compendium_-_Pineapple.pdf</p>
<p>5. Dryers For Africa. Retrieved from http://dryersforafrica.co.za/products.html</p>
<p>6. Enzyme Technologies (Pty) Ltd is a biotechnology company ba. (2018). Retrieved from http://www.bromelainsa.co.za/page.aspx?ID=3689</p>
<p>7. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. (2017). Regional Overview of Food Security and Nutrition in Africa 2017. The food security and nutrition–conflict nexus: building resilience for food security, nutrition and peace. FAO, Rome. Retrieved from http://www.fao.org/3/a-i7967e.pdf</p>
<p>8. Hossain, F. (2016). World pineapple production: An overview. African Journal Of Food, Agriculture, Nutrition And Development, 16(4), 11443-11456. doi: 10.18697/ajfand.76.15620</p>
<p>9. Kuwornu, J., Abdulai, A., & Owsei-Asare, Y. (2013). Financial Viability, Value Addition and Constraint Analyses of Certified Organic Pineapple Production and Marketing in Ghana. African Journal Of Basic & Applied Sciences, 5(1), 12-24. doi: 10.5829/idosi.ajbas.2013.5.1.1123</p>
<p>10. Muzaale, F. (2017). Making money from pineapple wine. Retrieved from https://www.monitor.co.ug/Magazines/Farming/Making-money-from-pineapple-wine/689860-3872856-3wf3oa/index.html</p>
<p>11. Muzaale, F. (2017). Pineapple crisps are a money maker for Nakiwala. Retrieved from https://www.monitor.co.ug/Magazines/Farming/Pineapple-crisps-money--maker--Nakiwala/689860-3933162-qgdqnnz/index.html</p>
<p>12. Nyamwaro, S., Tenywa, M., Kalibwani, R., Mogabo, J., Buruchara, R., & Fatunbi, A. (2018). Innovation Opportunities in Organic Pineapple Production in Uganda (p. 18). Forum for Agricultural Research in Africa. Retrieved from https://faraafrica.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/FRR-Vol-2-No-17-2018.pdf</p>
<p>13. Orwa, J. (2017). Easy ways to extend pineapple shelf-life. Retrieved from https://www.nation.co.ke/business/seedsofgold/Easy-ways-to-extend-pineapple-shelflife/2301238-3508512-g45psnz/index.html</p>
<p>14. Pineapple Jam. (2018). Retrieved from https://www.ctc-n.org/sites/www.ctc-n.org/files/resources/4f78af5f-cea4-45b8-b13e-08e31661b3dc.pdf</p>
<p>15. Pineapple Juice Concentrate Clarified 65 Brix And 60 Brix - Buy Pineapple Juice,Pineapple Juice Concentrate,Quality Cheap Pineapple Juice Concentrate Product on Alibaba.com. (2018). Retrieved from https://www.alibaba.com/product-detail/Pineapple-Juice-Concentrate-clarified-65-Brix_50045489804.html?spm=a2700.7724838.2017115.19.1fd27932Wumgwc</p>
<p>16. Pipyfawole, O. (2008). Pineapple farmers' information sources and usage in Nigeria. Bulgarian Journal Of Agricultural Science, Agricultural Academy, 14(4), 381-389. Retrieved from https://www.agrojournal.org/14/04-05-08.pdf</p>
<p>17. Ross, W. (2009). BBC News | World | Africa | Ghana's juicy economic lesson. Retrieved from http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7939221.stm</p>
<p>18. Schmidt, D. (2018). A Basic Grilled Pineapple Recipe. Retrieved from https://www.thespruceeats.com/grilled-pineapple-dessert-recipe-3217382</p>
<p>19. Solar drying pineapples | Access Agriculture. (2018). Retrieved from https://www.accessagriculture.org/solar-drying-pineapples</p>
<p>20. Tiwari, A. (2016). A Review on Solar Drying of Agricultural Produce. Journal Of Food Processing & Technology, 7(9). 2-12, doi: 10.4172/2157-7110.1000623</p>
<p>21. UNCTAD Trust Fund on Market Information on Agricultural Commodities. (2016). Pineapple. Geneva: United Nations Conference on Trade and Development, https://unctad.org/en/PublicationsLibrary/INFOCOMM_cp09_Pineapple_en.pdf.</p>
<p>22. Zesta Pineapple Jam. (2018). Retrieved from https://yaoota.com/en-ke/product/zesta-500g-pineapple-jam-price-from-foodplus-kenya</p>

Template:Chapters 8.48

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<div class="title"><h3>8.48-Banana Value Addition in Africa</h3><br><h3 class="ch-owner">Jocelyn S. Wanders, University of Guelph, Canada </h3></div>
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<p><b>Related video(s)</b>: Making banana flour (Source: Access Agriculture)</p>
<p><i> https://www.accessagriculture.org/making-banana-flour?cat_id=1499</i></p>

<p>Suggested citation for this chapter.</p>
<p>Wanders,SJ. (2022) Banana Value Addition in Africa,In Farmpedia, The Encyclopedia for Small Scale Farmers. Editor, M.N. Raizada, University of Guelph, Canada. http://www.farmpedia.org</p>
<h3 class="title-bg">Brief Background of Crop</h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<P>Bananas are indispensable to a human’s daily nutrition intake in many parts of the world today, particularly to those dwelling in Africa. Bananas in Africa can, and often do, provide, “up to 25% of the daily calorie intake” (FAO, 2018). Aside from that, they hold great potential to create additional income for subsistence farmers. There are four types of bananas, and each type provides its own possibilities for value additions. The four types of bananas are: cooking bananas, roasting bananas, brewing (juice) bananas and dessert bananas (Rietveld, Mpiira & Karamura, 2013). Within these types, there are hundreds of varieties. In addition to the potential of the banana itself, the banana tree and leaves offer even more ways to establish a secondary source of income for subsistence farmers.</p>
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<h3 class="title-bg">Value Addition Ideas </h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p><b>Banana beer</b></p>
<p>One of the most common bananas today in Africa is the East Africa Highland Banana (EAHB). The EAHB feeds 80 million people - that is how vital it is to a typical African diet (IITA Nigeria). Due to its popularity, the EAHB is the perfect banana to use to create an additional income for a subsistence farmer through the production of banana beer. Already a source of additional income to many subsistence farmers, banana beer production is ideal due to its low cost of production and reasonable selling price at market. Banana beer production is also relatively simple, in comparison to the other banana value additions that will be discussed further on.</p>
<p>The first step a farmer must take in the production of banana beer is to harvest their bananas (or a part of the banana crop) early, when the bananas are still green. Then, the farmer must forcibly cause those bananas to ripen, which should be done by placing them in a heated environment. There are two popular ways to ripen the bananas for beer making. The first is to dig a pit, put the green bananas in the pit, and cover them back up with banana leaves. The second option is to pile the bananas above a cooking hearth (ProMusa, 2016). This ripening process will take approximately six days, and when the bananas are ripe, they will appear yellow. Ensuring that the bananas are properly ripened is key, for the banana beer will not turn out properly otherwise. Once the bananas are ripe and yellow, they will go into a fermentation vessel, where they will be kneaded with some sort of spear grass, until the juice of the bananas can be extracted. This juice should then be diluted with water at a ratio of one volume of water to three volumes of juice (Azam-Ali, 2008). Once the water and juice is mixed, a roasted cereal flour should be added to the mixture (typically sorghum). This thicker mixture is then added to a fermentation vessel again and covered. This will then be left to ferment for 18 to 24 hours. Once fermented, it can be filtered and poured into jars and brought to market. Given the relatively short shelf life of banana beer, it should be taken to market as quickly as possible. Making banana beer is efficient because only a knife, a cotton cloth to filter the final product, and a fermentation vessel are required (Azam-Ali, 2008). These items can be purchased by an individual or, to bring the costs down, by a group of people.</p>
<p>For most subsistence farmers, the most ideal target market is their own community. Many women who produce banana beer act as “grower, brewer and retailer” (ProMusa, 2016). Because many women have young children at home, setting up a small bar in or near their home is the most ideal option. Studies show that beer banana growers can earn approximately $6.00/ month and a jerry can of banana beer can sell anywhere from $2.00USD to $4.00USD (Rietveld, Mpiira, Jogo, Staver, & Karamura, 2013).</p>
<p><b>Banana wine</b></p>
<p>Another drink that can be produced using bananas is banana wine. Banana wine is especially popular in Uganda (Watsemwa, 2017). It is made from overripe bananas that are commonly just tossed away. Overripe bananas contain high levels of sugar, so they are ideal to be used in the making of wine. In the African Journal of Biotechnology, several authors outline exactly what is required to produce one gallon of wine. They write, “2 kg of dessert or cooking banana pulp and ¼ kg of the peel is required, in addition to 1.5 kg of granulated sugar, 4.5 litres of water and a few drops of yeast extract. Juice of one grape, one lemon, and sweet orange may be required to serve as yeast nutrient” (Adeniji, Tenkouano, Ezurike, Ariyo & Vroh-Bi, 2010). In order to produce wine, the ingredients will have to go through two processes of fermentation. Exact steps to producing wine can be found in the article published in the African Journal of Biotechnology, listed below under ‘Helpful Links’.</p>
<p>The target market of banana wine is quite similar to banana beer: local markets, roadsides, and village and urban beer clubs (Rivard, 2009). For an approximate idea of how much banana wine can be sold for, one 320 mL bottle of wine in Rwanda could sell (in groceries stores) for $0.50USD, in 2016 (Douglas, 2016).</p>
<b><p>Banana juice</b></p>
<p>Banana juice is another drink that can be produced from bananas (specifically overripe ones) (Murori, 2016), though it is less popular than the production of banana beer, and does not generate the sort of income banana wine would (Watsemwa, 2017). A combined need for additional income and a desire to reduce banana waste has caused an explosion of interest in making banana juice (Kibui, 2015). A link to a detailed explanation of how to produce banana juice is listed below, under ‘Helpful Links’. The process is very similar to the first steps in making banana beer; it requires extracting a pure substance from ripe bananas, using a spear grass to produce this substance. Like beer and wine, the ideal market for this juice is the local markets and surrounding communities.</p>
<b><p>Banana chips and flour</b></p>
<p>Bananas can also be used to produce banana chips and banana flour. There is an opening in the market for banana chips, and due to their relatively simple production, this represents a good value addition idea. A video posted below under ‘Helpful Links’ shows a woman describing the steps of making banana chips. Banana flour, made from a green cooking banana, is a gluten free product, which will increase its value on the market. Banana flour also has an extensive shelf life compared to many other banana products, so that greatly increases its value for farmers who cannot get to the market in a small amount of time (IITA, 2008). However, the cost of making banana flour is high compared to other value addition ideas. The magazine The Organic Farmer provides step by step instructions for producing banana flour, as well as banana jam and banana juice. This information can be accessed through their website, which is listed under ‘Helpful Links’ (The Organic Farmer, 2015).</p>
<b><p>Banana peels as animal feed</b></p>
<p>In making edible items such as banana flour and banana chips, the peels are not necessary and are usually discarded. Therefore, coming up with ways to use the excess peels has been a topic of research. Studies have found that banana peels (and in some cases, even the leaves) can be used as feed for goats, especially during the dry season (Nuruddin, 2014, Babatunde). Goats are the most affordable and common animal for African families (FAO, 2018) so using the ‘waste’ of a banana for feed can literally be life changing. Goats can also eat bananas that are not quite fit for human consumption or market sales. Studies on bananas and their peels for goat (livestock) feed are ongoing.</p>
<b><p>Banana fiber</b></p>
<p> Another significant value addition product from bananas is the fiber that can be extracted from the tree trunk, once the bananas have been harvested (Obi, 2016). This fiber – which regularly goes to waste - can actually be used to make wrapping paper (Ramdhonee & Jeetah, 2017), paper bags and crafts (CGTN Africa, 2017), and most importantly, sanitary napkins for women all across Africa! Extensive work has been done by multiple groups and companies to find a way to design these sanitary napkins (Hello Tomorrow, 2017). Two university students from the U.K. worked with farmers from Rwanda to develop the following system: after using a knife to create stringy fibre from the trunk, they suggest drying the fibre in the sun. Then, a paste is made from the mixture of paper and water. Once this is made, the fibre is added to the mix. Then, the mix is cooked and dried in the sun. The result is an absorbent paper that can be used primarily as a sanitary napkin for women, and also as nappies for their babies (CGTN Africa, 2015). The women producing these products can either use these napkins for themselves, sell them, or both.</p>
<b><p>Banana-based soap</b></p>
<p>One final value addition idea t is the production of Black African soap that can be made from the leaves of banana and plantain trees. Black African soap is famous for how well it takes care of the skin, and it would have an extensive shelf life, so it would be ideal to take to market for extra income. In her article for the Mother Nature Network, author Jennifer Nelson describes the process of making soap in its simplest terms. She shares that, “the ingredients are sun-dried and roasted… water and oils… are then added. The soap is then left to sit and ‘cure’” (Nelson, 2015).</p>
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<h3 class="title-bg">Critical Analysis </h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>When deciding on which value addition to implement in an area, the most important concept to keep in mind is what banana type is available and what sort of community one is working with. If only one farmer is looking to improve his/ her income, something easily attainable for one person, like banana beer, would be a good choice. However, if there is an entire community seeking to increase their income, then creating crafts, bags or sanitary napkins would be ideal, for with combined funding the possibilities would be greater. Crafts and other items made out of banana fiber are expensive and labour intensive (Hendriksz, 2017).</p>
<p>The target market is also an important factor that can only be looked at when dealing with each individual case. If an extremely remote farmer is seeking improve his/her income, choosing a value addition with a long shelf life – such as wine, soap, or sanitary pads – would be best, so that they have time to make it to market before the product expires. An individual farmer would benefit most from making jam or soap, items that can be produced with minimal equipment. A group of extremely remote farmers could significantly benefit from investing in producing sanitary napkins as a whole – so determining how to add value must be done on a case by case basis.</p>
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<h3 class="title-bg">Helpful Links to Get Started </h3>
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<p><b>Banana Beer</b></p>
<p>https://www.ctc-n.org/sites/www.ctc-n.org/files/resources/4f561d67-1e24-47e9-b72a-4b080ae4f5bb.pdf</p>
<p>http://www.promusa.org/blogpost479-The-beer-bananas-of-East-Africa</p>
<p>http://distillique.co.za/distilling_shop/17-fermentation-equipment </p>
<p>http://www.theorganicfarmer.org/Articles/enhancing-banana-farming-adding-value </p>
<p><b>Banana Wine:</b></p>
<p>https://academicjournals.org/journal/AJB/article-full-text-pdf/9A86FF827613</p>
<p><b>Banana Juice:</b></p>
<p>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=agPABx21eZw</p>
<p><b>Banana Flour:</b></p>
<p>https://www.accessagriculture.org/making-banana-flour</p>
<p><b>Banana Chips:</b></p>
<p>http://www.westafricacooks.com/africa/banana-chips</p>
<p>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1L-KhQ4a0MM</p>
<p><b>Animal Feed:</b></p>
http://www.fao.org/docrep/003/T0554E/T0554E17.htm </p>
<p><b>Fibre:</b></p>
<p>https://www.alibaba.com/showroom/banana-fiber-extracting-machine.html</p>
<p>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pxszRlN8V7M</p>
<p>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LRU74ovJSPA</p>
<p>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=i5bRMQNJLso</p>
<p><b>Soap:</b></p>
<p>https://www.mnn.com/lifestyle/natural-beauty-fashion/stories/what-is-african-black-soap </p>
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<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">References </h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>1. Adeniji, T.A., Tenkouano, A., Ezurike, J. N., Ariyo, C. O., & Vroh-Bi, I. (2010). Value-adding post harvest processing of cooking bananas (Musa spp. AAB and ABB genome groups). African Journal of Biotechnology, 9(54), 9135-9141. Retrieved from https://academicjournals.org/journal/AJB/article-abstract/9A86FF827613.</p>
<p>2. Azam Ali, S. (March, 2008). Banana Beer. Warwickshire, United Kingdom: Practical Action. Retrieved from https://www.ctc-n.org/sites/www.ctc-n.org/files/resources/4f561d67-1e24-47e9-b72a-4b080ae4f5bb.pdf.</p>
<p>3. Babatunde, G. M. (1991). Availability of banana and plantain products for animal feeding. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome. Retrieved from http://www.fao.org/docrep/003/T0554E/T0554E17.htm.</p>
<p>4. Dividich, J. L., Geoffroy, F., Canope, I., & Chenost, M. (n.d). Using waste bananas as animal feed. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, World Animal Review. Retrieved from http://www.fao.org/docrep/004/x6512e/X6512E10.htm?fbclid=IwAR3tG5yLUJmyrsfbuCJ-MDg-hDKzr1qmg0HUYlhxBUu5EdL04bpjNbaVtwQ. (Retrieved on Nov. 8, 2018).</p>
<p>5. Douglas, Kate. (2016, October 25). Early investors score big time with Rwandan banana wine. How We Made it in Africa. Retrieved from https://www.howwemadeitinafrica.com/early-investors-score-big-time-rwandan-banana-wine/56437/.</p>
<p>6. Dubois, T., & Oliver, J. (2008, October 11). African banana farmers urged to cash in on local markets. IITA Nigeria. Retrieved from http://www.iita.org/news-item/african-banana-farmers-urged-cash-local-markets/.</p>
<p>7. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. (2018). Banana Facts and Figures. Retrieved from http://www.fao.org/economic/est/est-commodities/bananas/bananafacts/en/#.W-nsCJNKjIV.</p>
<p>8. FAO Corporate Document Repository. (2018) Major livestock production systems in Africa. Retrieved from http://www.fao.org/wairdocs/ilri/x5547e/x5547e0o.htm.</p>
<p>9. Hendriksz, V. (2017, August 28). Sustainable Textile Innovations: Banana Fibres. Fashion United. Retrieved from https://fashionunited.uk/news/fashion/sustainable-textile-innovations-banana-fibre/2017082825623.</p>
<p>10. IITA: Transforming African Agriculture. (n.d) Banana & Plantain. Retrieved from http://www.iita.org/crops/banana-plantain/.</p>
<p>11. Kibui, R. (2015, July 31). Kenyan stirring ‘banana revolution’ beyond the borders. Daily Nation. Retrieved from https://www.nation.co.ke/business/seedsofgold/-Kenyan-stirring-banana-revolution-beyond-the-borders/-/2301238/2815942/-/8jxy59/-/index.html.</p>
<p>12. Mohan, C. (2018, March 26). Banana Fibre for Eco-Friendly Sanitary Towels. Krishijagran.com. Retrieved from https://krishijagran.com/news/banana-fibre-for-eco-friendly-sanitary-towels/.</p>
<p>13. Murori, K. (2016, June 14). How African Farmers Use Creativity to Cut Back on Banana Waste. The African Exponent. Retrieved from https://www.africanexponent.com/post/7288-african-farmers-use-creativity-to-cut-back-on-banana-waste.</p>
<p>14. Nelson, J. (2015, September 3). What is African Black Soap? MNN.com. Retrieved from https://www.mnn.com/lifestyle/natural-beauty-fashion/stories/what-is-african-black-soap.</p>
<p>15. Nuruddin, A. (April, 2014). Nutritive Value of Banana Peels as Feed for Goats. Retrieved from https://prezi.com/3tnqjbko-pal/nutritive-value-of-banana-peels-as-feed-for-goats/?fbclid=IwAR1-aWokJzBu82vUCcQ0rGKC-S4NNbn4Gs9cgWShvgSK_CuoE0grQ6fsM40.</p>
<p>16. Obi, L. (2016, June 10). Mats, bags… you can make so much from banana waste. Daily Nation. Retrieved from https://www.nation.co.ke/business/seedsofgold/Many-uses-of-banana-waste-fibres/2301238-3243276-149x6dlz/index.html.</p>
<p>17. ProMusa. (December, 2016). The beer bananas of East Africa. Biodiversity International. Retrieved from http://www.promusa.org/blogpost479-The-beer-bananas-of-East-Africa.</p>
<p>18. Ramdhonee, A., & Jeetah, P. (2017, October). Production of wrapping paper from banana fibres. Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering, 5 (5), 4298 – 4306.</p>
<p>19. Rietveld, Anne & Mpiira, Samuel & Jogo, Wellington & Staver, Charles & Karamura, Eldad. (2013). The beer banana value chain in central Uganda. 191-201. 10.1079/9781780642314.0191. Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/263594460_The_beer_banana_value_chain_in_central_Uganda.</p>
<p>20. Rivard, Dominic. (September, 2009). Banana wine in East Africa. The Daily Fruit Wine. Retrieved from http://www.dailyfruitwine.com/2009/09/banana-wine-in-east-africa/.</p>
<p>21. The Organic Farmer. (2017, November 2). Banana production has good income if done well. The Organic Farmer. Retrieved from http://theorganicfarmer.org/Articles/banana-production-has-good-income-if-done-well.</p>
<p>22. Tolera, A., Merkel, R. C., Goetsch, A. L., Sahlu, T. & Negesse, T. (n.d). Nutritional Constraints and Future Prospects for Goat Production in East Africa. Debub University, Awassa College of Agriculture, Awassa, Ethiopia, E (Kika) de la Garza Institute for Goat Research, Langston University, Langston, OK, USA. Retrieved from http://www.luresext.edu/sites/default/files/NUTRITIONAL%20CONSTRAINTS%20AND%20FUTURE%20PROSPECTS%20FOR%20GOAT%20PRODUCTION%20IN%20EAST%20AFRICA.pdf.</p>
<p>23. Watsemwa, E. (2017, January 15). There is a lot we can get from banana. Daily Monitor. Retrieved from http://www.monitor.co.ug/Magazines/Farming/There-is-a-lot-we-can-get-from-banana/689860-3517390-format-xhtml-5y6iv7z/index.html.</p>

Template:Chapters 8.44

2026-01-14T15:29:34Z

Mamta:

<div>
<div class="title"><h3>8.44-Value Addition of Pumpkin / Pepitas</h3><br><h3 class="ch-owner">Ronna O’Neil, University of Guelph, Canada </h3></div>
<div class="hero-img-2">
[[File:4.jpg|300px]]
<p><b>Related video(s)</b>: Sorting and storing pumpkins (Source: Access Agriculture)</p>
<p><i> https://www.accessagriculture.org/sorting-and-storing-pumpkins?cat_id=1499</i></p>

<p>Suggested citation for this chapter.</p>
<p>O’Neil,R. (2022) Value Addition of Pumpkin / Pepitas,In Farmpedia, The Encyclopedia for Small Scale Farmers. Editor, M.N. Raizada, University of Guelph, Canada. http://www.farmpedia.org</p>
<h3 class="title-bg">Introduction</h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<P>Cucurbits, such as pumpkins, originated from the Southern United States, Central and South America, and Mexico (Kates et al., 2017). Around 10,000 years ago pumpkins were first cultivated by indigenous populations (Kates et al., 2017). Now in places like Transkei, South Africa, 98% of the farmers are intercropping pumpkins alongside maize and beans (Tembakazi Silwana, 2002). Pumpkins are rich in vitamin A, which is important for smallholder farmers to have in their diets to help their immune system and prevents night blindness (Chavasit et al., 2002; West et al., 2010). Pumpkin seeds (Pepitas) are also nutritious and even have the amino acid tryptophan (Yadav et al., 2010). Pumpkins are also very useful when intercropped because their vines help reduce the number of weeds in a field, which therefore decreases the amount of time a farmer has to spend weeding (Olasantan, 2007). Both the fruit and the seeds of the pumpkin can be used by smallholder farmers. The fruit of the pumpkin can be used both raw (e.g. in pumpkin pie, canned/pureed, soup, etc.) or dried (e.g. pumpkin chip/flour, etc.), while pumpkin seeds can be eaten raw or roasted, or have their oil extracted. Other than the extensive labor required to grow pumpkins, all recommended value addition ideas can be accomplished by an individual farmer. Due to issues with storage and shelf life of foods like pumpkin pies/soups, especially since refrigeration is not available to the majority of smallholder farmers, more processed pumpkin alternatives and their ability to add value (Grace et al., 2016) will be the focus here:</p>
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<h3 class="title-bg">Value Addition Ideas </h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p><b>Canned Pumpkin</b></p>
<p>To get started with the pumpkin canning process the farmer could invest in a ‘canning starter kit’ which can be purchased from Alibaba.com for roughly three-dollars, after acquiring a canning kit the additional expenses would include any ingredient needed and any additional mason jars to can the pumpkin (which can also be bought at relatively cheap prices; thirty-five-cents) (look under Helpful Links). The pumpkin fruit will need to be washed, peeled, cut into cubes, and then boiled-water and salt should be added onto them (Larson-Nordsiden, 1978). To prevent contamination, it is recommended that the pumpkin cubes be canned and then not pureed until right before use; to kill any additional bacteria the puree should be heated to 250°F (Larson-Nordsiden, 1978). Depending on the individual farmer the pumpkin cubes could also be canned in citrus juice (e.g. orange, mango) if it is easier to acquire than water and salt, or depending on acquired taste (Assous, 2014). During six months of being stored at room temperature the canned pumpkin still maintains its colour and texture (Assous, 2014). Canned pumpkin can be sold by the farmer or can be made into pies, soups, etc. and then be sold. Since this products shelf life is not extremely long, selling it at a local farmers market would likely be the best option. Farmers markets create a link between urban and rural people, providing the farmer with an income and the consumer with locally grown, nutritional food, benefiting both farmer and consumer (Bastin, 2007). The canned pumpkin can be stacked in small box crates to help with transportation of the canned food, which is often done by foot or cart (Willhelm, 1994).</p>
<p><b>Dehydrated Pumpkin</b></p>
<p>The fruit of a pumpkin can also be dehydrated and eaten as a chip, or ground into flour. By dehydrating (drying) the fruit, its shelf life is extended (Carciofo et al., 2018) After washing, peeling, slicing, and then blanching the fruit slices in a water/salt solution, they can be dried (Woldetsadik et al, 2014). The drying process of the fruit can be done in the sun, in the oven, or with a small dehydrator (Woldetsadik et al., 2014). If the farmer uses an oven or the sun, the drying time of the pumpkin slices will take substantially longer than if they were to invest in a dehydrator, but the former are cheaper options. Even when dried, the pumpkin fruit maintains a large amount of its nutritional value, and will therefore still provide the farmer with a source of nutrients (Carciofo et al., 2018). After drying, the fruit can be left as is and eaten as a chip, or the dried slices can be ground with a mortar and pestle or a traditional stone mill until it is a flour like consistency, which can then be used in breads (Saeleaw, 2011). The dried fruit can be kept for the farmers consumption or can be sold. However, if the farmer plans on selling the dried pumpkin fruit they should consider using a cleaner way to dehydrate the slices, such as an oven, rather than setting them out in the sun, as drying in the sun takes longer which increases the chances of fungal growth in the fruit (Ahou Kouadio, 2012). The dried pumpkin fruit or flour could be stored in sealable plastic bags or mason jars. Both the pumpkin chips or flour could be sold at a local farmers market, but because the dehydration of the fruit reduces its weight and volume, the costs to ship the product would also decrease, which turns selling the pumpkin chips/flour online an option (Carciofi et al. 2018). However, if the farmer was to market their product online they would have to put more money into packaging so that it would appeal to consumers (Baker, 1977). </p>
<p><b>Pumpkin Seeds</b></p>
<p>Pumpkin seeds, known as pepitas in Mexico, also provide a great source of nutrients, but they are often discarded (Karantonis et al., 2015). Pepitas can be stored away to be planted another year, eaten, or have their oil extracted and used (see below). To prepare the pepitas, the farmer needs to separate them from the rest of the pumpkin, wash them, and then husk them so that they can be eaten raw or roasted (Karantonis et al., 2015). To ensure that the pepita kernels are not damaged, husking must be done by hand, which can be rather time consuming for the farmer (Karantonis et al., 2015). Although, the time spent husking pepitas can be decreased using cheap simple gadgets (look under Helpful Links). If the farmer plans on roasting the seeds they can soak them in a water/salt solution for about one hour, drain the water and then cook the seeds in an oven at 170°F, until brown (Karantonis et al., 2015). Pepitas provide a great source of nutrients, especially during droughts, and are easy to store with a long shelf life (Azam et al., 2014).</p>
<p><b>Pumpkin Seed Oil</b></p>
<p>More commonly, pumpkin seeds are used for their oils. Once the pepitas are husked and roasted, the farmer can ground them up using a mortar and pestle or traditional milling stones until the pepitas tur into a pulp (Dimic et al., 2010). After water and salt are added to the pulp, the mixture should be cooked at a high temperature for one hour, or until the oils separate from the pulp (Dimic et al., 2010). With the use of a sieve, the oils can be further separated from the pulp and stored in mason jars, where their shelf life will be about 12 months (Dimic et al., 2010). One way that the farmer can use pepita oil is by adding it to her children’s meals, not only for the added nutritional value but to add flavor as well (Dirorimwe et al., 2011). Pepita oil can be sold to earn a reasonable profit as its retail value is high while the expenses to grow a pumpkin are low (Carciofi et al., 2018). Like the other pumpkin by-products, pepita oil could be sold at a local farmers market, but if the farmer is able to spend more money on the packaging of the oil, she could sell it to local tourist hotels and restaurants since it is considered a ‘high class’ oil among European countries (Balbino, 2017).</p>
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<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">Critical Analysis </h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>It can be a challenge for smallholder farmers to make a sale or profit when there is an influx of that specific crop during its harvest, specifically when it’s a perishable good (Benchekroun, 2015). To help smallholder farmers with these problems, associations like HEIA can be created, where there is a focus on pre-cooling, packaging, and refrigerated transport being made available to farmers so that their products can last over a longer period, creating less waste and allowing more to be sold or used (Benchekroun, 2015). If those three factors can be well established and then combined with processing methods such as drying the pumpkin fruit, farmers will be able to further extend their products shelf life (Woldetsadik, 2014). When a farmer is planning on selling a product, appealing packaging becomes a concern. To help smallholder farmers with this extra expense they can be provided with resources that offer ‘cheap’ labeling machines (Alibaba.com). Something as simple as adding a machine-made label onto a mason jar can make the product much more appealing to possible consumers (look under Helpful Links).</p>
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</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">Helpful Links</h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p><b>How to sell small farm products online:</b></p>
<p>• https://www.thespruce.com/sell-small-farm-products-online-3016900</p>
<p><b>Links on canned pumpkin:</b></p>
<p>• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8QeUiM3_KoU</p>
<p><b>Links on dehydrated pumpkin fruit:</b></p>
<p>• https://selfreliantschool.com/dehydrate-pumpkin-plus-making-pumpkin-flour/</p>
<p>• http://dehydratorliving.com/how-long-does-dehydrated-food-last/</p>
<p><b>Links on pumpkin seeds:</b></p>
<p>• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BhfnmfVDG3Y</p>
<p><b>Links on pumpkin seed oil:</b></p>
<p>• https://www.leaf.tv/articles/how-to-make-pumpkin-seed-oil/</p>
<p>• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BHSdMyAYkag</p></p>
<p><b>Cheap Tools:</b></p>
<p><i>• Sieve</i></p>
- https://www.alibaba.com/product-detail/professional-supplier-of-Sand-Lab-Standard_60726162704.html?spm=a2700.7724838.2017115.141.743f2aefrNzLXu&s=p
<p><b>• Mortar and pestle</b></p>
- https://www.alibaba.com/product-detail/304-Stainless-Steel-Mortar-and-Pestle_60811382717.html?spm=a2700.galleryofferlist.normalList.21.53d24f3fPHJD5u&s=p
<p><b>• Mason Jars</b></p>
- https://www.alibaba.com/product-detail/250ml-glass-mason-jam-jars-buy_60453205243.html?spm=a2700.galleryofferlist.normalList.40.59092b30RleWIY&s=p
<p><b>• Storage Bin Totes</b></p>
- https://www.alibaba.com/product-detail/plastic-bottle-milk-crate_60620229433.html?spm=a2700.7724838.2017115.21.1689534ew4xY8m&s=p
<p><b>• Small Dehydrator</b></p>
- https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/B001NZPP6U/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=B001NZPP6U&linkCode=as2&tag=awcowdehydrating-20&linkId=VFZDJYBNGHWBBP35</p>
<p><b>• Canning kit</b></p>
- https://www.alibaba.com/product-detail/New-Canning-kit_1637829995.html?spm=a2700.7724838.2017115.2.74c74c382I1mqT&s=p
<p><b>• Seed cracker</b></p>
- https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ILkriZkURVE
<p><b>• Hand Held Labeling Machine</b></p>
- https://www.alibaba.com/product-detail/Advanced-big-size-and-small-size_60816998546.html?spm=a2700.7724838.2017115.82.af8d29e1L2fofI</p>
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<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">References </h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>1. Ahou Kouadio, I., Ben Koffi, L., Bretin Dosso, M., & Gnopo Nemlin, J. (2012). Effects of robusta (coffea canephora p.) coffee cherries quantity put out for sun drying on contamination by fungi and ochratoxin (ota) under tropical humid zone (cote d’lvoire). Food and Chemical Toxicology, 50 (6), 1969-1979. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fct.2012.03.042</p>
<p>2. Assous, M.T.M., Dyab, A.S., & Soheir-Saad, E.M. (2014). Enhancement of quality attributes of canned pumpkin and pineapple. Annals of Agriculture Science, 59 (1), 9-15. Retrieved from doi: 10.1016/j.aoas.2014.06.002</p>
<p>3. Azam, F., Biswas, A., Mannan, A., Afsana, N., Jahan, R., & Rahmatullah, M. (2014). Are famine food plants also ethnomedical plants? An ethnomedical appraisal of famine food plants of two districts of Bangladesh. Evidence-based Complementary and Alternative Medicine, 2014: 741712. from doi: 10.1155/2014/741712</p>
<p>4. Baker, R.C., & McDaniel, C. (1977). Convenience food packaging and perception of product quality. Journal of Marketing, 41 (4), 57. Retrieved from https://search.proquest.com/openview/e4dffb21e0fc4b2ac5bdf224bd5cf46c/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=1816480</p>
<p>5. Balbino, S. (2017). Can chemometrics protect pumpkin seed oil buyers from false styrian PGI labels? European Journal of Lipid Science and Technology, 119, 1700204. Retrieved from doi: 10.1002/ejlt.201700204</p>
<p>6. Bastin, S. (2007). Options for the economic health of farmers, farmers markets and communities: homebased fruit and vegetable microprocessing. Community Development, 38 (3), 91-99. Retrieved from doi: 10.1080/15575330709489832</p>
<p>7. Benchekroun, H., & Benchekroun, S. (2015). Harvests lifespan and north-south market share rivalry. International Review of Economics and Finance, 37, 114-124. Retrieved from doi: 10.1016/j.iref.2014.11.017</p>
<p>8. Carciofi, B., Laurindo, J., Link, J., Monteiro, R., & Tribuzi, G. (2018). Effect of multi-flash drying and microwave vacuum drying on the microstructure and texture of pumpkin slices. Lebensmittel- Wissenschaft + Technologie, 96, 612-619. Retrieved from doi: 10.1016/j.lwt.2018.06.023</p>
<p>9. Chavasit, V., Pisaphab, R., Sungpuag, P., Jittinandana, S., & Wasantwisut, E. (2002). Changes in β‐Carotene and vitamin A contents of vitamin A-rich foods in Thailand during preservation and storage. Journal of Food Sciences, 67 (1), 375-379. Retrieved from doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2621.2002.tb11413.x</p>
<p>10. Dimic, E., Djilas, S., Romanic, R., Takaci, A., & Vujasinovic, V., (2010). Shelf life of cold-pressed pumpkin (Cucurbita pepo L.) seed oil obtained with a screw press. Journal of the American Oil Chemists’ Society, 87 (12), 1497-1505. Retrieved from doi: 10.1007/s11746-010-1630-x</p>
<p>11. Dirorimwe, C., Huang, S., Koung Ry, L., Mengkheang, K., & Muehihoff, E. (2011). Promoting improved complementary feeding. FAO/ European Union Food Facility Project (N.A.). Retrieved from http://www.fao.org/docrep/014/am867e/am867e.pdf</p>
<p>12. Grace, D., Hang’ombe, B., Knight-Jones, T., Sinkala, Y., & Songe, M. (2016). Microbial contamination and hygiene of fresh cow’s milk produced by smallholders in western Zambia. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 13 (5), E737. Retrieved from doi: 10.3390/ijerph13070737</p>
<p>13. Karantonis, H., & Sakka, D. (2015). In vitro health beneficial activities of pumpkin seed from cucurbita moschata cultivated in lemnos. International Jounral of Food Studies, 4, 221-237. Retrieved from https://doaj.org/article/aa32f10d5e124fd4a6dfe20e38962ed7?frbrVersion=3</p>
<p>14. Kates, H., Soltis, D., & Soltis, P. (2017). Evolutionary and domestication history of cucurbita (pumpkin and squash) species inferred from 44 nuclear loci. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution.111, 98-109. Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ympev.2017.03.002.</p>
<p>15. Larson-Nordsiden, K., Thompson, D., Wolf, I., & Zottola, E. (1978). Home canning of food: evaluation of current recommended methods. Journal of Food Science, 42 (6), 1731-1733. Retrieved from doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2621.1978.tb07401.x</p>
<p>16. Olasantan, F. (2007). Effects of population density and sowing date of pumpkin on soil hydrothermal regime, weed control and crop growth in a yam-pumpkin intercrop. Experimental Agriculture, 43 (3), 365-380. Retrieved from doi: 10.1017/S0014479707004942</p>
<p>17. Paris, H. (2017). Overview of the origins and history of the five major cucurbit crops: issues for ancient DNA analysis or archaeological specimens. Vegetation history and archaeobotany: official organ of the International Work Group for Palaeoethnobotany, 25 (4), 205-414. Retrieved from doi: 10.1007/s00334-016-0555-1</p>
<p>18. Saeleaw, M. & Schleining, G. (2011). Composition, physicochemical and morphological characterization of pumpkin flour. In Proceeding of the 11th International Congress on Engineering of Food, 10-13. Retrieved from https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/def6/0a6e82712770e132a40b7f807a92ce83162d.pdf</p>
<p>19. West, K., Christian, P., Katz, J., Labrique, A., Klemm, R., & Sommer, A. (2010). Effect of vitamin A supplementation on maternal survival. The Lancet, 376 (9744), 873-874. Retrieved from doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(10)61411-0 </p>
<p>20. Tembakazi Silwana, T., & Lucas, E. (2002). The effect of planting combinations and weeding on the growth and yield of component crops of maize/bean and maize/pumpkin intercrops. The Journal of Agricultral Science, 138 (2), 193-200. Retrieved from doi: 10.1017/S0021859601001861</p>
<p>21. Wilhelm, L. (1994). Transport and inter-market supplies in African cities. Food and Agriculture Otganization of the United Nations. Retrieved from http://www.fao.org/docrep/003/x6992e/x6992e03.htm</p>
<p>22. Woldetsadik, K., Workneh, T., & Zinash, A. (2014). Blanching, salting and sun drying of different pumpkin fruit slices. Journal of Food and Science Technology, 51 (11), 3114-3123. Retrieved from doi: 10.1007/s13197-012-0835-4</p>
<p>23. Yadav, M., Jain, S., Tomar, R., Prasad, G., & Yadav, H. (2010). Medicinal and biological potential of pumpkin: and updated review. Nutrition Research Reviews, 23 (2), 184-190. Retrieved from doi: 10.1017/S0954422410000107</p>

Template:Chapters 8.37

2026-01-14T15:26:38Z

Mamta:

<div>
<div class="title"><h3>8.37-Mango Value Addition for Indian Farmers</h3><br><h3 class="ch-owner">Emma Keesmaat , University of Guelph, Canada </h3></div>
<div class="hero-img-2">
[[File:4.jpg|300px]]

<p><b>Related video(s)</b>: Making mango crisps, Proper handling of mangoes at harvest, Selective harvest of mangoes (Source: Access Agriculture)</p>
<p><i> https://www.accessagriculture.org/making-mango-crisps?cat_id=1499</i></p>
<p><i> https://www.accessagriculture.org/proper-handling-mangoes-harvest?cat_id=1499</i></p>
<p><i> https://www.accessagriculture.org/selective-harvest-mangoes?cat_id=165</i></p>

<p>Suggested citation for this chapter.</p>
<p>Keesmaat,E. (2022) Mango Value Addition for Indian Farmers,In Farmpedia, The Encyclopedia for Small Scale Farmers. Editor, M.N. Raizada, University of Guelph, Canada. http://www.farmpedia.org</p>
<h3 class="title-bg">Background </h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<P>India produces the largest number of mangoes worldwide and has been growing them for over 4000 years (Ballen, 2017), though most mangoes are consumed locally – only 3% are exported (Feedipedia, 2017). India is the leading mango producer worldwide, but a third of the country’s mangoes cannot be sold due to postharvest damage (IDRC, 2017). As the growing season of mango is only about three months (IDRC, 2017), postharvest losses may affect farmers until the next year’s harvest. Through value addition projects, farmers would be able to make a larger profit from the existing harvest. This paper proposes two value addition ideas for mango farmers: making mango nectar/juice, and making powder from the mango seed. Both projects require relatively low levels of labor and materials, as the main deterrent for value addition projects is a lack of labor and machinery (FAO, 2016a). By selling diverse products and promoting the knowledge of nutritional benefits of mango, farmers would be able to increase their profits.</p>
</div>
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<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">Value Addition </h3>
<div class="cont-bg">

<p><b>Mango drinks</b></p>
<p>An effective way for farmers to add value to their mangoes would be to turn it into a nectar or juice. Mango drinks are very easy to make and require few resources. After reading through many mango juice recipes, it is evident that only three ingredients are essential: mangoes, water and sugar or some sort of sweetener. Some of the recipes required the use of a stove to melt the water and sugar together and suggested a blender to soften the mango (Homemade Mango Nectar, 2018). Poverty rates in India have been dropping consistently since the 1990’s, and in 2016, 84% of the population had access to electricity (World Bank, 2018), however this does not guarantee that all farmers will have access to a blender or stove. In cases where electricity is not available, there are still many ways in which juice can be made. Mango flesh can be softened and squeezed out of the peel (Grandma’s Mango Juice In My Village, 2017), or cut up and then squished into a liquid state. All recipes followed a similar process: 1) cut up mangoes into smaller pieces (around 1 inch by 1 inch); 2) either blend mangoes or squish them by hand until they are close to a liquid consistency; 3) boil sugar and water together (skip this step if access to resources are limited); 4) add sugar or sweetener and water to mango paste; 5) stir until blended. Value could be further added by incorporating other fruits into the drink, for example orange-mango juice. Adding citrus juices to the mango drink lowers the pH and makes it thinner for easier drinking (FAO, 2003b). Selling out of a home stand or having access to a local market would likely be the best option in terms of sales, as the drink will not keep long and would need to be sold that day. Expenses would be minimal – containers or cups for the drink, a knife, something to mix the juice in and something to mash mangoes with would be the only tools necessary. All of these can be found on websites like Alibaba.com inexpensively (see below).</p>
<p><b>Mango powder</b></p>
<p>The seed of the mango makes up around 15% of the total weight (Chandru, 2014) – this is often discarded as waste when making mango products. By using the kernel inside of the mango seed, farmers could reduce their waste and create a highly nutritional powder. The kernel inside of the mango seed can be made into a powder for use in cooking/baking to increase nutritional value of the final product (Ashoush, 2011). The mango kernel contains many necessary nutrients. For every 100 g of kernel powder, there is: 7.53 g protein, 11.45 g fat, 368 mg potassium, 210 mg magnesium, 5.60 mg zinc, 12.40 mg iron, 2.20% crude fibre and more, though the accuracy of these amounts is inconclusive (Chandru, 2014). Incorporating this powder in cooking could help reduce nutrient deficiencies in areas that struggle with undernourishment. The percentage of stunting, wasting and undernourishment in children under 5 in India are all above 20%, with the stunting level at 41% in rural areas – 10% higher than urban areas (National Family Health Survey, 2017). Since the mango powder is full of nutrients and healthy fats, this would be a good product for households to add to any foods. The kernel contains high levels of starch (Yatnatti and Vijayalakshmi, 2018) that could also be useful in thickening soup broths. Making kernel powder is simple: 1) dry the kernels in an oven or in the sun; 2) grind the kernels into a powder [can be done with a mortar and pestle (Gituanja, 2012) or in some sort of mill/blender (Ashoush, 2011)]; 3) using a sieve, separate any big pieces from the powder; 4) package the powder. The powder could be kept for the family to eat or put in animal feed to improve their levels of nutrients as well (Morton, 1987). It could also be sold in local markets or out of a home stand. Depending on the amount of powder made, it may be most beneficial to sell instead of eat as it will not keep forever. Making powder requires more tools than juice – mortar and pestle or something to crush the pieces with, a sieve, an oven or a sterile surface that kernels can be dried on and left in the sun, and containers or bags to put the powder in. All of these can be found on websites such as Alibaba (see below).</p>
<p><b>Nutritional information as value addition</b></p>
<p>Another value addition idea for mangoes is the advertising of its nutritional benefits. Mango fruit contains high levels of antioxidants (Jiang, 2011), while the seed contains necessary nutrients such as fat, protein, fibre, magnesium and more (Chandru, 2014). If farmers are educated about the health benefits of mango, they could detail the benefits on small cards that would be sold with their products, especially in urban areas where there is more consumer income. In areas with vitamin deficiencies, the powder could be targeted to families struggling with malnourishment and help educate people on the benefits of mango. This would also allow farmers to have a specific sales market and could allow them to send their product to other markets or local stores, if transportation is available to do so. The only materials needed to advertise the health benefits would be attractive labels. Glass jars, pens and adhesive labels can be found on Indiamart.com – these are simple yet effective ways to make the product more visibly appealing. To do so, farmers would need a writing utensil and adhesive labels – they can then write or draw on the label, put the label directly on the bag or jar that they are selling, and market the product.</p>
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<h3 class="title-bg">Critical Analysis </h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>For both the juice and the powder, access to an oven and blender would be beneficial to speed up the process and reduce labor. In places where there is no access to electricity, more labor will be required to make the products at a commercial scale. If the farmer has no way to dry the seeds other than the sun, this will extend the period it takes to make the powder by days. Some seeds were dried for up to 3 days in the sunlight (Gituanja, 2012). This process can be prolonged by factors such as inconsistent sunlight , high humidity and fluctuation of weather conditions; these factors could result in complications or loss of seeds from outdoor damage (Arora, 2016). Neither of the products will keep for very long, specifically the juice – this could result in greater losses for the farmer if it is not sold as production costs may outweigh sales. The materials needed to effectively produce these products are available online inexpensively (see below), however, this could be a struggle for those with no access to electricity as the materials would need to be ordered through a third party.</p>
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<h3 class="title-bg">How To Get Started</h3>
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<p>There are many videos online that show different, simple ways of making mango juice:</p>
<p>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qoQLOY_3DOA How To Make Pure Mango Juice At Home </p>
<p>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CYLs4rdHj3w Grandma’s Mango Juice In My Village </p>
<p>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aeu-ebK50yU How to Make Fresh Mango Juice (Can use water instead of ice)</p>
<p>http://www.dvo.com/recipe_pages/grilln/Mango_Nectar.php Recipe for Mango Nectar (Gives good idea of ratios for mango, water and sugar)</p>
<p><b>Websites that have inexpensive products:</b></p>
<p>https://www.indiamart.com/proddetail/self-adhesive-label-15370624197.html Adhesive labels, can be written on and stuck to bags or jars that products are <p>being sold in. Found on Indiamart.com</p>
<p>https://dir.indiamart.com/impcat/plastic-ball-pen.html Plastic ballpoint pens that can be used to make labels with. Found on Indiamart.com</p>
<p>https://www.indiamart.com/proddetail/mason-glass-jar-16440159588.html Glass jars for selling mango juice in. Found on Indiamart.com</p>
<p>https://www.alibaba.com/product-detail/Manual-juicer-high-quality-eco-friendly_60542017571.html?spm=a2700.7724838.2017115.1.68282d97GO8AGE Simple hand juicer on Alibaba.com</p>
<p>https://www.alibaba.com/product-detail/Waterproof-Biodegradable-Small-Ziplock-Bags-Low_60815618402.html?spm=a2700.7724838.2017115.1.3fc0440cBGytVP&s=p</p> <p>Small, biodegradable, waterproof bags that could be used for portioning and selling the powder, also on Alibaba.com </p>
<p>https://www.indiamart.com/proddetail/stainless-steel-wire-mesh-9098756773.html</p>
<p>A re-usable, mesh filter for filtering kernel powder. Found on Indiamart.com</p>
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<h3 class="title-bg">References </h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>1. Ashoush, I.S., Gadallah, M.G.E. (2011). Utilization of Mango Peels and Seed Kernels Powders as Sources of Phytochemicals in Biscuit. World Journal of Dairy & Food Sciences, 6, 35-42. Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Ihab_Ashoush/publication/258245419_Utilization_of_Mango_Peels_and_Seed_Kernels_Powders_as_Sources_of_Phytochemicals_in_Biscuit/links/0deec5279453f8da0b000000/Utilization-of-Mango-Peels-and-Seed-Kernels-Powders-as-Sources-of-Phytochemicals-in-Biscuit.pdf </p>
<p>2. Arora, A., Banerjee, J., MacFarlane, D., Patti, A. F., Singh, R., Vijayaraghavan. (2016). Effect Of Drying Methods And Extraction Time-Temperature Regime On Mango Kernel Lipids. International Journal of Food and Nutritional Science 3(1): 229-338.</p>
<p>3. Retrieved from https://www.ommegaonline.org/article-details/Effect-Of-Drying-Methods-And-Extraction-Time-Temperature-Regime-On-Mango-Kernel-Lipids--/780</p>
<p>4. Baloch, M. K., Bibi, F., Jilani, M. S. (2011). Quality and shelf life of mango (Mangifera india L.) fruit: As affected by cooling at harvest time. Scientia Horticulturae, 130(3), 642-646. Retrieved from https://ac-els-cdn-com.subzero.lib.uoguelph.ca/S0304423811004286/1-s2.0-S0304423811004286-main.pdf?_tid=0608bf21-7c67-44d2-9f38-d02a63b68ccc&acdnat=1538535801_1460d30b88e77f2fbccd60426f2aa0b0</p>
<p>5. Ballen, F., Evans, E., Siddiq, M. (2017). Handbook of Mango Fruit: Production, Postharvest Science, Processing Technology and Nutrition. John Wiley & Sons. Oxford, U.K. Retrieved from https://books.google.ca/books?hl=en&lr=&id=pU8nDwAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PA1&dq=mango+production&ots=qyueqF1frV&sig=UuiR_5_IVq5srD04cSjrpEYl5-4#v=onepage&q=mango%20production&f=false</p>
<p>6. Chandru, R., Vijayalakshmi, D., Yatanatti, S. (2014). Processing and Nutritive Value of Mango Seed Kernel Flour. Current Research in Nutrition and Food Science, 2, 170-175. Retrieved from file:///C:/Users/Emma/Downloads/vol2_no3_170-175.pdf https://www.foodandnutritionjournal.org/volume2number3/processing-and-nutritive-value-of-mango-seed-kernel-flour/ </p>
<p>7. Yatnatti, S. and Vijayalakshmi D (2018). Study of Soup Mix Incorporated with Starch Extract from Mango “Mangiferaindica” Seed Kernels. Current Research in Nutrition and Food Science. 6(3). Retrieved from http://www.foodandnutritionjournal.org/volume6number3/study-of-soup-mix-incorporated-with-starch-extract-from-mangomangiferaindicaseed-kernels/</p>
<p>8. Desi Kitchen. (2017). Grandma’s Mango Juice In My Village. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CYLs4rdHj3w </p>
<p>9. FAO, a. (2016). Food loss analysis: causes and solutions – Case study on the mango value chain in the Republic of India. Rome. Retrieved from http://www.fao.org/3/bu688en/BU688EN.pdf</p>
<p>10. FAO, b. (2003). Tropical Fruits. Medium-term prospects for agricultural commodities. Retrieved from
http://www.fao.org/docrep/006/y5143e/y5143e1a.htm</p>
<p>11. Feedipedia. (2017). Mango (Mangifera indica) fruit and by-products. Retrieved from https://www.feedipedia.org/node/516</p>
<p>12. Gituanja, S., Mahungu, S., Muchiri, D. (2012). Studies on Mango (Mangifera indica) Kernel Fat of Some Kenyan Varieties on Meru. Journal of the American Oil Chemists’ Society, 89(9), 1567-1575. Retrieved from https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007%2Fs11746-012-2054-6.pdf</p>
<p>13. Homemade Mango Nectar. (2018). Retrieved from https://www.kawalingpinoy.com/mango-nectar/</p>
<p>14. International Development Research Centre. (2017). The mango-saving molecule. Retrieved from https://www.idrc.ca/en/stories/mango-saving-molecule</p>
<p>15. Jiang, Y., Sivakumar, D., Yahia, E.M. (2011). Maintaining mango (Mangifera indica L.) fruit quality during the export chain. Food Research International, 44(5), p1254-1263. Retrieved from https://ac-els-cdn-com.subzero.lib.uoguelph.ca/S0963996910004552/1-s2.0-S0963996910004552-main.pdf?_tid=c0c10fb5-67ae-468f-8e7b-94788fbc0689&acdnat=1538530700_b4248f0ca5d0c40a704725e1c9eed44a</p>
<p>16. Morton, J. (1987). Mango. In Fruits of Warm Climates. p221-239. Miami, FL. Retrieved from https://hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/mango_ars.html#Keeping%20Quality%20and%20Storage</p>
<p>17. Ministry of Health and Family Welfare. (2017). National Family Health Survey. Government of India. p293. Retrieved from http://rchiips.org/NFHS/NFHS-4Reports/India.pdf </p>
<p>18. World Bank (2018). India. Retrieved from https://data.worldbank.org/country/india?view=chart</p>

Template:Chapters 8.34

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<div class="title"><h3>8.34-Peanut value addition </h3><br><h3 class="ch-owner">Delia Gregory, University of Guelph, Canada </h3></div>
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<p><b>Related video(s)</b>: Making groundnut oil and snacks (Source: Access Agriculture)</p>
<p><i> https://www.accessagriculture.org/making-groundnut-oil-and-snacks?cat_id=1499</i></p>

<p>Suggested citation for this chapter.</p>
<p> Gregory,D. (2022) Peanut value addition,In Farmpedia, The Encyclopedia for Small Scale Farmers. Editor, M.N. Raizada, University of Guelph, Canada. http://www.farmpedia.org</p>
<h3 class="title-bg">Brief background of crop</h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>The peanut is a nutrient dense legume crop widely grown in the tropics and subtropics that presents a great opportunity for smallholder farmers to increase their income through value addition (Ansari, Prakash, Punitha, & Baishya, 2017). Millions of hectares of land across Asia, Africa, and Latin America are used to grow peanuts, with farmers in India, Nigeria, Sudan, and Senegal being major cultivators. Peanuts play an important role as a source of protein and income for smallholder farmers globally (Nautiyal, 2002). However, this crop is highly susceptible to aflatoxin contamination, exacerbated by poor storage techniques often present in subsistence farming communities (Ansari et al., 2017). Diseased or not, the low-value agricultural product is often sold as is, fetching low raw commodity prices especially if contaminated (Ansari et al., 2017). A common post-harvest practice is to allow the nuts to dry (in-shell) under the sun until the water content is between 6-8% which is determined by a rattling sound when peanuts are shaken (Kiryowa et al., n.d.). From this point, raw peanuts can be properly stored or further value-addition methods can be explored.</p>
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<h3 class="title-bg">Value addition ideas </h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p><b>Snack grade peanuts</b></p>
<p>Arguably the simplest way to add value to peanuts is to sell dehulled snack grade peanuts. Hand shelling is a labour intensive, but effective method to dehull peanuts. However, a small manually-operated pod opener can be used to speed up the process and free up labour for other tasks (Ansari et al., 2017). Kernels then need to be cleaned and roasted to enhance flavor (Ochieng, 2010). Dry roasting peanuts can be done on trays in an oven or in a small rotary roaster (Climate Technology Centre & Network, n.d.). To sell snack peanuts, roasted nuts can then be enhanced with a coating (in flour for crunch) or flavoured to suit palettes of local consumers, thereby increasing demand (Fellows & Hilmi, 2011). Moreover, marketing using labels and branding can have powerful effects on consumers, and help to maintain product quality during storage (Nautiyal, 2002). Knowing this, value may further be increased by packaging peanuts, but this requires both polyethylene bags and bag sealing machinery (Fellows & Hilmi, 2011). These roasted and packaged nuts can be sold in local markets or even grocery stores (Ochieng, 2010). The type of processing can double the value of peanuts, from selling at below 1 USD to over 2.50 USD per kilogram, according to current prices (https://www.indiamart.com). Alternatively, these roasted snack grade peanuts can be added to meals, ranging from Nigerian peanut Stew, to Filipino kare-kare peanut stew, to Thai peanut satay sauce (Nautiyal, 2002).</p>

<p><b>Peanut butter</b></p>
<p>One of the most popular and profitable ways to add value to peanuts is to make peanut butter (Ochieng, 2010). Producing peanut butter can add 5 times the value per kilogram of peanuts, compared to the unprocessed commodity (https://www.indiamart.com). Dried nuts are shelled and cleaned, then roasted, processed, and packaged in clean jars (Climate Technology Centre & Network, n.d.). After having been roasted, peanut skins are dry and can easily be removed through winnowing. Peanuts are then put into a mill to grind the nuts into a buttery paste (Climate Technology Centre & Network, n.d.). Settings on milling machines can be adjusted for a desired peanut butter texture (e.g. crunchy, smooth, etc.), depending on local preferences (Intermediate Technology Development Group Ltd., 2002). Multiple varieties might also be sold to diversify the range of products (Climate Technology Centre & Network, n.d.). Sometimes stabilizers, salt, or sugar can be added to increase the shelf life or demand (Dhanesh & Kochhar, 2015). It is also important for peanut butter to be well packaged. Containers should be cleaned and then cooled butter poured in, while being careful to avoid air pockets which can lead to rancidity as the oil oxidizes (Intermediate Technology Development Group Ltd., 2002). The whole process requires training and various pieces of equipment, offering a great opportunity for a community cooperative. This peanut butter can also be used to make easy snack foods that might be sold on road-side stands, like peanut punch made from blending peanut butter with milk, sugar, ice, and spices (Fellows & Hilmi, 2011). One major issue in peanut butter production is high levels of aflatoxin contamination, as “unattractive” kernels are often used since they are otherwise unwanted (Mupunga, Lebelo, Mngqawa, Rheeder, & Katerere, 2014). This must be avoided as it is dangerous to the health of farmers and their families, as well as consumers who might purchase these peanut butter products (Nautiyal, 2002).</p>

<p><b>Peanut oil</b></p>
<p>Peanuts grown in developing countries are mainly used to produce peanut oil (Wang, Liu, Wang, Guo, & Wang, 2016). This edible oil is very popular as a cooking oil for its high nutritional value and aromatics (Potts & Machell, 1995). So long as high heat is applied, it is also a good opportunity to use otherwise rejected kernels, like those affected by low levels of aflatoxins, because the oil within the nut is pressed out, leaving the diseased peanut meal behind (Shephard, 2017). If healthy peanuts are pressed, the leftover peanut meal can then be added to meals (Zhao, Chen, & Du, 2011). First nuts are milled, heated, and mixed with water to improve conditions of oil to separate and flow out (Potts & Machell, 1995). Production of peanut oil requires a press to extract oil. A low-cost option would be a simple manual screw press, as it is relatively easy to build with a mechanized screw (Climate Technology Centre & Network, n.d.). There are also several machines with such designs on the market, if that is preferred to constructing one (Climate Technology Centre & Network, n.d.). Oil should then be clarified by letting it stand for 48-72 hours, and solid particles filtered out. Finally, oil is heated to remove remaining water that might otherwise cause rancidity (Potts & Machell, 1995). Packaged appropriately so as to maintain quality, it can be sold in local markets, very likely with high success (Ochieng, 2010). The economic benefit of peanut oil production is a tripling in value per kilogram of peanuts, from below 1 USD to 2.80 USD (https://www.indiamart.com). Additionally, any of new equipment built or purchased for peanut oil production can be used to process other oilseed crops, such as soybeans or sesame (Dhanesh & Kochhar, 2015).</p>

<p><b>Critical analysis</b></p>
<p>Peanuts have incredible potential to increase the incomes of smallholder farmers, however there are some concerns associated with value addition that must be considered. Firstly, equipment is needed to produce all peanut products, which would require labour, training, investment in low-cost capital, and knowledge of or access to machinery maintenance. Other important aspects include ease of distribution and transportation, and relevant demand in local markets. These factors are not guaranteed in all areas of the world. There are also health and safety concerns with the adoption of new and unfamiliar technology. Moreover, several pieces of machinery require electricity networks to be present, which may not be reliable in rural areas (Mottaleb, Krupnik, & Erenstein, 2016). Additionally, the quality of peanut products can only match the quality of peanuts used in production. Aflatoxins are an ever-present issue for small-holder farmers due to knowledge and understanding of the contamination not being widespread. This results in toxin consumption levels far beyond the recommended World Health Organization limits (Masters, Ghosh, Daniels, & Sarpong, 2013). Efforts to reduce possible aflatoxin contamination are key to high-quality peanut products. Potential solutions may be found in community cooperatives, which are a growing phenomenon that have yielded great results in peanut value addition, while at the same time reducing the individual financial burden and stress that accompanies managing a small business (Climate Technology Centre & Network, n.d.). There is a strong need for education and support for subsistence farmers so that they understand the benefits that can be realized by post-harvest value addition.</p>
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<h3 class="title-bg">Helpful links to get started</h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p><b>Hands-on guides:</b></p>
<p>- This ‘Practical Action Plan’ provides step-by-step instructions, links to equipment suppliers, and useful contacts: https://www.ctc-n.org/sites/www.ctc-n.org/files/resources/peanut_processing.pdf </p>
<p>- This journal contains an article (p. 3-5) on peanut butter processing with a detailed list of instructions, as well as a table of solutions to common problems: https://practicalaction.org/docs/agroprocessing/food_chain_30.pdf </p>
<p>- This book contains a step-by-step guide to small-scale oil extraction: https://developmentbookshop.com/the-manual-screw-press-for-small-scale-oil-extraction-pb</p>
<p><b>Direct links to equipment and suppliers:</b></p>
<p>- Hand-operated decorticator (no gas or electricity needed): http://agritech.tnau.ac.in/agricultural_engineering/agriengg_groundnut.html </p>
<p>- Roasting drum design (no gas or electricity needed): https://answers.practicalaction.org/our-resources/item/peanut-roaster </p>
<p>- Rotary roaster (gas powered): https://www.alibaba.com/product-detail/rotary-drum-nut-roaster_60325819330.html?spm=a2700.7724838.2017115.11.72045553OrMu5c </p>
<p>- Peanut butter milling machine (gas powered): https://www.alibaba.com/product-detail/Small-peanut-butter-making-machine-South_60844967278.html?spm=a2700.7724838.2017115.45.38536266pytkFJ&s=p</p>
<p>- Polythene bag sealer (electric): https://www.alibaba.com/product-detail/SF-600-Manual-Standup-Plastic-Bag_60715868319.html?spm=a2700.7724857.normalList.62.7cb062d6ZPAEQM</p>
<p>- Label applicator for both bags and jars (electric): https://www.alibaba.com/product-detail/Top-Quality-portable-label-applicator-vacuum_60626771525.html?spm=a2700.galleryofferlist.normalList.127.652327517ptyg0</p>
<p><b>Peanut recipe ideas: </b></p>
<p>- Nigerian peanut stew: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ugfX--tqES0 </p>
<p>- Filipino kare-kare: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wc7u4jRTRO4</p>
<p>- Thai peanut satay sauce: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=R_w_zCqOIjE</p>
<p>- Peanut punch: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1iD7Z-9Tp0A</p>
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<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">References </h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>1. Ansari, M. A., Prakash, N., Punitha, P., & Baishya, L. K. (2015). Post harvest management and
a. value addition of groundnut. Lamphelpat, Imphal: ICAR Research Complex for NEH Region. doi: 10.13140/RG.2.2.22053.91365</p>

<p>2. Climate Technology Centre & Network. (n.d.). Peanut Processing. Practical Action. Retrieved
a. from https://www.ctc-n.org/sites/www.ctc-n.org/files/resources/peanut_processing.pdf </p>

<p>3. Dhanesh, B. & Kochhar, A. (2015). Peanut Processing and It’s Potential Food Applications.
a. International Journal of Science and Research, 4(6), 2701-2706. Retrieved from
b. https://www.ijsr.net/archive/v4i6/SUB156042.pdf</p>

<p>4. Fellows, P. & Hilmi, M. (2011). Selling street and snack foods. Rome: Rural Infrastructure and
a. Agro-Industries Division, Food and Agriculture Organization. Retrieved from
b. http://www.fao.org/docrep/015/i2474e/i2474e00.pdf</p>

<p>5. Intermediate Technology Development Group Ltd. (2002). Small-scale peanut butter processing
a. in Tanzania – The experience of women processors. Food Chain: The International Journal of Small-scale Food Processing, (30), 3-5. Retrieved from https://practicalaction.org/docs/agroprocessing/food_chain_30.pdf </p>

<p>6. Kiryowa, M., Andrews, A., Awori, E., Oballim, G., Okori, F., & Okello, D. K. (n.d.).
a. Groundnuts Postharvesting Handling: Harvesting and drying. Abi Zonal Agricultural Research and Development Institute and NARO National Semi-Arid Resources Research Institute (NaSARRI) Serere. Retrieved from http://www.nasarri.go.ug/factsheets/Harvest%20and%20drying.pdf </p>

<p>7. Masters, W., Ghosh, S., Daniels, J., & Sarpong, D. (2013). Comprehensive Assessment of the
a. Peanut Value Chain for Nutrition Improvement in Ghana. Retrieved from http://sites.tufts.edu/willmasters/files/2013/11/TuftsReportForGAIN_PeanutValueChainInGhana_PublicVersion_Sept2013.pdf </p>

<p>8. Mottaleb, K. A., Krupnik, T. J., & Erenstein, O. (2016). Factors associated with small-scale
a. agricultural machinery adoption in Bangladesh: Census findings. Journal of Rural Studies, 46(2016), 155-168. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrurstud.2016.06.012</p>

<p>9. Mupunga, I., Lebelo, S., Mngqawa, P., Rheeder, J., & Katerere, D. (2014). Journal of Food
a. Protection, 77(10), 1814-1818. Retrieved from doi: 10.4315/0362-028X.JFP-14-129 </p>

<p>10. Nautiyal, P. C. (2002). Groundnut: Post-harvest Operations. Food and Agriculture Organization.
a. Retrieved from http://www.fao.org/fileadmin/user_upload/inpho/docs/Post_Harvest_Compendium_-_Groundnut.pdf</p>

<p>11. Ochieng, O. G. (2010). Effect of Value Addition on Price: A Hedonic Analysis of Peanut in
a. Retail Supermarkets in Nairobi, Kenya. (Unpublished master’s thesis). Egerton
b. University, Njoro, Kenya. Retrieved from
c. https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/bitstream/134495/2/Otieno%20Thesis.pdf </p>

<p>12. Potts, K. H. & Machell, K. (1995). The Manual Screw Press for small-scale oil extraction.
a. London, U.K.: Intermediate Technology Publications. Find this book at:
b. https://developmentbookshop.com/the-manual-screw-press-for-small-scale-oil-extraction-pb</p>

<p>13. Shephard, G. (2017). Aflatoxins in peanut oil: food safety concerns. World Mycotoxin Journal,
a. 11(1), 149-158. Retrieved from https://www.wageningenacademic.com/doi/abs/10.3920/WMJ2017.2279</p>

<p>14. Wang, Q., Liu, L., Wang, L., Guo, Y., Wang, J. (2016). Peanut Processing Technology and
a. Product Development. Beijing, China: China Science Publishing & Media Ltd. Find this book at: https://www.sciencedirect.com/book/9780128095959/peanuts-processing-technology-and-product-development</p>

<p>15. Zhao, X., Chen, J., & Du, F. (2011). Potential use of peanut by-products in food processing: a
a. review. Journal of Food Science and Technology, 49(5), 521-529. Retrieved from
b. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3550843/</p>

Template:Chapters 8.33

2026-01-14T15:19:55Z

Mamta:

<div>
<div class="title"><h3>8.33-Tomato Value Addition</h3><br><h3 class="ch-owner">Mikayla Robinson, University of Guelph, Canada </h3></div>
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[[File:4.jpg|300px]]

<p><b>Related video(s)</b>: Good handling of tomatoes, Staggering production of tomatoes, Making a cooling chamber for tomatoes, Storing fresh and dried tomatoes (Source: Access Agriculture)</p>
<p><i> https://www.accessagriculture.org/good-handling-tomatoes?cat_id=1499</i></p>
<p><i> https://www.accessagriculture.org/staggering-production-tomatoes?cat_id=1499</i></p>
<p><i> https://www.accessagriculture.org/making-cooling-chamber-tomatoes?cat_id=1499</i></p>
<p><i> https://www.accessagriculture.org/storing-fresh-and-dried-tomatoes?cat_id=1499</i></p>

<p>Suggested citation for this chapter.</p>
<p>Robinson,M. (2022) Tomato Value Addition,In Farmpedia, The Encyclopedia for Small Scale Farmers. Editor, M.N. Raizada, University of Guelph, Canada. http://www.farmpedia.org</p>
<h3 class="title-bg">Introduction and Background Information</h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<P>Tomatoes are grown worldwide on nearly 5 million hectares of land (Mubarok et al., 2015). The tomato plant was originally used by the Aztecs of Central America and they called it the xitomat; when the Spanish conquistadors landed around 700 A.D. they named it tomate (Friedman, 2002). The physical appearance of a tomato is extremely important to how well the tomato crop sells. If the tomatoes are not of high quality appearance and taste, the farmer will struggle to sell their product (Mubarok et al., 2015). What can a farmer do with the unsellable tomatoes? This is where creativity and entrepreneurship are needed to add value after harvest. When looking at the value additions to tomatoes presented, this chapter will try and allow for many recipes to be performed without the need for large machines or even electricity. The recipes will allow the farmer creativity with the spices added to the recipes based on their own personal taste and on where they live.</p>
<p>Tomatoes and other fruits and vegetables are an incredibly important part of a balanced diet. Tomatoes are important because they are, “an important source of dietary antioxidants due to their content in carotenoids, vitamins and phenolic compounds” (Aguiló-Aguayo et al., 2013). Thus, the following recipes and value additions should continue to offer the same benefits and help create a balanced diet.</p>
</div>
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<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">Value Addition Ideas </h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p><b>1. Tomato Juice</b></p>
<p>In the Technical manual on small-scale processing of fruits and vegetables (Paltrinieri et al., 1997), the authors point out that tomato juice, “may be used to make cocktails and cook with foods when fresh tomatoes are no longer available on the market”. The use of tomato juice can be found within many different recipes or can be just drunk by itself. Tomato juice is culturally relevant across the world, and it is incredibly diverse in its uses for cooking. It can be made by smallholder farmers without electricity or modified to be made using more technologically advanced processes as well.</p>
<p><b>Supplies Needed:</b></p>
<p>• A fire or stove that you can heat the tomatoes up on;</p>
<p>• A sieve to strain out the juice;</p>
<p>• Saucepan for boiling the tomatoes in, knife for cutting them up, a stir stick or something to mash the tomatoes with;</p>
<p>• Canning jars or bottles to put the juice in after it has been made;</p>
<p>• Water to sanitize the jars/bottles with;</p>
<p>• Lemon juice or citric acid or acidity vinegar, sugar (optional);</p>
<p><b>Procedure:</b> Around 53 pounds (a bushel) of tomatoes is needed in order to make 15 to 18 quarts of juice. The first step is to wash, remove stems and trim off the discoloured or bruised parts of the tomatoes. In order to stop juices from getting out of the tomato, cut the tomato into quarters and then throw it directly into the saucepan. Turn the heat on, and crush the tomatoes while they boil. Continue to add tomatoes until all the tomatoes have been used. Once all the tomatoes have been added, simmer for 5 minutes. Next, press the juice through a sieve to remove the tomato skin and seeds. Add lemon juice/citric acid/acidity vinegar to acidify the juice. Then take the steps necessary to seal the jars and package.</p>
<p>(source for the entire recipe and procedure: “Selecting, Preparing, and Canning Tomatoes and Tomato Products.”; see Helpful Links below)</p>
<p><b> Labour Needs:</b> The labour needs for this product are relatively low. Ultimately, the only labour that would be needed would be that of the farmer who is producing the juice. Simply one person would be needed in order to produce this recipe.</p>
<p><b>Overhead Costs:</b> The costs of this would ultimately be any of the required supplies. These include items like: jars or bottles and the ingredients for the acidification process.</p>
<p><b>Target Market:</b> Tomato juice could easily be sold at a roadside stand, outside a household, in a town market, or at a tourist hotel. If close by, there is also the opportunity to sell the tomato juice (because of the long shelf life) to a grocery store or a general store.</p>
<p><b>Other Opportunities to Add Value to Tomato Juice:</b> Some other opportunities to add value to the tomato juice would be to add labels to the jars/bottles; this would make it appear more professional. Also, there are many local recipes that require tomato juice. If interested, the farmer could produce some of these recipes, dependent on their local needs and sell these for even more money.</p>
<p><b>2. Hot Sauce </b></p>
<p>The great feature about this recipe is that one can change it to meet the desired level of spiciness. An entrepreneur can come up with different spices and different labels which gives their customers a choice as to which hot sauce they would buy. This approach would create an exciting way to also include local spices and traditional tastes within the hot sauce.</p>
<p><b>Supplies Needed:</b></p>
<p>• A fire or stove that you can heat the sauce up on; </p>
<p>• A sieve or food mill; </p>
<p>• Pot, knife, a stir stick; </p>
<p>• Canning jars or bottles to put the sauce in after it has been made;</p>
<p>• Water to sanitize the jars/bottles; </p>
<p>• Spice bag;</p>
<p>• Tomatoes, hot peppers, distilled white vinegar, salt, pickling spices.</p>
<p><b>Procedure:</b> Make sure to wear plastic gloves and/or do not touch one’s face while handling or cutting the hot peppers. Thoroughly wash one’s hands before one touches their face. Mix all the ingredients in the pot and bring to a boil. Simmer until the tomatoes are soft, or for about 20 minutes. Then, press the mixture through a food mill. Put back in the pot and simmer for another 15 minutes. Pour into the jars/bottles and then seal them properly.</p>
<p>(source for all of the above information: “Selecting, Preparing, and Canning Tomatoes and Tomato Products”; see Helpful Links below)</p>
<p><b> Labour Needs:</b> The only labour needed to make hot sauce is the need of one person to produce it. This does not require a lot of people in order to turn out a good yield. </p>
<p><b>Overhead Costs:</b> The overhead costs that are needed to make hot sauce are the ingredients and the jars/bottles. The farmer already has a stove, pan and all the other ingredients.</p>
<p><b>Target Market:</b> Hot sauce would be fantastic to sell on a roadside stand, outside a household, in a town market, or at a tourist hotel. If close by, there is also the opportunity to sell the hot sauce (because of the long shelf life) to either a grocery store or a general store. It would also be very appealing if there were multiple “levels” of hot sauce; this could cause people to try a couple or just give more opportunity for people to choose their level of spiciness.</p>
<p>Other Opportunities to Add Value to Hot Sauce: As mentioned above, the idea of creating a bunch of different hot sauces would help the hot sauce to gain popularity. Also, adding different labels to the hot sauces would give the hot sauce more value and a sense of legitimacy.</p>
<p><b>3. Salsa </b></p>
<p>This product might have a higher demand in places such as Latin America or in areas that cater to tourists. Salsa is also incredibly diverse in that the farmer can decide the level of spice as well as what vegetables he/she would like to put in with the tomatoes.</p>
<p><b>Supplies Needed:</b></p>
<p>• A fire or stove that one can heat the tomatoes up on; </p>
<p>• A sieve to strain out the juice;</p>
<p>• Large pot, knife, a stir stick; </p>
<p>• Canning jars to put the salsa in after it has been made; </p>
<p>• Water to sanitize the jars/bottles with;</p>
<p>• Onions, peppers, hot peppers (depending on how spicy you want the salsa), garlic, sugar, salt, cumin (or desired spices), cider vinegar.</p>
<p><b>Procedure:</b> Peel the tomatoes and add them into the pot with the tomatoes, onions, peppers, hot peppers, garlic, sugar, salt, cumin, and vinegar. Bring to a boil, then reduce the heat to keep the pot simmering. Boil gently for an hour. The sauce should be reduced by half and thickened a bit. Sterilize the jars. Put the sealed cans in a water bath, as per the source, fully sealing the cans through this method. When they are fully sealed one should hear the tops pop. Canned salsa lasts a year before going bad.</p>
<p> (Source for all the above information: “How to Make Simple Easy Homemade Canned Tomatoes.”; see Helpful Links below) </p>
<p><b> Labour Needs:</b> Salsa requires no additional labourers other than the farmer. Making salsa can be done over a single stove top with the need for one person manning it and chopping the vegetables.</p>
<p><b>Overhead Costs:</b> The overhead costs in this value adding method are the costs of jars and of other produce. If the farmer does not already produce the other vegetables him/herself, such as pep-pers, onions and hot peppers, then he will be required to purchase them. He will also be required to purchase the necessary spices.</p>
<p><b> Target Market:</b> Salsa would be easy to sell on a roadside stand, outside a household, in a town market, or at a tourist hotel. If close by, there is also the opportunity to sell the salsa (because of the long shelf life) to either a grocery store or a general store.</p>
<p>Other Opportunities to Add Value to Salsa: An opportunity to add more value to the salsa would be to add a label to the product to make it look more official. Marketing as, “locally sourced” and “made by a local farmer” at hotels, super markets, and general stores could also add more value.
Transportation and Safety Issues: Some of the issues in regards to transportation and safety are that transporting the glass jars could be difficult. It would be smart to package them in boxes with leaves or fabric in between them in order to keep the jars from smashing into one another. Some safety concerns are the heat of the fire and the hot liquid and jars. This concern could be avoided by using gloves or an apron of some sort of protection against the heat.</p>

<p><b>4. Sun-dried Tomatoes</b></p>
<p>Here are some resources on how to dry tomatoes (using only the sun and a net to keep insects away) and what can be done to sun-dried tomatoes to add even more value:</p>
<p>• https://whiteonricecouple.com/recipes/sun-dried-tomatoes/ - This link explains how to dry tomatoes in the sun and how to know when they are fully finished drying.</p>
<p>• https://avocadopesto.com/vegan-tomato-soup-recipe - This recipe uses sun-dried tomatoes in soup. In this recipe locals can feel free to change up the spices and add local spices instead of those listed in order to make it more relevant to the market you are in.</p>
<p>• https://www.finedininglovers.com/blog/food-drinks/sun-dried-tomatoes-uses/ - this link gives a list of ways to “get the most of sun-dried tomatoes” including storing them in oil.</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">Conclusions</h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>When examining adding value to tomatoes, it is important assess the local market and make sure that a processed product will be needed and enjoyed locally. It is important to use la-belling and taste that is localized to the culture surrounding the local region. The value additions suggested above are critical to not wasting the crops that farmers work so hard to produce, while adding additional profits and employment for smallholders.</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">Other Useful Links</h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ijgiV34MgZU - This is a video that is useful to watch if you are making salsa. It moves through all of the different steps necessary to make salsa.</p>
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ewQqC0vursc - Jamie Oliver does a great job explaining the reasons behind some of steps in the hot sauce recipe. <p>However, he does use a good deal of technology. In place of the food processor you can just use a knife and cut up the vegetables for example.
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3D86FIyC8BM - This is a great recipe and video that physically shows how to make tomato juice
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JyhD9Zv6Kfk - This is a useful link that explains how to add value to tomatoes as well as other information about</p> <p><b>tomatoes.</b></p>
• https://www.alibaba.com - This is a helpful link to a store where you can find many different machines and other products in order to increase <p><b>production.</b></p>
• For example: the wood burning stovetop can be found on this website: https://www.alibaba.com/product-detail/China-Supplier-Wood-Burning-Cast-<p>Iron_60782375095.html?spm=a2700.galleryofferlist.normalList.1.5ac03d7e8LAM2S&s=p
• Canning Jars: https://www.alibaba.com/product-detail/High-quality-Canning-Jar-16oz-Glass_60649790164.html
spm=a2700.galleryofferlist.normalList.60.37df7637tgga0o
• http://www.label-it.co.za - Label-it is a great resource that allows a business to order labels for different products.</p>

</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">References </h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>1. “A Complete Guide To Home Canning.” National Institute of Food and Agriculture, 2015. https://nchfp.uga.edu/publications/usda/GUIDE03_HomeCan_rev0715.pdf </p>
<p>2. “Selecting, Preparing, and Canning Tomatoes and Tomato Products.” National Institute of Food and Agriculture, 2015. https://nchfp.uga.edu/publications/usda/GUIDE03_HomeCan_rev
a. 0715.pdf</p>
<p>3. Aguiló-Aguayo, I., et al. Pulsed Light Effects on Surface Decontamination, Physical Qualities and Nutritional Composition of Tomato Fruit. Postharvest Biology and Technology, 86, 29–36. 2013. doi:10.1016/j.postharvbio.2013.06.011.</p>
<p>4. Friedman, M. Tomato Glycoalkaloids: Role in the Plant and in the Diet. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 50 (21), 5751–5780. (2002) doi:10.1021/ jf020560c </p>
<p>5. “Home Canning: Jars and Lids.” National Center for Home Food Preservation | NCHFP Publications, Purdue, 2015, nchfp.uga.edu/how/can_01/sterile_jars.html.</p>
<p>6. Kimura, S., and N. Sinha. How to Grow Tomatoes. Cold Spring Harbor Protocols, 2008, 12, protocol 5081, doi:10.1101/pdb.prot5081</p>
<p>7. Mubarok, S., et al. Potential Use of a Weak Ethylene Receptor Mutant, Sletr1-2, as Breeding Material To Extend Fruit Shelf Life of Tomato. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 63(36), 7995–8007. 2015, doi:10.1021/acs.jafc.5b02742.</p>
<p>8. Noland, T., et al. “How to Make Simple Easy Homemade Canned Tomatoes.” Noshing With the Nolands, 30 Aug. 2018, noshingwiththenolands.com/simple-easy-homemade-canned- tomatoes/. </p>
<p>9. Paltrinieri, G., et al. “Technical manual on small-scale processing of fruits and vegetables. 1st ed.” Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Santiago, Chile. 1997.
a. http://www.fao.org/docrep/x0209e/x0209e00.HTM</p>

Template:Chapters 8.27

2026-01-14T14:12:50Z

Mamta:

<div>
<div class="title"><h3>8.27-Cassava Value Addition</h3><br><h3 class="ch-owner">Neha Moodley, University of Guelph, Canada </h3></div>
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[[File:4.jpg|300px]]

<p><b>Related video(s)</b>: Making cassava snacks, Quality cassava planting material (Source: Access Agriculture)</p>
<p><i> https://www.accessagriculture.org/making-cassava-snacks?cat_id=1499</i></p>
<p><i> https://www.accessagriculture.org/quality-cassava-planting-material</i></p>

<p>Suggested citation for this chapter.</p>
<p>Moodley,N. (2022) Cassava Value Addition,In Farmpedia, The Encyclopedia for Small Scale Farmers. Editor, M.N. Raizada, University of Guelph, Canada. http://www.farmpedia.org</p>
<h3 class="title-bg">What is Cassava</h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<P>Cassava (also known as yucca) is a perennial woody shrub that produces starchy root tubers, and is an important carbohydrate source for more than 500 million people in Africa, Latin America and the Caribbean, and Asia (Plucknett, Phillips & Kagbo, 2000). Cassava is consumed by cooking the root and leaves or as dried products. It is commonly consumed as garri (also known as eba, rale, farinha) and fufu (foufou, amala lafun) in African countries (Bokanga, 1994).</p>
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<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">A Note on Safety</h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Bitter cassava varieties contain cyanogens which can cause illness, paralysis (konzo) and death if high amounts are consumed. Traditional detoxification methods (sun-drying, heap fermentation and soaking in water for 3-4 days) often do not reduce the toxin content to a level that is deemed safe by the World Health Organization (WHO). The wetting method can be done after the traditional methods are used to help eliminate residual toxins (Bradbury, Cliff & Banea, 2015). The wetting method involves placing cassava flour in a bowl, adding water and mixing until the level of flour drops and rises again to initial level. The flour is then thinly spread on mats to dry for 2-5 hours (Bradbury et al., 2015, p. 6). To remove cyanogens from cassava leaves they should be pounded, sundried for 2-5 hours then washed 3 times (Bradbury & Denton, 2013). Sweet cassava can be boiled and eaten without safety concerns (Bradbury et al., 2015).</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">Commercialization </h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Cassava and cassava products can be sold at village centres, town markets or along roadsides. These products have a higher value than selling the fresh root due to the convenience of being ready for direct consumption or ready to cook with. Selling is more feasible when the farm is close to the point of retail (Plucknett et al., 2000). Storing dry cassava products like flour and garri for sale in the dry season when food availability is low may provide the farmer with higher returns (Parmar et al. 2018). Use of animal-drawn carts may be useful for transporting cassava efficiently from the field to household or roadside. It is likely that farmers will have to connect with local traders to get their product to the market, especially if they are located far from the point of sale (Sewando, 2012). To process cassava into cassava into garri, high quality cassava flour, or starch, farmers will need:</p>
<p>• Basins, clean water and sponge or cloth for washing roots</p>
<p>o Spring water should be used to process flour, if only river water is available it should be properly sanitized (Grace, 1977)</p>
<p>• Clean knives</p>
<p>• Clean, tightly woven bags (such as rice or cocoa sacks) (Grace, 1977)</p>
<p>• Sieve or sifter</p>
<p>• Fuel for roasting garri </p>
<p>• Packaging materials for final products (polythene bags) </p>
<p>• Grater (ideally mechanized or semi-mechanized for efficiency)</p>
<p>• Pressing machinery (not necessary) </p>
<p>• Scale for weighing </p>
<p>• Sealing/ stitching machine (not necessary) (Emmanuel et al., 2010).</p>

</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">Step-by-Step Post-Harvest Processing of Value Added Products </h3>
<div class="cont-bg">

<p>Note: Roots are peeled and washed before processing – cleaning must be done carefully to ensure quality (change water for each batch) (Taiwo, 2006).</p>

<p><b>Packaged garri (roasted flour):</b></p>
<p>1. Chop roots (into chunks then in halves) and remove central fibres </p>
<p>2. Reduce size by grinding with pestle & mortar or milling machine</p>
<p>3. Pack in bags and ferment for 2-3 days</p>
<p>4. Dewater by placing weights such as heavy stones on top of bags (or use hydraulic press), press until water stops being released (bags should not be in contact with sand, and water should be allowed to seep out)</p>
<p>5. Sieve and remove large fibres using a mesh or bamboo sieve</p>
<p>6. Roast on pan over fire or on hot plate</p>
<p>7. Sieve again to remove large pieces then bag once cooled (Emmanuel et al., 2010; Kouakou et al. 2016)</p>
<p><b>Packaged cassava flour:</b></p>
<p>1. Grate by hand or mechanically</p>
<p>2. Press (dewater)</p>
<p>3. Sun-dry on cloth or black plastic sheet on a slight incline</p>
<p>4. Grind/ mill dried paste in mortar (labour intensive) or in mechanized mill</p>
<p>5. Sift then bag (Technology, 2006)</p>

<p>High quality cassava flour (HQCF): grate, dewater, pound/mill, dry, fine mill, sieve, package (Technology, 2006)</p>

<p><b> Fufu flour (cassava and plantain flour mix):</b></p> Suitable in region where plantain is also grown. Mix cassava flour with plantain flour and package.</p>

<p><b>Chips:</b></p>
<p>For human consumption, animal feed or to mill into HQCF (Sewando, 2012)</p>
<p>1. Soak roots for 3-6 days</p>
<p>2. Remove fibres and cut into small pieces (can use mechanical slicer for this)</p>
<p>3. Sun-dry, store in bags (Kouakou et al. 2016)</p>
<p><b>Cassava starch</b></p>
<p>1. Chop/ grate</p>
<p>2. Mill with water</p>
<p>3. Sieve</p>
<p>4. Mill again</p>
<p>5. Allow to settle (1 hour)</p>
<p>6. Slowly decanter water, remove top layers of fibre </p>
<p>7. Ferment (to make sour starch)</p>
<p>8. Break and dry starch in sun (24-120 hours)</p>
<p>9. Grind, sift and package into bags (Kouakou et al. 2016)</p>

<p><b>Bagged dried & ground cassava leaves:</b></p>
<p>The leaves can be washed, pounded, then sundried and packaged (Technology, 2006).</p>

<p><b>Cassava beer:</b></p>
<p>1. Soak tubers in water for 7 days</p>
<p>2. Peel and grind</p>
<p>3. Add 20 litres of water and mix, let stand for 3 days</p>
<p>4. Filter juice and store in jars or suitable container (Kouakou et al. 2016)</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">Food Vendor Products </h3>
<div class="cont-bg">

<p>If the farmer is in close proximity to an urban or semi-urban area or has access to a market or roadside, selling ready-made foods may be an option to increase income. The foods that are sold will depend on demand and what is culturally appropriate. For example, women may cook fufu and sell directly to consumers (this can be done at the household level). However, the fufu flour mix (above) is a more appealing product to consumers (Westby, 2002). Other cassava foods or baked goods that could be sold at vendors include fritters, chips, tapioca flatbread (pancake known as salgados or doces), cakes (bammy) and bread (by replacing a portion of wheat flour with cassava flour), cassava beer and dried leaves (Henry et al., 2004). See Helpful Tips for how to make some of these simple cassava snack foods for retail. When marketing cassava products in urban markets, it is important to have attractive and appropriate packaging (Plucknett et al., 2000). Food packaging can be fairly inexpensive and simple such as polythene/ polypropylene packaging with a well-designed sticker. See foodpackaginglabels.net, rebsons.co.za and Alibaba.com for labeling and packaging options.</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">Equipment & machinery </h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>To achieve value addition on a small scale, farmers could form communal cooperatives to investment in small scale mechanized cassava processing technologies (i.e. grating, chipping and pressing machinery), to increase efficiency, product quality and reduce high labour requirements of traditional processing methods (Abass et al., 2017). Processing machinery is costly so to make it more accessible, it is recommended that a community collectively invests in processing capital (Taiwo, 2006). Processing does not need to be entirely mechanized, however farmers should invest in, or have access to a grating/rasping machine and pressing machine (hydraulic press) </p>

<p><i>Peelers:</i></p>
<p>Peeling is the most laborious step of processing (Westby, 2002). A mechanized cassava peeler, such as the one from Capsfeed, can save several hours of labor but are costly. Lower-cost pedal operated peelers are also available. However, machinery is expensive and results in higher losses than manual peeling. If done manually, peeling should be done using sharp knives with strong handles (Taiwo, 2006).</p>
<p>• Pedal operated peeler US $490: https://www.indiamart.com/proddetail/cassava-skin-peeler-pedal-operated-12493530491.html </p>
<p>• Capsfeed peeler: http://www.capsfeed.com/catalog/product/peeling-machine-7-5-kw/ </p>

<p><i>Graters:</i></p>
<p>Taiwo (2006) suggests that grating is done with a hammer mill made of galvanized sheet metal or Wooden hopper, wooden hollow drum, galvanized metal discharge chute, short metal stand, or rasper made of galvanized metal. A simple grater can be made by “perforating a sheet of galvanized iron with a nail and then clamping it around a wheel with the sharp protruding rims of the nail openings turned outward” (Grace, 1977). This wheel can be driven by hand or pedal. The roots are pressed onto the grater or the grater is attached to a side of the rotating disk with a crank (Grace, 1997). Grating and milling can also be done using machines that run on diesel fuel (possibly in a communal facility) (Davies et al., 2008).</p>
<p>• Manually cranked cassava chipper $US 70-300: https://www.alibaba.com/product-detail/manual-machine-cassava-chipper-for-sale_60778076657.html?spm=a2700.7724857.normalList.37.3a1b1007cbvhU1 </p>
<p>• Slicing machine US $100-200: https://www.alibaba.com/product-detail/Cassava-Duble-Slicing-Machine_122537653.html?spm=a2700.7724838.2017115.180.3cfb16eeLKNUYV </p>
<p>• Grating machine US $300-900: https://www.alibaba.com/product-detail/Fresh-cassava-grating-machine-008618237112106_60624141308.html?spm=a2700.7724857.normalList.38.1fb42948IeNApp</p>

<p><i>Pressers:</i></p>
<p>Pressing can be done using rocks to compress the sacks of fermented paste or using parallel press boards screwed together (Technology, 2006). Investing in a hydraulic jack press is highly efficient and does not necessarily require fuel or manpower (Davies et al., 2008). A centrifuge or vacuum filter may be used for dewatering (Taiwo, 2006) but the former would be expensive.</p>

<p><i>Drying:</i></p>
<p>Drying can be done on bamboo mats, concrete floors, black plastic sheets, etc. Drying of starch can be in fluid-bed driers, tray driers and flash driers (Taiwo, 2006), but the latter would be expensive.</p>
<p>• Solar dryer US $500-1500: https://www.alibaba.com/product-detail/industrial-commercial-tomato-dates-cassava-chip_60677584495.html?spm=a2700.7724838.2017115.12.579f3debYX1waA</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">Helpful Tips </h3>
<div class="cont-bg">

<p><b>• Low-cost storage methods:</b></p>
<p>o Pile roots on layers of straw in conical heaps, cover with straw and soil but leave some openings.</p>
<p>o Trench storage – place palm and raffia leaves at the bottom of a trench, place a layer of roots on top, keep layering leaves and roots until the trench is filled, cover in soil and construct a roof over-top (Technology, 2006)</p> .
<p><b>• Higher cost methods:</b></p>
<p>o Dip roots in paraffin or wax and/or fungicide & store in airtight polythene bags.</p>
<p>• To minimize losses from post-harvest physiological disorder (PPD), only harvest what can be processed in a day (Parmar, Fikre, Sturm, & Hensel, 2018).</p>
<p>• Remove leaves two weeks prior to root harvest to extend shelf life (Plucknett et al., 2000).</p>
<p>• Dry cassava products can be packed into 50 or 100kg polypropylene sacks (Parmar et al. 2018).</p>
<p>• Low-cost vacuum sealer bags available here: https://www.alibaba.com/product-detail/embossed-vacuum-sealer-bags-PA-PE_60027033264.html?spm=a2700.7724838.2017115.123.6bb71db3eAgvIP </p>
<p>• High quality cassava flour should be packaged in polypropylene sacs lined with polythene for bulk sale (Emmanuel et al., 2010).</p>
<p>• See Nans.in and Cassavaprocessingmachine.com for more machinery </p>

<p><b>How-to Videos & Links:</b></p>
<p>How to make Gari with processing machinery:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ejPuV1NFxgg&t=90s </p>

<p>How to make Cassava chips snack:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6zbxZHN-BR8</p>

<p>How to make Tapioca Flatbread (Brazilian pancake):
http://ediblehouston.ediblecommunities.com/recipes/tapioca-brazilian-snack</p>

<p>How to make Bammy cakes:
https://tastetheislandstv.com/bammy/</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">References </h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>1. Abass, A., Amaza, P., Bachwenkizi, B., Alenkhe, B., Mukuka, I., & Cromme, N. (2017). Adding value through the mechanization of post-harvest cassava processing, and its impact on household poverty in north-eastern Zambia. Applied Economics Letters, 24(9), 579–583. https://doi.org/10.1080/13504851.2016.1213356</p>
<p>2. Bokanga, M. (1994). Cassava Leaf Process Human Consumption. Acta Horticulturae, 375, 203–208. Retrieved from https://www.actahort.org/books/375/375_18.htm</p>
<p>3. Bradbury, H.J., Cliff, J., Banea, J. P. (2015). Making cassava flour safe using the wetting method. Free Radical Biology & Medicine, 52(1), 1075–1085. Retrieved from http://www.southsudanmedicaljournal.com/archive/february-2015/making-cassava-flour-safe-using-the-wetting-method.html</p>
<p>4. Bradbury, J. H., & Denton, I. C. (2014). Mild method for removal of cyanogens from cassava leaves with retention of vitamins and protein. Food Chemistry, 158, 417–420. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2014.02.132</p>
<p>5. Davies, R. M., Olatunji, M. O., & Burubai, W. (2008). Mechanization of Cassava Processing in Iwo Local Government Area of Osun State, Nigeria. World Journal of Agricultural Sciences, 4(3), 341–345. Retrieved from https://scholar.google.ca/scholar?hl=en&as_sdt=0%2C5&q=Mechanization+of+Cassava+Processing+in+Iwo+Local+Government+Area+of+Osun+State+%2C+Nigeria&btnG=</p>
<p>6. Donkor, E., Onakuse, S., Bogue, J., Carmenado, I. D. L. R., & Donkor, E. (2018). Promoting value addition among farmers in the cassava food value chain in Nigeria. British Food. https://doi.org/10.1108/BFJ-01-2018-0030</p>
<p>7. Engineers Without Borders Cameroon (ISF Cameroun) & The Technical Centre for Agricultural and Rural Cooperation (CTA). (2016). Cassava Production and Processing. [Series: Pro-Agro Collection]. CTA, ISF Cameroon. Kouakou, J., Nanga Nanga, S., Plagne-Ismail, C., Mazalo Pali, A., Ognakossan. K. E. Retrieved from https://publications.cta.int/media/publications/downloads/1889_PDF.pdf</p>
<p>8. FAO (2016). Harvest, post-harvest and value addition. Save and grow: Cassava. Retrieved from http://www.fao.org/ag/save-and-grow/cassava/en/7/index.html</p>
<p>9. FAO (2004). Global Cassava Market Study: Business opportunities for the use of cassava. (Vol. 6). Document prepared by IFAD. Proceedings of the Validation Forum on the Global Cassava Development Strategy. FAO, Rome. Henry, G., Graffham. A., Westby, A., Vilpoux, O., Ospina, M. T., Titapiwatanakun, B., Taylor, D.S., Phillips, T.P. Retrieved from http://www.fao.org/docrep/007/y5287e/y5287e02.htm#bm02</p>
<p>10. FAO (1999). Cassava: Post-harvest operations. Document prepared by Mpoko Bokanga. Post-harvest Compendium, International Institute of Tropical Agriculture. Ibadan, Nigeria. Retrived from http://www.fao.org/fileadmin/user_upload/inpho/docs/Post_Harvest_Compendium_-_Cassava.pdf</p>
<p>11. Grace, M.R. (1977). Cassava Processing. FAO Plant Production and Protection Series No. 3. Retrieved from http://www.fao.org/docrep/x5032e/x5032E00.htm#Contents</p>
<p>12. Haggblade, S., Djurfeldt, A. A., Nyirenda, D. B., Lodin, J. B., Brimer, L., Chiona, M., … Weber, M. (2012). Cassava commercialization in Southeastern Africa. Journal of Agribusiness in Developing and Emerging Economies, 2(1), 4–40. https://doi.org/10.1108/20440831211219219</p>
<p>13. Muhammad-Lawal, A. & Omotesho, O. A. & Oyedemi, F.A. (2013). Proceedings from 2013 Fourth International Conference of the African Association of Agricultural Economists (AAAE): An Assessment of the Economics of Cassava Processing in Kwara State, Nigeria. Hammamet, Tunisia. https://doi.org/10.12691/wjar-1-1-4</p>
<p>14. Njukwe, E., Onadipe, O., Thierno, D. A., Hanna, R., Kirscht, H., Maziya-Dixon, B., … Ngue-Bissa, T. (2014). Cassava processing among small-holder farmers in Cameroon: opportunities and challenges. International Journal of Agricultural Policy and Research, 2(4), 113–124. Retrieved from http://www.cabdirect.org/abstracts/20143402559.html;jsessionid=298E297E67F0A10FC14F42027FF8498A</p>
<p>15. Parmar, A., Fikre, A., Sturm, B., & Hensel, O. (2018). Post-harvest management and associated food losses and by-products of cassava in southern Ethiopia. Food Security, 10(2), 419–435. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12571-018-0774-7</p>
<p>16. Parmar, A., Sturm, B., & Hensel, O. (2017). Crops that feed the world: Production and improvement of cassava for food, feed, and industrial uses. Food Security, 9(5), 907–927. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12571-017-0717-8</p>
<p>17. Plucknett, D. L., Phillips, T.P. & Kagbo, R. B. (2000). A Global Development Strategy for Cassava: Transforming a Traditional Tropical Root Crop. Retrieved from http://hubrural.org/IMG/pdf/global_cassava_development_strategy.pdf</p>
<p>18. Sewando, P. (2012). Urban Markets-Linked Cassava Value Chain in Morogoro Rural District, Tanzania. Journal of Sustainable Development in Africa, 14(3), 86–97. https://doi.org/10.1016/S8756-3282(97)00148-8</p>
<p>19. Taiwo, K. A. (2006). Utilization potentials of cassava in Nigeria: The domestic and industrial products. Food Reviews International, 22(1), 29–42. https://doi.org/10.1080/87559120500379787</p>
<p>20. Technology, A. A. (2006). Cassava processing. Appropriate Technology, 33(2), 60–65. https://doi.org/10.1080/21622965.2014.897905</p>
<p>21. USAID/CORAF & SONGHAI Project. (2010). Processing of Cassava Into Gari and High Quality Cassava Flour in West Africa. [Training Manual Draft]. Porto-Novo, Benin: Emmanuel, O., Olapeju, O., Dohou, S., Moutairou, E., Nankagninou, D., Komlaga, G.A., Médard Loueke, G. Retrieved from http://www.coraf.org/database/publication/publication/cassavatrainingmanual.pdf</p>
<p>22. Westby, A. (2002). Cassava utilization, storage and small-scale processing. Cassava: Biology, Production and Utilization, 1, 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1264/jsme2.ME11201</p>

Template:Chapters 8.28

2026-01-14T14:12:27Z

Mamta:

<div>
<div class="title"><h3>8.28-Sweet Potato Value Addition</h3><br><h3 class="ch-owner">Alex Roberts, University of Guelph, Canada </h3></div>
<div class="hero-img-2">
[[File:4.jpg|300px]]
<p>Suggested citation for this chapter.</p>
<p>Roberts,A. (2022) Sweet Potato Value Addition,In Farmpedia, The Encyclopedia for Small Scale Farmers. Editor, M.N. Raizada, University of Guelph, Canada. http://www.farmpedia.org</p>
<h3 class="title-bg">Introduction</h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<P>Sweet potato is a widely grown root crop ( Business Diary, 2017); its large, starchy, sweet-tasting, tuberous roots compose a nutritious vegetable. The young leaves and shoots are sometimes eaten as greens (ActionAid, 2015). Over 95% of the global sweet potato crop is produced in developing countries. More than 130 million tons are produced per year, with China producing about 80% of it (ActionAid, 2015). Sweet potato is rich in carbohydrates, phosphorus, and an excellent source of Vitamins A, B and C (Business Diary, 2017). It is known to lower cholesterol with curative effects for constipation and stomach stress. Value addition from sweet potatoes has become an increasing topic in the food world today as it has endless uses and all of the plant can be used as food for humans or feed for livestock (Business Diary, 2017). Sweet potatoes are widely becoming a novel root vegetable for functional foods, as it is nutritious and widely accessible (Sweet Potato Knowledge Portal, 2018). Functional foods are described as foods that contribute to an overall healthy body (Sweet Potato Knowledge Portal, 2018).</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">Wrapping</h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>The simplest value addition ideas would be to wrap sweet potatoes in newspaper in order to limit their exposure to light. Light can accelerate the autooxidation of fats and oils. This is imperative to increase shelf life, as well it can be more attractive to buyers; this can be advertised as offering a longer shelf life then other competitors (FoodSafetySite, 2012). Not wrapping each in their own individual package can lead to mold and harmful bacteria that can age sweet potatoes (FoodSafetySite, 2012). And wrapping each in an individual package would prevent pathogen cross-contamination (Lerner, B. Rosie, 2018). This process can be done extremely fast by hand and would result in a prolonged shelf life. Wrapping may be more expensive and time consuming, however, buying used newspaper or books can be inexpensive. Recycling can also lead to a cleaner environment; this can benefit smallholder farmers who sell what they produce (Knott, S., 2018). However, there is insufficient data on the price difference for wrapped compared to unwrapped sweet potatoes.</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">Labeling</h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Value addition could be achieved simply by noting the nutrient benefits of processed sweet potato on packaging. For example, baking the potatoes instead of frying or boiling allows for more nutrients to be kept (Dincer, Cuneyt, et al., 2011). Baking a potato only requires cutting then placing onto a sheet in an oven. Labeling can improve sale value/rate, while adding a quick recipe (like baked fries) could add further value. Also, including the nutritional value of sweet potatoes can be beneficial (Sustain, 2007). A study from Miller & Cassady (2015) supports the claim that including nutritious information helps increase the sale of products by increasing the rate of sales, since ‘knowledge-is-power’. This would be best sold to tourists or at markets.</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">Flour</h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Sweet potato root can be used to produce a variety of flours, which would be subsequently used to make breads, pastries and noodles (CIP, 2018). The process of producing flour from sweet potato root is described in full below. The following diagram shows an overview of the process:</p>
[[File:Capture 792.JPG]]
<p>The process requires a knife for cutting as well as a mill; mills can be priced as low as $60. A visual step by step process of making flour can be found at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GLEbnNnXqMA. This video is particularly useful because it describes the process in Kenya. Sweet potato flour can be used to fortify other flours or to make bread itself. Fortifying other flours with sweet potato flour yielded the best results compared to other white breads made from wheat flour alone (Shan, Shan, et al., 2012). Hence the packaging could advertise that sweet potato fortified bread is healthier and contains more nutrients than traditional flours. Sweet potato flour is sold in Canada at Walmart (https://www.walmart.com/c/kp/potato-flour) for $17.86/Kg, thus a smallholder farmer can mill the roots and sell for a profit.</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">Jam</h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Sweet potato today can be used to make jams with only a blender (Business Diary, 2017), which the online retailer “Alibaba.com” sells for as little as $11. Blended sweet potato can also lead to value added products such as smoothies, drinks and catsup (Business Diary, 2017). This would help improve sales at road sides and markets.</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">Sweet potato skins</h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Farmers and consumers can use the whole tuber to maximize profits. As already noted, the root can be used to create flour for human consumption or can be sold as livestock feed ( CIP, 2018). The outer layer of the tuber, instead of being thrown away, contains many useful nutrients and protein which could be added to smoothies, jams, or drinks (Allrecipes, 2018). As stated before a blender can cost as low as $11 on Alibaba.com. Additionally, sweet potato skins can also be baked (Allrecipes, 2018).</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">Baked sweet potatoes</h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>There is another popular value addition from sweet potatoes which serves as a healthy alternative to white fleshed potatoes. Sweet potatoes (baked, fried, boiled) are considered as a novel source for natural health promoting compounds (beta-carotene and anthocyanins) for the functional food market (Bovell et al., 2017). Boiling sweet potatoes result in a loss in carotenoids and other important vitamins and minerals (Gehse, Saskia, et al.), hence baking is an alternative. Baking is done in an oven, which can cost as little as $60 on Alibaba, or using rocks or clay. For the latter, a tutorial can be found at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=z_OUaJVHnF0. Baking opens up new markets, such as to tourists or at local markets.</p>

<p>In conclusion, there is an abundance of value addition ideas for sweet potato smallholder farmers, and there are still more to be discovered with research. Most of these products are realistic for smallholder farmers to implement.</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">References </h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>1. ActionAid. (2015). What is a small holder farmer? Retrieved from http://actionaid.org/australia/2015/06/smallholderfarmers101</p>

<p>2. Bovell, B. Adelia C. (2007) Sweet Potato: A Review of Its Past, Present, and Future Role in Human Nutrition. Advances in Food and Nutrition Research, 7, 1–59, doi:10.1016/s1043-4526(06)52001-7.</p>

<p>3. Describe the different ways that food spoils. (2012). Retrieved from http://www.foodsafetysite.com/educators/competencies/general/microbiology/mic6.html</p>

<p>4. Dincer, Cuneyt, et al. (2011) Effects of Baking and Boiling on the Nutritional and Antioxidant Properties of Sweet Potato [Ipomoea Batatas (L.) Lam.] Cultivars. Plant Foods for Human Nutrition, 66 (4), 341-347. doi:10.1007/s11130-011-0262-0.</p>

<p>5. Gehse, Saskia, et al. (2018) Determination of the Effect of Boiling on the Bioavailability of Carotenoids in Vegetables Using Resonance Raman Spectroscopy. Laser Physics, 28(10), 105602. doi:10.1088/1555-6611/aad1b4.</p>

<p>6. Knott, S. (2018, March 22). One of Africa's most promising cities has a trash problem. Retrieved from https://qz.com/africa/1229079/ghana-the-worlds-fastest-growing-economy-has-a-trash-problem/</p>

<p>7. Sweet Potato Knowledge Portal, www.sweetpotatoknowledge.org/files/presentation-12-low-cost-technologies-value-addition-orange-fleshed-sweetpotato-smallholder-farmers-western-kenya/.</p>

<p>8. Lerner, B. Rosie. “Time to Harvest Sweet Potatoes.” Purdue Extension - Purdue University, 21 Sept. 2018, http://extension.purdue.edu/article/30787.</p>

<p>9. Miller, L. M., & Cassady, D. L. (2015). The effects of nutrition knowledge on food label use. A review of the literature. Appetite, 92, 207-216. doi:10.1016/j.appet.2015.05.029</p>

<p>10. Obi, L. “15 Ways You Can Add Value to Potatoes for More Money.” Daily Nation, 30 Sept. 2016, www.nation.co.ke/business/seedsofgold/ways-you-can-add-value-to-potatoes-for-more-money/2301238-3400418-e4g4ul/index.html. (cite as Obi, 2016)</p>

<p>11. Old Farmer's Almanac. (2018). Growing Sweet Potatoes. Retrieved November 29, 2018, from https://www.almanac.com/plant/sweet-potatoes</p>

<p>12. Shan, S., et al. (2012) Physicochemical Properties And Salted Noodle-Making Quality Of Purple Sweet Potato Flour And Wheat Flour Blends. Journal of Food Processing and Preservation, 37 (5) 709-716, doi:10.1111/j.1745-4549.2012.00686.x.</p>

<p>13. Sustain (2007). How can improved food labelling contribute to a healthy and sustainable food system? Retrieved from https://www.sustainweb.org/publications/how_can_improved_food_labelling_contribute/</p>

<p>14. “Sweet Potato Recipes.” Allrecipes, www.allrecipes.com/recipes/1094/fruits-and-vegetables/vegetables/sweet-potato/.</p>

<p>15. “Sweet Potato Processing and Uses.” International Potato Center (CIP), cipotato.org/crops/sweetpotato/sweet-potato-processing-and-uses/.</p>

<p>16. “Value-Added Products from Sweet Potato.” Business Diary PH, Business Diary Ph, 8 Dec. 2017, businessdiary.com.ph/6427/value-added-products-sweet-potato/.</p>

<p>17. Victoria Grain Mill - Corona Style. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://torontobrewing.ca/products/victoria-grain-mill-corona-style?variant=32012717379&utm_campaign=gs-2018-10-07&utm_source=google&utm_medium=smart_campaign&gclid=Cj0KCQiA8_PfBRC3ARIsAOzJ2uofbhQoD5PPMrJmemx2diMDGAHWGcxHijD9bGs-mKJ4GkNSNI9sHm8aAkNGEALw_wcB</p>

Template:Chapters 8.28

2026-01-14T14:04:06Z

Mamta:

<div>
<div class="title"><h3>8.28-Sweet Potato Value Addition</h3><br><h3 class="ch-owner">Alex Roberts, University of Guelph, Canada </h3></div>
<div class="hero-img-2">
[[File:4.jpg|300px]]

<p><b>Related video(s)</b>: Quality cassava planting material (Source: Access Agriculture)</p>
<p><i> https://www.accessagriculture.org/quality-cassava-planting-material</i></p>

<p>Suggested citation for this chapter.</p>
<p>Roberts,A. (2022) Sweet Potato Value Addition,In Farmpedia, The Encyclopedia for Small Scale Farmers. Editor, M.N. Raizada, University of Guelph, Canada. http://www.farmpedia.org</p>
<h3 class="title-bg">Introduction</h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<P>Sweet potato is a widely grown root crop ( Business Diary, 2017); its large, starchy, sweet-tasting, tuberous roots compose a nutritious vegetable. The young leaves and shoots are sometimes eaten as greens (ActionAid, 2015). Over 95% of the global sweet potato crop is produced in developing countries. More than 130 million tons are produced per year, with China producing about 80% of it (ActionAid, 2015). Sweet potato is rich in carbohydrates, phosphorus, and an excellent source of Vitamins A, B and C (Business Diary, 2017). It is known to lower cholesterol with curative effects for constipation and stomach stress. Value addition from sweet potatoes has become an increasing topic in the food world today as it has endless uses and all of the plant can be used as food for humans or feed for livestock (Business Diary, 2017). Sweet potatoes are widely becoming a novel root vegetable for functional foods, as it is nutritious and widely accessible (Sweet Potato Knowledge Portal, 2018). Functional foods are described as foods that contribute to an overall healthy body (Sweet Potato Knowledge Portal, 2018).</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">Wrapping</h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>The simplest value addition ideas would be to wrap sweet potatoes in newspaper in order to limit their exposure to light. Light can accelerate the autooxidation of fats and oils. This is imperative to increase shelf life, as well it can be more attractive to buyers; this can be advertised as offering a longer shelf life then other competitors (FoodSafetySite, 2012). Not wrapping each in their own individual package can lead to mold and harmful bacteria that can age sweet potatoes (FoodSafetySite, 2012). And wrapping each in an individual package would prevent pathogen cross-contamination (Lerner, B. Rosie, 2018). This process can be done extremely fast by hand and would result in a prolonged shelf life. Wrapping may be more expensive and time consuming, however, buying used newspaper or books can be inexpensive. Recycling can also lead to a cleaner environment; this can benefit smallholder farmers who sell what they produce (Knott, S., 2018). However, there is insufficient data on the price difference for wrapped compared to unwrapped sweet potatoes.</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">Labeling</h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Value addition could be achieved simply by noting the nutrient benefits of processed sweet potato on packaging. For example, baking the potatoes instead of frying or boiling allows for more nutrients to be kept (Dincer, Cuneyt, et al., 2011). Baking a potato only requires cutting then placing onto a sheet in an oven. Labeling can improve sale value/rate, while adding a quick recipe (like baked fries) could add further value. Also, including the nutritional value of sweet potatoes can be beneficial (Sustain, 2007). A study from Miller & Cassady (2015) supports the claim that including nutritious information helps increase the sale of products by increasing the rate of sales, since ‘knowledge-is-power’. This would be best sold to tourists or at markets.</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">Flour</h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Sweet potato root can be used to produce a variety of flours, which would be subsequently used to make breads, pastries and noodles (CIP, 2018). The process of producing flour from sweet potato root is described in full below. The following diagram shows an overview of the process:</p>
[[File:Capture 792.JPG]]
<p>The process requires a knife for cutting as well as a mill; mills can be priced as low as $60. A visual step by step process of making flour can be found at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GLEbnNnXqMA. This video is particularly useful because it describes the process in Kenya. Sweet potato flour can be used to fortify other flours or to make bread itself. Fortifying other flours with sweet potato flour yielded the best results compared to other white breads made from wheat flour alone (Shan, Shan, et al., 2012). Hence the packaging could advertise that sweet potato fortified bread is healthier and contains more nutrients than traditional flours. Sweet potato flour is sold in Canada at Walmart (https://www.walmart.com/c/kp/potato-flour) for $17.86/Kg, thus a smallholder farmer can mill the roots and sell for a profit.</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">Jam</h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Sweet potato today can be used to make jams with only a blender (Business Diary, 2017), which the online retailer “Alibaba.com” sells for as little as $11. Blended sweet potato can also lead to value added products such as smoothies, drinks and catsup (Business Diary, 2017). This would help improve sales at road sides and markets.</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">Sweet potato skins</h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Farmers and consumers can use the whole tuber to maximize profits. As already noted, the root can be used to create flour for human consumption or can be sold as livestock feed ( CIP, 2018). The outer layer of the tuber, instead of being thrown away, contains many useful nutrients and protein which could be added to smoothies, jams, or drinks (Allrecipes, 2018). As stated before a blender can cost as low as $11 on Alibaba.com. Additionally, sweet potato skins can also be baked (Allrecipes, 2018).</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">Baked sweet potatoes</h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>There is another popular value addition from sweet potatoes which serves as a healthy alternative to white fleshed potatoes. Sweet potatoes (baked, fried, boiled) are considered as a novel source for natural health promoting compounds (beta-carotene and anthocyanins) for the functional food market (Bovell et al., 2017). Boiling sweet potatoes result in a loss in carotenoids and other important vitamins and minerals (Gehse, Saskia, et al.), hence baking is an alternative. Baking is done in an oven, which can cost as little as $60 on Alibaba, or using rocks or clay. For the latter, a tutorial can be found at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=z_OUaJVHnF0. Baking opens up new markets, such as to tourists or at local markets.</p>

<p>In conclusion, there is an abundance of value addition ideas for sweet potato smallholder farmers, and there are still more to be discovered with research. Most of these products are realistic for smallholder farmers to implement.</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">References </h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>1. ActionAid. (2015). What is a small holder farmer? Retrieved from http://actionaid.org/australia/2015/06/smallholderfarmers101</p>

<p>2. Bovell, B. Adelia C. (2007) Sweet Potato: A Review of Its Past, Present, and Future Role in Human Nutrition. Advances in Food and Nutrition Research, 7, 1–59, doi:10.1016/s1043-4526(06)52001-7.</p>

<p>3. Describe the different ways that food spoils. (2012). Retrieved from http://www.foodsafetysite.com/educators/competencies/general/microbiology/mic6.html</p>

<p>4. Dincer, Cuneyt, et al. (2011) Effects of Baking and Boiling on the Nutritional and Antioxidant Properties of Sweet Potato [Ipomoea Batatas (L.) Lam.] Cultivars. Plant Foods for Human Nutrition, 66 (4), 341-347. doi:10.1007/s11130-011-0262-0.</p>

<p>5. Gehse, Saskia, et al. (2018) Determination of the Effect of Boiling on the Bioavailability of Carotenoids in Vegetables Using Resonance Raman Spectroscopy. Laser Physics, 28(10), 105602. doi:10.1088/1555-6611/aad1b4.</p>

<p>6. Knott, S. (2018, March 22). One of Africa's most promising cities has a trash problem. Retrieved from https://qz.com/africa/1229079/ghana-the-worlds-fastest-growing-economy-has-a-trash-problem/</p>

<p>7. Sweet Potato Knowledge Portal, www.sweetpotatoknowledge.org/files/presentation-12-low-cost-technologies-value-addition-orange-fleshed-sweetpotato-smallholder-farmers-western-kenya/.</p>

<p>8. Lerner, B. Rosie. “Time to Harvest Sweet Potatoes.” Purdue Extension - Purdue University, 21 Sept. 2018, http://extension.purdue.edu/article/30787.</p>

<p>9. Miller, L. M., & Cassady, D. L. (2015). The effects of nutrition knowledge on food label use. A review of the literature. Appetite, 92, 207-216. doi:10.1016/j.appet.2015.05.029</p>

<p>10. Obi, L. “15 Ways You Can Add Value to Potatoes for More Money.” Daily Nation, 30 Sept. 2016, www.nation.co.ke/business/seedsofgold/ways-you-can-add-value-to-potatoes-for-more-money/2301238-3400418-e4g4ul/index.html. (cite as Obi, 2016)</p>

<p>11. Old Farmer's Almanac. (2018). Growing Sweet Potatoes. Retrieved November 29, 2018, from https://www.almanac.com/plant/sweet-potatoes</p>

<p>12. Shan, S., et al. (2012) Physicochemical Properties And Salted Noodle-Making Quality Of Purple Sweet Potato Flour And Wheat Flour Blends. Journal of Food Processing and Preservation, 37 (5) 709-716, doi:10.1111/j.1745-4549.2012.00686.x.</p>

<p>13. Sustain (2007). How can improved food labelling contribute to a healthy and sustainable food system? Retrieved from https://www.sustainweb.org/publications/how_can_improved_food_labelling_contribute/</p>

<p>14. “Sweet Potato Recipes.” Allrecipes, www.allrecipes.com/recipes/1094/fruits-and-vegetables/vegetables/sweet-potato/.</p>

<p>15. “Sweet Potato Processing and Uses.” International Potato Center (CIP), cipotato.org/crops/sweetpotato/sweet-potato-processing-and-uses/.</p>

<p>16. “Value-Added Products from Sweet Potato.” Business Diary PH, Business Diary Ph, 8 Dec. 2017, businessdiary.com.ph/6427/value-added-products-sweet-potato/.</p>

<p>17. Victoria Grain Mill - Corona Style. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://torontobrewing.ca/products/victoria-grain-mill-corona-style?variant=32012717379&utm_campaign=gs-2018-10-07&utm_source=google&utm_medium=smart_campaign&gclid=Cj0KCQiA8_PfBRC3ARIsAOzJ2uofbhQoD5PPMrJmemx2diMDGAHWGcxHijD9bGs-mKJ4GkNSNI9sHm8aAkNGEALw_wcB</p>

Template:Chapters 8.27

2026-01-14T14:01:46Z

Mamta:

<div>
<div class="title"><h3>8.27-Cassava Value Addition</h3><br><h3 class="ch-owner">Neha Moodley, University of Guelph, Canada </h3></div>
<div class="hero-img-2">
[[File:4.jpg|300px]]

<p><b>Related video(s)</b>: Making cassava snacks (Source: Access Agriculture)</p>
<p><i> https://www.accessagriculture.org/making-cassava-snacks?cat_id=1499</i></p>

<p>Suggested citation for this chapter.</p>
<p>Moodley,N. (2022) Cassava Value Addition,In Farmpedia, The Encyclopedia for Small Scale Farmers. Editor, M.N. Raizada, University of Guelph, Canada. http://www.farmpedia.org</p>
<h3 class="title-bg">What is Cassava</h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<P>Cassava (also known as yucca) is a perennial woody shrub that produces starchy root tubers, and is an important carbohydrate source for more than 500 million people in Africa, Latin America and the Caribbean, and Asia (Plucknett, Phillips & Kagbo, 2000). Cassava is consumed by cooking the root and leaves or as dried products. It is commonly consumed as garri (also known as eba, rale, farinha) and fufu (foufou, amala lafun) in African countries (Bokanga, 1994).</p>
</div>
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<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">A Note on Safety</h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Bitter cassava varieties contain cyanogens which can cause illness, paralysis (konzo) and death if high amounts are consumed. Traditional detoxification methods (sun-drying, heap fermentation and soaking in water for 3-4 days) often do not reduce the toxin content to a level that is deemed safe by the World Health Organization (WHO). The wetting method can be done after the traditional methods are used to help eliminate residual toxins (Bradbury, Cliff & Banea, 2015). The wetting method involves placing cassava flour in a bowl, adding water and mixing until the level of flour drops and rises again to initial level. The flour is then thinly spread on mats to dry for 2-5 hours (Bradbury et al., 2015, p. 6). To remove cyanogens from cassava leaves they should be pounded, sundried for 2-5 hours then washed 3 times (Bradbury & Denton, 2013). Sweet cassava can be boiled and eaten without safety concerns (Bradbury et al., 2015).</p>
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</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">Commercialization </h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Cassava and cassava products can be sold at village centres, town markets or along roadsides. These products have a higher value than selling the fresh root due to the convenience of being ready for direct consumption or ready to cook with. Selling is more feasible when the farm is close to the point of retail (Plucknett et al., 2000). Storing dry cassava products like flour and garri for sale in the dry season when food availability is low may provide the farmer with higher returns (Parmar et al. 2018). Use of animal-drawn carts may be useful for transporting cassava efficiently from the field to household or roadside. It is likely that farmers will have to connect with local traders to get their product to the market, especially if they are located far from the point of sale (Sewando, 2012). To process cassava into cassava into garri, high quality cassava flour, or starch, farmers will need:</p>
<p>• Basins, clean water and sponge or cloth for washing roots</p>
<p>o Spring water should be used to process flour, if only river water is available it should be properly sanitized (Grace, 1977)</p>
<p>• Clean knives</p>
<p>• Clean, tightly woven bags (such as rice or cocoa sacks) (Grace, 1977)</p>
<p>• Sieve or sifter</p>
<p>• Fuel for roasting garri </p>
<p>• Packaging materials for final products (polythene bags) </p>
<p>• Grater (ideally mechanized or semi-mechanized for efficiency)</p>
<p>• Pressing machinery (not necessary) </p>
<p>• Scale for weighing </p>
<p>• Sealing/ stitching machine (not necessary) (Emmanuel et al., 2010).</p>

</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">Step-by-Step Post-Harvest Processing of Value Added Products </h3>
<div class="cont-bg">

<p>Note: Roots are peeled and washed before processing – cleaning must be done carefully to ensure quality (change water for each batch) (Taiwo, 2006).</p>

<p><b>Packaged garri (roasted flour):</b></p>
<p>1. Chop roots (into chunks then in halves) and remove central fibres </p>
<p>2. Reduce size by grinding with pestle & mortar or milling machine</p>
<p>3. Pack in bags and ferment for 2-3 days</p>
<p>4. Dewater by placing weights such as heavy stones on top of bags (or use hydraulic press), press until water stops being released (bags should not be in contact with sand, and water should be allowed to seep out)</p>
<p>5. Sieve and remove large fibres using a mesh or bamboo sieve</p>
<p>6. Roast on pan over fire or on hot plate</p>
<p>7. Sieve again to remove large pieces then bag once cooled (Emmanuel et al., 2010; Kouakou et al. 2016)</p>
<p><b>Packaged cassava flour:</b></p>
<p>1. Grate by hand or mechanically</p>
<p>2. Press (dewater)</p>
<p>3. Sun-dry on cloth or black plastic sheet on a slight incline</p>
<p>4. Grind/ mill dried paste in mortar (labour intensive) or in mechanized mill</p>
<p>5. Sift then bag (Technology, 2006)</p>

<p>High quality cassava flour (HQCF): grate, dewater, pound/mill, dry, fine mill, sieve, package (Technology, 2006)</p>

<p><b> Fufu flour (cassava and plantain flour mix):</b></p> Suitable in region where plantain is also grown. Mix cassava flour with plantain flour and package.</p>

<p><b>Chips:</b></p>
<p>For human consumption, animal feed or to mill into HQCF (Sewando, 2012)</p>
<p>1. Soak roots for 3-6 days</p>
<p>2. Remove fibres and cut into small pieces (can use mechanical slicer for this)</p>
<p>3. Sun-dry, store in bags (Kouakou et al. 2016)</p>
<p><b>Cassava starch</b></p>
<p>1. Chop/ grate</p>
<p>2. Mill with water</p>
<p>3. Sieve</p>
<p>4. Mill again</p>
<p>5. Allow to settle (1 hour)</p>
<p>6. Slowly decanter water, remove top layers of fibre </p>
<p>7. Ferment (to make sour starch)</p>
<p>8. Break and dry starch in sun (24-120 hours)</p>
<p>9. Grind, sift and package into bags (Kouakou et al. 2016)</p>

<p><b>Bagged dried & ground cassava leaves:</b></p>
<p>The leaves can be washed, pounded, then sundried and packaged (Technology, 2006).</p>

<p><b>Cassava beer:</b></p>
<p>1. Soak tubers in water for 7 days</p>
<p>2. Peel and grind</p>
<p>3. Add 20 litres of water and mix, let stand for 3 days</p>
<p>4. Filter juice and store in jars or suitable container (Kouakou et al. 2016)</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">Food Vendor Products </h3>
<div class="cont-bg">

<p>If the farmer is in close proximity to an urban or semi-urban area or has access to a market or roadside, selling ready-made foods may be an option to increase income. The foods that are sold will depend on demand and what is culturally appropriate. For example, women may cook fufu and sell directly to consumers (this can be done at the household level). However, the fufu flour mix (above) is a more appealing product to consumers (Westby, 2002). Other cassava foods or baked goods that could be sold at vendors include fritters, chips, tapioca flatbread (pancake known as salgados or doces), cakes (bammy) and bread (by replacing a portion of wheat flour with cassava flour), cassava beer and dried leaves (Henry et al., 2004). See Helpful Tips for how to make some of these simple cassava snack foods for retail. When marketing cassava products in urban markets, it is important to have attractive and appropriate packaging (Plucknett et al., 2000). Food packaging can be fairly inexpensive and simple such as polythene/ polypropylene packaging with a well-designed sticker. See foodpackaginglabels.net, rebsons.co.za and Alibaba.com for labeling and packaging options.</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">Equipment & machinery </h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>To achieve value addition on a small scale, farmers could form communal cooperatives to investment in small scale mechanized cassava processing technologies (i.e. grating, chipping and pressing machinery), to increase efficiency, product quality and reduce high labour requirements of traditional processing methods (Abass et al., 2017). Processing machinery is costly so to make it more accessible, it is recommended that a community collectively invests in processing capital (Taiwo, 2006). Processing does not need to be entirely mechanized, however farmers should invest in, or have access to a grating/rasping machine and pressing machine (hydraulic press) </p>

<p><i>Peelers:</i></p>
<p>Peeling is the most laborious step of processing (Westby, 2002). A mechanized cassava peeler, such as the one from Capsfeed, can save several hours of labor but are costly. Lower-cost pedal operated peelers are also available. However, machinery is expensive and results in higher losses than manual peeling. If done manually, peeling should be done using sharp knives with strong handles (Taiwo, 2006).</p>
<p>• Pedal operated peeler US $490: https://www.indiamart.com/proddetail/cassava-skin-peeler-pedal-operated-12493530491.html </p>
<p>• Capsfeed peeler: http://www.capsfeed.com/catalog/product/peeling-machine-7-5-kw/ </p>

<p><i>Graters:</i></p>
<p>Taiwo (2006) suggests that grating is done with a hammer mill made of galvanized sheet metal or Wooden hopper, wooden hollow drum, galvanized metal discharge chute, short metal stand, or rasper made of galvanized metal. A simple grater can be made by “perforating a sheet of galvanized iron with a nail and then clamping it around a wheel with the sharp protruding rims of the nail openings turned outward” (Grace, 1977). This wheel can be driven by hand or pedal. The roots are pressed onto the grater or the grater is attached to a side of the rotating disk with a crank (Grace, 1997). Grating and milling can also be done using machines that run on diesel fuel (possibly in a communal facility) (Davies et al., 2008).</p>
<p>• Manually cranked cassava chipper $US 70-300: https://www.alibaba.com/product-detail/manual-machine-cassava-chipper-for-sale_60778076657.html?spm=a2700.7724857.normalList.37.3a1b1007cbvhU1 </p>
<p>• Slicing machine US $100-200: https://www.alibaba.com/product-detail/Cassava-Duble-Slicing-Machine_122537653.html?spm=a2700.7724838.2017115.180.3cfb16eeLKNUYV </p>
<p>• Grating machine US $300-900: https://www.alibaba.com/product-detail/Fresh-cassava-grating-machine-008618237112106_60624141308.html?spm=a2700.7724857.normalList.38.1fb42948IeNApp</p>

<p><i>Pressers:</i></p>
<p>Pressing can be done using rocks to compress the sacks of fermented paste or using parallel press boards screwed together (Technology, 2006). Investing in a hydraulic jack press is highly efficient and does not necessarily require fuel or manpower (Davies et al., 2008). A centrifuge or vacuum filter may be used for dewatering (Taiwo, 2006) but the former would be expensive.</p>

<p><i>Drying:</i></p>
<p>Drying can be done on bamboo mats, concrete floors, black plastic sheets, etc. Drying of starch can be in fluid-bed driers, tray driers and flash driers (Taiwo, 2006), but the latter would be expensive.</p>
<p>• Solar dryer US $500-1500: https://www.alibaba.com/product-detail/industrial-commercial-tomato-dates-cassava-chip_60677584495.html?spm=a2700.7724838.2017115.12.579f3debYX1waA</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">Helpful Tips </h3>
<div class="cont-bg">

<p><b>• Low-cost storage methods:</b></p>
<p>o Pile roots on layers of straw in conical heaps, cover with straw and soil but leave some openings.</p>
<p>o Trench storage – place palm and raffia leaves at the bottom of a trench, place a layer of roots on top, keep layering leaves and roots until the trench is filled, cover in soil and construct a roof over-top (Technology, 2006)</p> .
<p><b>• Higher cost methods:</b></p>
<p>o Dip roots in paraffin or wax and/or fungicide & store in airtight polythene bags.</p>
<p>• To minimize losses from post-harvest physiological disorder (PPD), only harvest what can be processed in a day (Parmar, Fikre, Sturm, & Hensel, 2018).</p>
<p>• Remove leaves two weeks prior to root harvest to extend shelf life (Plucknett et al., 2000).</p>
<p>• Dry cassava products can be packed into 50 or 100kg polypropylene sacks (Parmar et al. 2018).</p>
<p>• Low-cost vacuum sealer bags available here: https://www.alibaba.com/product-detail/embossed-vacuum-sealer-bags-PA-PE_60027033264.html?spm=a2700.7724838.2017115.123.6bb71db3eAgvIP </p>
<p>• High quality cassava flour should be packaged in polypropylene sacs lined with polythene for bulk sale (Emmanuel et al., 2010).</p>
<p>• See Nans.in and Cassavaprocessingmachine.com for more machinery </p>

<p><b>How-to Videos & Links:</b></p>
<p>How to make Gari with processing machinery:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ejPuV1NFxgg&t=90s </p>

<p>How to make Cassava chips snack:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6zbxZHN-BR8</p>

<p>How to make Tapioca Flatbread (Brazilian pancake):
http://ediblehouston.ediblecommunities.com/recipes/tapioca-brazilian-snack</p>

<p>How to make Bammy cakes:
https://tastetheislandstv.com/bammy/</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">References </h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>1. Abass, A., Amaza, P., Bachwenkizi, B., Alenkhe, B., Mukuka, I., & Cromme, N. (2017). Adding value through the mechanization of post-harvest cassava processing, and its impact on household poverty in north-eastern Zambia. Applied Economics Letters, 24(9), 579–583. https://doi.org/10.1080/13504851.2016.1213356</p>
<p>2. Bokanga, M. (1994). Cassava Leaf Process Human Consumption. Acta Horticulturae, 375, 203–208. Retrieved from https://www.actahort.org/books/375/375_18.htm</p>
<p>3. Bradbury, H.J., Cliff, J., Banea, J. P. (2015). Making cassava flour safe using the wetting method. Free Radical Biology & Medicine, 52(1), 1075–1085. Retrieved from http://www.southsudanmedicaljournal.com/archive/february-2015/making-cassava-flour-safe-using-the-wetting-method.html</p>
<p>4. Bradbury, J. H., & Denton, I. C. (2014). Mild method for removal of cyanogens from cassava leaves with retention of vitamins and protein. Food Chemistry, 158, 417–420. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2014.02.132</p>
<p>5. Davies, R. M., Olatunji, M. O., & Burubai, W. (2008). Mechanization of Cassava Processing in Iwo Local Government Area of Osun State, Nigeria. World Journal of Agricultural Sciences, 4(3), 341–345. Retrieved from https://scholar.google.ca/scholar?hl=en&as_sdt=0%2C5&q=Mechanization+of+Cassava+Processing+in+Iwo+Local+Government+Area+of+Osun+State+%2C+Nigeria&btnG=</p>
<p>6. Donkor, E., Onakuse, S., Bogue, J., Carmenado, I. D. L. R., & Donkor, E. (2018). Promoting value addition among farmers in the cassava food value chain in Nigeria. British Food. https://doi.org/10.1108/BFJ-01-2018-0030</p>
<p>7. Engineers Without Borders Cameroon (ISF Cameroun) & The Technical Centre for Agricultural and Rural Cooperation (CTA). (2016). Cassava Production and Processing. [Series: Pro-Agro Collection]. CTA, ISF Cameroon. Kouakou, J., Nanga Nanga, S., Plagne-Ismail, C., Mazalo Pali, A., Ognakossan. K. E. Retrieved from https://publications.cta.int/media/publications/downloads/1889_PDF.pdf</p>
<p>8. FAO (2016). Harvest, post-harvest and value addition. Save and grow: Cassava. Retrieved from http://www.fao.org/ag/save-and-grow/cassava/en/7/index.html</p>
<p>9. FAO (2004). Global Cassava Market Study: Business opportunities for the use of cassava. (Vol. 6). Document prepared by IFAD. Proceedings of the Validation Forum on the Global Cassava Development Strategy. FAO, Rome. Henry, G., Graffham. A., Westby, A., Vilpoux, O., Ospina, M. T., Titapiwatanakun, B., Taylor, D.S., Phillips, T.P. Retrieved from http://www.fao.org/docrep/007/y5287e/y5287e02.htm#bm02</p>
<p>10. FAO (1999). Cassava: Post-harvest operations. Document prepared by Mpoko Bokanga. Post-harvest Compendium, International Institute of Tropical Agriculture. Ibadan, Nigeria. Retrived from http://www.fao.org/fileadmin/user_upload/inpho/docs/Post_Harvest_Compendium_-_Cassava.pdf</p>
<p>11. Grace, M.R. (1977). Cassava Processing. FAO Plant Production and Protection Series No. 3. Retrieved from http://www.fao.org/docrep/x5032e/x5032E00.htm#Contents</p>
<p>12. Haggblade, S., Djurfeldt, A. A., Nyirenda, D. B., Lodin, J. B., Brimer, L., Chiona, M., … Weber, M. (2012). Cassava commercialization in Southeastern Africa. Journal of Agribusiness in Developing and Emerging Economies, 2(1), 4–40. https://doi.org/10.1108/20440831211219219</p>
<p>13. Muhammad-Lawal, A. & Omotesho, O. A. & Oyedemi, F.A. (2013). Proceedings from 2013 Fourth International Conference of the African Association of Agricultural Economists (AAAE): An Assessment of the Economics of Cassava Processing in Kwara State, Nigeria. Hammamet, Tunisia. https://doi.org/10.12691/wjar-1-1-4</p>
<p>14. Njukwe, E., Onadipe, O., Thierno, D. A., Hanna, R., Kirscht, H., Maziya-Dixon, B., … Ngue-Bissa, T. (2014). Cassava processing among small-holder farmers in Cameroon: opportunities and challenges. International Journal of Agricultural Policy and Research, 2(4), 113–124. Retrieved from http://www.cabdirect.org/abstracts/20143402559.html;jsessionid=298E297E67F0A10FC14F42027FF8498A</p>
<p>15. Parmar, A., Fikre, A., Sturm, B., & Hensel, O. (2018). Post-harvest management and associated food losses and by-products of cassava in southern Ethiopia. Food Security, 10(2), 419–435. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12571-018-0774-7</p>
<p>16. Parmar, A., Sturm, B., & Hensel, O. (2017). Crops that feed the world: Production and improvement of cassava for food, feed, and industrial uses. Food Security, 9(5), 907–927. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12571-017-0717-8</p>
<p>17. Plucknett, D. L., Phillips, T.P. & Kagbo, R. B. (2000). A Global Development Strategy for Cassava: Transforming a Traditional Tropical Root Crop. Retrieved from http://hubrural.org/IMG/pdf/global_cassava_development_strategy.pdf</p>
<p>18. Sewando, P. (2012). Urban Markets-Linked Cassava Value Chain in Morogoro Rural District, Tanzania. Journal of Sustainable Development in Africa, 14(3), 86–97. https://doi.org/10.1016/S8756-3282(97)00148-8</p>
<p>19. Taiwo, K. A. (2006). Utilization potentials of cassava in Nigeria: The domestic and industrial products. Food Reviews International, 22(1), 29–42. https://doi.org/10.1080/87559120500379787</p>
<p>20. Technology, A. A. (2006). Cassava processing. Appropriate Technology, 33(2), 60–65. https://doi.org/10.1080/21622965.2014.897905</p>
<p>21. USAID/CORAF & SONGHAI Project. (2010). Processing of Cassava Into Gari and High Quality Cassava Flour in West Africa. [Training Manual Draft]. Porto-Novo, Benin: Emmanuel, O., Olapeju, O., Dohou, S., Moutairou, E., Nankagninou, D., Komlaga, G.A., Médard Loueke, G. Retrieved from http://www.coraf.org/database/publication/publication/cassavatrainingmanual.pdf</p>
<p>22. Westby, A. (2002). Cassava utilization, storage and small-scale processing. Cassava: Biology, Production and Utilization, 1, 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1264/jsme2.ME11201</p>

Template:Chapters 8.10c

2026-01-14T13:49:00Z

Mamta:

<div>
<div class="title"><h3>8.10c - Chili Peppers As a Value Addition </h3><br><h3 class="ch-owner">Lucas Gaiger,University of Guelph, Canada</h3></div>
<div class="hero-img-2">
[[File:4.jpg|300px]]

<p><b>Related video(s)</b>: Making a chilli seedbed, Solar drying of chillies, Making chilli powder, Drying and storing chillies, Transplanting chillies, (Source: Access Agriculture)</p>
<p><i> https://www.accessagriculture.org/making-chilli-seedbed?cat_id=1499</i></p>
<p><i>https://www.accessagriculture.org/solar-drying-chillies?cat_id=1499</i></p>
<p><i> https://www.accessagriculture.org/making-chilli-powder?cat_id=1499</i></p>
<p><i> https://www.accessagriculture.org/drying-and-storing-chillies?cat_id=1499</i></p>
<p><i> https://www.accessagriculture.org/transplanting-chillies?cat_id=1499</i></p>

<p>Suggested citation for this chapter.</p>
<p>Gaiger,L. (2025) Chili Peppers As a Value Addition. In Farmpedia, The Encyclopedia for Small Scale Farmers. Editor, M.N. Raizada, University of Guelph,Canada. http://www.farmpedia.org</p>
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<h1 class="title-bg">Introduction</h1>
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<p>For smallholder farmers chili peppers (Capsicum annum L.) have the potential to be a crop to which increased commercial value can be added after harvest. Many smallholder farmers do grow chilies: however, some sell them fresh, at peak harvest season, which leads to low profits and post-harvest losses (Purba et al., 2022). However, by processing chilies into value-added products, like dried chilies, pickled chilies, chili powder, and pickled chilies, farmers can increase their profitability, extend the shelf life of chilies, and create an extra source of income in the post-harvest season. Below we will explore the importance of value addition in chili processing, we will review low-cost methods accessible to smallholder farmers and look at case studies of chili farmers in countries where there are large populations of subsistence farmers. </p>
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<h1 class="title-bg">Opportunities of Fresh Chili Peppers </h1>
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<p>At harvest, chili peppers contain between 60-85% water; this is what makes them perish quickly and prone to fungal contamination (Purba et al., 2022). Without proper handling, post-harvest losses can be between 30-50%; this reduces farmers’ earnings by a considerable amount. Additionally, the prices of fresh chilis are volatile; they often plummet at peak harvest season due to the market being flooded with them. A benefit to drying chilies is that they can be stored for months or years if done properly; this can be an opportunity for income stability (Lukas et al., 2023). So, what can be done to help farmers achieve this? </p>
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<h1 class="title-bg">Processing Techniques: Low-Cost Chili Drying Methods </h1>
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<p><b>Sun Drying:</b></p> Drying chilies is great because it increases their economic value, shelf life, and makes them much easier to transport because it lowers their weight and volume (Lukas et al., 2023). Many women farmers already have experience in sun drying; I will describe a technique for sun drying chilies from Malawi to empower youth in business. The simplest method is open-air sun drying, which farmers can do with minimal equipment. In this method, farmers spread their harvested ripe chilies on a clean surface like a mat or tarpauline and leave them under direct sunlight (Munthali et al., 2023). Chilies should be cleaned and sorted before drying; this involves removing stems, leaves, and damaged chilies, which will prevent mold. For best results, farmers can build or use inexpensive drying racks that are 1 to 1.5 meters wide and 1 meter high; this is to keep the chilies off of the ground when they are drying (Munthali et al., 2023). With good sun, chilies should be able to dry between several days and a few weeks, depending on the weather; the goal is for the chilies to be around 10% moisture content by weight (Munthali et al., 2023). Simple sun drying is cheap but there are challenges: insects, dust, and rodents can contaminate the chilies when they are drying; this is also why it is important to dry them off the ground (Balana et al., 2024). Proper drying techniques can really help transform fresh chilies into a stable product that can add value for the farmers. By simply drying fresh chilies, farmers can add a value of 1.06 USD/kg (Purba et al., 2022). </p>
<p>[[Image:Dried chillis.jpg|thumb|centre| Fig 1. Dried chilies: |Click on the image to access a higher resolution image as well as lessons adapted for different geographic regions.]]</p>
<p>Fig 1. Dried chilies: This image is from Pixabay and was published prior to July 2017 under the Creative Commons CC0 1.0 Universal Public Domain Dedication license https://web.archive.org/web/20161229043156/https://pixabay.com/en/service/terms/</p>
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<h1 style="background: #FBB03B;padding: 15px;font-weight: 600;color: #000;font-size: 22px;margin:unset;text-align:center;">Method for Preserving Chilies</h1>
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<p><b>Pickling:</b></p> One of the most common and effective methods for preserving chili peppers is pickling them. Pickling chilies relies on the controlled breakdown of food components to prolong their shelf life and enhance flavour. Pickling is fermenting the chilies using salt to maintain texture, reduce microbial growth, and make sure there is the proper level of acidity that is required for proper preservation (Sultana et al., 2014). </p>
<p>[[Image:Pickled chillies.jpg|thumb|centre|Fig 2. Pickled chilies|Click on the image to access a higher resolution image as well as lessons adapted for different geographic regions.]]</p>
<p>Fig 2. Pickled chilies: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/</p>
<p>Steps for pickling chilies from eHingiriSoko (https://ehingirisoko.digital/eng), a Rwandan based digital market ecosystem:</p>
<p>1. Clean the chilies – Rinse well with clean water and slice the chilies to allow brine to soak in,</p>
<p>2. Fill a clean glass jar or bottle with the chilies, packing them tightly.</p>
<p>3. Make brine – by boiling:</p>
<p>- 1 cup of vinegar</p>
<p>- 1 cup of clean water</p>
<p>- 1 tablespoon of salt</p>
<p>- 1 teaspoon of sugar</p>
<p>- Add garlic or spices as desired.</p>
<p>4. Pour the hot brine over the chilies until they are covered.</p>
<p>5. Close the jar tightly and let it cool.</p>
<p>6. Store in a cool, shaded place or refrigerate if possible. Wait 2-3 days before using, as the flavour improves with time.
This method will help preserve chilies for up to months and add value to surplus harvest.</p>
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<h1 class="title-bg">Market Opportunities </h1>
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<p>By processing fresh chilies into dried chili, pickled chilies, chili powder, or sambal (chili sauce), farmers can increase their market value and at the same time prolong their shelf life (Purba et al., 2022). Fresh chilies spoil quickly; after 3 days at room temperature, they will be past their best before expiry date (Lukas et al., 2023). Processing those chilies into longer-lasting products can prevent post-harvest losses and create new economic opportunities. Value addition can happen through drying, grinding, and making chili-based products which can make them more usable, stabilize prices, and boost incomes for smallholder farmers. If chili input prices are stable, there is the possibility of an added value ratio of 50% (Rianti & Saputro, 2023).</p>
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<h1 class="title-bg">Markets </h1>
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<p><b>● India:</b></p> In the Indian state of Karnataka, the market for dried chilies is growing, while the demand for green and red chilies slows (Sandeep & Thimmaiah, 2020). The urban demand for processed chili products like chutneys, paste, and powder is increasing, showing how value adding techniques are important to their marketplaces. Sandeep and Thimmaiah (2020) identified three major value chains, where value addition came from drying, grading, sorting, assembly, packing, and handling. Value addition costs range from 7.47 USD to 11.33 USD per quintal (100 kg) (Sandeep & Thimmaiah, 2020), depending on the processor. Even though farmers are significant contributors to the process, wholesalers and processors are the ones who capture the highest share of the value addition by using mechanization for processing, packaging, and transportation. This is because these firms have the advantage of economies of scale, and use it to their advantage to produce more for less. This does not necessarily mean farmers are being taken advantage of by these production/processing firms, but farmers should be aware they probably will not be the biggest benefactors of their own work. It is also a warning for farmers to watch out for predatory producers/processors that could be looking to take advantage of them. There are some ways for smallholder farmers to gain some more bargaining power, for example they can form farmer producer organizations which can help link smallholders to organized markets. They can do this by providing access to inputs, and reducing reliance on middlemen, however, there are some big challenges in building effective farmer producer organizations (Chowdhury et al., 2024). </p>

<p><b>Bangladesh Cost-Benefit Analysis:</b></p> Islam et al. (2020) did a thorough analysis of the risks and rewards of chili production in Bangladesh, however no value adding activities were included.</p>
<p><b>1. Total Cost of Chili Production</b></p>
<p>a. The average total production cost per hectare was USD $4,468. These included expenses like buying seeds, fertilizers, pest control, and land preparation.</p>
<p>b. Hired labour was the highest single cost component (15%) followed by pesticide costs (12%).</p>
<p><b>2. Revenue and Profitability</b></p>
<p>a. Gross margin (revenue minus variable costs) was USD $6,354 per hectare.</p>
<p>b. Net return (after deducting all costs) was USD $4,274 per hectare.</p>
<p>c. The cost-benefit ratio was 1.96, meaning for every 1 dollar spent on production, farmers would earn USD $1.96 in revenue, nearly doubling their investment. </p>
<p>d. Islam et al. (2020) found that 86% of farmers reported net returns, and were making a profit from growing chilis.</p>
<p><b>3. Challenges affecting profitability</b></p>
<p>a. Disease: anthracnose (mentioned below) caused a 4% loss of yield, resulting in a loss of USD $479 per hectare.</p>
<p>b. Chemical pesticides: Farmers spent USD $525 per hectare on pesticides.</p>
<p>The above numbers were gathered by Islam et al. (2020). It is important to note that these farmers did not use any value additions, so it would be possible to improve economic returns by trying some strategies already reviewed like pickling or drying chilis. </p>

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<h1 class="title-bg">Challenges and Solutions</h1>
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<p>Anthracnose is a disease that poses the biggest risk to chili pepper production around the world. It is a fungus which naturally inhabits the soil; plants become affected when already contaminated surfaces come into contact with the stems, fruits, or leaves (Islam et al., 2020). This usually happens through unclean farm tools, hands, or splashing water carrying dirt (Saxena et al., 2015). Some symptoms of anthracnose on chilies are sunken or discolored tissue with rings, eventually turning parts of the chili brown, then black (Islam et al., 2020). This infection puts the chili at risk of being infected by other fungal diseases, like Aspergillus flavus, which could create the production of aflatoxins which are dangerous to humans.</p>
<p>What are some cheap and effective solutions to reduce the likelihood of anthracnose? To reduce the risk of fungi, farmers can use mulches to mitigate water splashing, crop rotations with non-host species, thoroughly clean their farm tools, and ensure that they are maintaining proper farm-worker hygiene (Islam et al., 2020). Farmers should also ensure they wear long sleeves, safety goggles, and gloves when handling chili peppers in any manner. They should also make sure they avoid touching their eyes or bare skin with their gloves or hands before washing them as chili peppers will burn. </p>
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<h1 class="title-bg">Conclusion and Gender Implications </h1>
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<p>The goal of using chili peppers as a value addition product should be to help women farmers earn some extra income to scale up production to the point where they can produce vegetables consistently. Doing this will help them send their children to school (especially girls), pay for medicine/healthcare and hopefully improve their overall quality of life. For example, Njuki et al. (2011) found that when women retain control over income, especially from locally traded crops, they tend to spend more on food, education, and clothing for their children. In the study men spent 6% of their income on food compared to the 23% spent by women on food, so if women can make improve their income with value addition crops, this will benefit the children as well. It is also fair to say that the same would happen with other areas like education, especially for young girls. However, the study also warned that as crops become more profitable, men often try or find a way to take control, reducing women’s economic gains. So, ensuring that women can retain control over chili-based enterprises is key for not only their economic empowerment but for their childrens’ development as well. By focusing on chilies, a crop that can be preserved, processed, and sold in many different ways, women can access both local and niche markets to generate income and hopefully can keep autonomy over how that income is to be used.</p>

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<h1 class="title-bg">Helpful Links to Get Started</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>This is a video for sun drying chilies: https://www.accessagriculture.org/drying-and-storing-chillies</p>
<p>his is a video for solar drying techniques which can reduce drying time by 50% (Watson et al., 2021) but is a more complex operation than sun drying: https://www.accessagriculture.org/solar-drying-chillies </p>
<p>Once a farmer has dried chilies, a good option is to make chili powder with them. Chili pepper seasoning is a good value-addition because it will last a long time and has exceptionally good value added at 4.24 USD/kg (Purba et al., 2022). Sambal (chili sauce) varies by region, but in Indonesia is has an added value of 19.54 USD/kg.</p>

<p>Here is a great video on making chili powder: https://www.accessagriculture.org/making-chilli-powder
FAO Standard for Dried or Dehydrated Chili Pepper and Paprika: https://www.fao.org/fao-who-codexalimentarius/sh-proxy/en/?lnk=1&url=https%253A%252F%252Fworkspace.fao.org%252Fsites%252Fcodex%252FStandards%252FCXS%2B353-2022%252FCXS_353e.pdf</p>
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<h1 class="title-bg">References</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>1.Balana, B., Popoola, O., Yamauchi, F., Olanipekun, C., Totin, E., Salaudeen, K., Muhammad, A., Shi, W., Liu, Y. (2024). Solar Drying Technology for Post-harvest Loss Management of Horticulture Products: Findings from Baseline Survey in Nigeria. International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI), World Vegetable Center (WorldVeg), & Nigerian Stored Products Research Institute (NSPRI). https://cgspace.cgiar.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/16c5937c-a315-4ed4-84cb-2ede6b33b4ea/content</p>
<p>2.Chowdhury, S. R., Ghosh, D., & Rao, T. J. (2024). Sentiment and success potential of farmers’ producer organizations: A systematic literature review. Local Economy the Journal of the Local Economy Policy Unit, 39 (1-2), 92-104 https://doi.org/10.1177/02690942241292724</p>
<p>3.eHingirisoko (2025) Chilies as a Value Addition and Food Safety Module https://ehingirisoko.digital/eng/articles/chillies/value_addition#:~:text=The%20stems%20and%20leaves%20are,mould%20growth%20and%20fungal%20contamination</p>
<p>4.Islam, A. H. M. S., Schreinemachers, P., & Kumar, S. (2020). Farmers’ knowledge, perceptions and management of chili pepper anthracnose disease in Bangladesh. Crop Protection, 133, 105139. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cropro.2020.105139</p>
<p>5.Lukas, A., Kairupan, A. N., Hendriadi, A., Arianto, A., Manalu, L. P., Sumarno, L., Munarso, J., Hadipernata, M., Elmatsani, H. M., Benyamin, B. O., Junaidi, A., Djafar, M. J., Elizabeth, R., Sahlan, N., Nasruddin, N., Astuti, P., Subandrio, N., Yohanes, H., Koeslulat, E. E., . . . Polakitan, A. (2023). Fresh Chili Agribusiness: opportunities and problems in Indonesia. In IntechOpen eBooks. https://doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.112786</p>
<p>6.Munthali, C., Banda, D., & Corporate Institute of Horticulture. (2023). A Guide to Commercial Chilli Cultivation in Malawi. Corporate Institute of Horticulture, Malawi. https://agrijobs.snrd-africa.net/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/Chilli-AgriBusiness-Course-Training-Manual-for-trainers_MW_EN_09.2023.pdf</p>
<p>7.Njuki, J., Kaaria, S., Chamunorwa, A., & Chiuri, W. (2011). Linking smallholder farmers to markets, gender and Intra-Household dynamics: Does the choice of commodity matter? European Journal of Development Research, 23(3), 426–443. https://doi.org/10.1057/ejdr.2011.8</p>
<p>8.Purba, H. J., Ariningsih, E., Septanti, K. S., Suharyono, S., & Sinuraya, J. F. (2022). Gaining added value of chili (Capsicum annum L.) through processing and its challenges: A case in Bandung, West Java. E3S Web of Conferences, 361, 01011. https://doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/202236101011</p>
<p> 9.Rianti, T. S. M., & Saputro, A. J. (2023). An added value of chili processing results in providing contribution for SMEs. In Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Multidisciplinary Sciences for Humanity in Society 5.0 Era (ICOMSH 2022) (pp. 94–102). Atlantis Press. https://doi.org/10.2991/978-2-38476-204-0_9</p>
<p>10.Sandeep, K. T., & Thimmaiah, N. (2020). Significance of value chain analysis for chilli - the case of Karnataka chilli market. The Journal of Research ANGRAU, 48(1), 46–52. https://www.cabdirect.org/cabdirect/abstract/20203306926</p>
<p>11.Saxena, A. (2015). Epidemiology and management of anthracnose of chilli [Doctoral dissertation, Dr. Yashwant Singh Parmar University of Horticulture and Forestry].Shodhganga. https://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/handle/10603/220269</p>
<p>12.Watson, A. G., Aleckovic, S., & Nallamothu, R. (2021). A novel and improved solar drying system appropriate for smallholder farmers. Drying Technology, 40(11), 2274–2282. https://doi.org/10.1080/07373937.2021.1931295</p>
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<div class="title"><h3>8.5 - Improving grain storage to delay sales until commodity prices are high </h3><br><h3 class="ch-owner">Grant Larizza, University of Guelph, Canada</h3></div>
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[[File:4.jpg|300px]]

<p><b>Related video(s)</b>: Storing and managing maize in a warehouse, Let's store our maize well, (Source: Access Agriculture)</p>
<p><i> https://www.accessagriculture.org/storing-and-managing-maize-warehouse?cat_id=1499</i></p>
<p><i> https://www.accessagriculture.org/lets-store-our-maize-well?cat_id=165</i></p>

<p>Suggested citation for this chapter.</p>
<p>Larizza,G (2022) Improving grain storage to delay sales until commodity prices are high. In Farmpedia, The Encyclopedia for Small Scale Farmers. Editor, M.N. Raizada, University of Guelph, Canada. http://www.farmpedia.org</p>
<h3 class="title-bg">Introduction</h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Improving storage, specifically in regards to grains, is absolutely essential to increase profits for smallholder farmers. Poor storage causes decay in the grain, which means the product must be sold before this occurs or later at a lower quality. Either of these options means that a farmer has to sell their grain at a lower price. The focus of this chapter will be on how improved grain storage can be adopted and can help farmers to sell when commodity prices are high. This will be accomplished through a critical analysis of different storage methods as well as practical links to get started. </p>
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<h3 class="title-bg">How Improved Grain Storage Can Be Adopted by Smallholder Farmers</h3>
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<p>Grain is susceptible to different kinds of insects such as the grain borer, maize weevil, and red flour beetle (Dowell et al., 2017). These are common pests that can infiltrate storage areas for grain and eat the harvest. Grain losses due to these pests are very high in developing countries and therefore need to be addressed using viable solutions. One of the most effective methods of improving grain storage in order to combat these insects is through controlling the atmosphere around grain (Dowell et al., 2017). This means lowering the oxygen or raising the carbon dioxide levels within the storage areas (Dowell et al., 2017). These conditions are met within the hermetic technologies discussed below. </p>
<p>Increasing carbon dioxide levels is relatively simple. It can be accomplished by adding composting materials into the grain storage area (Dowell et al., 2017). The decaying compost will raise the carbon dioxide levels so that insect activity is either reduced or nearly stopped altogether due to the death of the pests (Dowell et al., 2017). </p>
<p>Creating a low oxygen, air-tight (hermetic) environment is another method that can be effective at stopping different pests. This can be accomplished with glass jars, metal containers, Ziploc bags or even plastic bags (Dowell et al., 2017). In terms of effectiveness, glass jars and metal containers rank the highest among the items listed above (Dowell et al., 2017). Another strong option is the GrainPro grain storage bag. These are vacuum sealed bags that protect from insect infestation as well as maintain the quality of its contents (www.Grainpro.com). These are much more effective than Ziploc or plastic bags and have a relatively low cost (Dowell et al., 2017). Similarly, Purdue Improved Cowpea Storage (PICS) bags are also highly effective at preventing insects as well as keeping the quality of grain high. These bags will retain the quality of its contents as well as resist against disease (Sudini et al., 2015). Toxin accumulation is noted to be significantly lower in PICS over its cloth counterpart (Sudini etal., 2015).</p>
<p>Another viable option is the use of treated bags or bed nets to stop pests before they enter the grain area. Treated bed nets are readily available online and are an effective method at stopping insects from entering grain storage. The most effective way of using these bed nets is as a netting over top of an existing container filled with grain (Dowell et al., 2017). A study has shown that after one month, there were zero insects found within the grain (Dowell et al., 2017).</p>
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<h3 class="title-bg">How Improved Grain Storage Helps Smallholder Farmers</h3>
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<p>While the points above demonstrate how different practices can be adopted, the other important topic to delve into is how these methods help smallholder farmers. Specifically, 50-60% of cereal grains are lost in the storage process in developing countries due to inadequacies (Kumar et al., 2017). With hermetic storage, this number can be reduced to 1-2% (Kumar et al., 2017). As well, poor storage conditions negatively affect micronutrients in the grain. All of these points demonstrate the need for better storage conditions for grain.</p>
<p>Aside from the positive nutrient benefits, these methods aid farmers in reaping a better profit. One of the biggest issues smallholder farmers currently face is timing in regards to selling grain. When grain storage is poor, the profit received by the farmer will be low due to grain being diseased or destroyed. Furthermore, farmers are forced to sell their grain at whatever the current market price is because they will lose too much if they attempt to wait (Luo et al., 2022). At harvest time, supply will be very large and commodity prices will drop, meaning the farmers will make much less (Luo et al., 2022). Improving grain storage means smallholder farmers can store grain until prices are high and then make the most profit (Luo et al., 2022). For example, within Canada, farmers store their grain within metallic grain silos and keep checking commodity prices until they increase enough for a good profit (Jayas et al., 2003). </p>
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<h3 class="title-bg">Critical Analysis/ Cost-Benefit </h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<P>While the points mentioned above demonstrate the benefits of improving grain storage, a critical analysis must be completed in order to evaluate the real-world application of these methods.</p>
<p>To begin, the method which uses composting material to increase carbon dioxide levels has zero cost due to the fact that composting materials are found readily on a farm. This can include any plant matter, from decaying leaves to banana peels. The results seem to show that this method is highly effective in terms of pest resistance and cost (Dowell et al., 2017).</p>
<p>Treated bed nets also seem to be an effective option considering the material is readily available within developing countries due to high insect levels affecting humans directly (Dowell et al., 2017). They can also be purchased from Alibaba.com for prices ranging of $1.98 USD - $2.30, depending on the quantity ordered (www.alibaba.com). The corresponding labour cost should be very low as all that is needed is to receive the material and cut it into bag like shapes.</p>
<p>Other storage methods such as glass jars or metal containers do well in terms of protecting against diseases and pests for seeds destined for replanting, but are too small to contain any significant amount of grain for food (Dowell et al., 2017). Making up for this with many containers would take up too much space as well as heavily increasing cost.</p>
<p>Hermetic storage bags are the other method, including GrainPro or PICS bags, are very effective due to the low oxygen conditions they create (Dowell et al., 2017). GrainPro bags are about $0.05 USD/kg and can be ordered from their website (www.grainpro.com) while PICS bags are between $2-4 USD depending on the region (Dowell et al., 2017; www.PICSnetwork.org). Notably, PICS bags are available at many dealers within Africa, and the specific locations can be found on their website (www.PICSnetwork.org). Although hermetic bags are an effective solution to improving grain storage, there have been some observed negatives. Insects can penetrate the bags from the outside which means the bags can get infested and ruin the low oxygen conditions (Dowell et al., 2017). One way to combat this is through raising the bags on pylons (www.grainpro.com). This height will stop certain pests from being able to attack the bags from ground level. Aside from insect prevention, storing grain off the ground serves other benefits. Rainwater and moisture collect on the ground which serves as a breeding area for insects (Zeigler et al., 2021). Keeping away from heavy rainwater collection areas as well as elevating the grain will help prevent the possible damages that could occur.</p>
<p>The economics of grain also play an important role in the selling process. Currently, maize prices have increased by 64% over the course of one year within Southern Africa (FAO, 2022). This means farmers who had to sell early, lost much of this price increase. More generally, however, grain prices are lowest at harvest and much higher late in a dry season or after planting in the subsequent rainy season; good grain storage could take advantage of such price increases. As discussed, oversupply during the harvest season causes a supply and demand imbalance (Luo et al., 2022). Being aware of this as well as commodity prices are both essential to a smallholder farmer but not always viable as markets can be far away. This is where an intermediary (e.g. friend or family member in the city) would be beneficial as they can provide a farmer with updates on market prices via SMS messages or voice calls or personal visits. The intermediary would have to be compensated so some of the profit would be diminished. Currently, farmers will sell their grain through middlemen which removes the hassle of transportation (Woodhouse et al., 2017). Overall, this is negative as a farmer will almost always be selling at a lower price if they do not know the market value.</p>
<p>In conclusion, these observations show the value of improving grain storage. These techniques can be implemented at a relatively low cost and will save smallholder farmers money in the long run. </P>
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<h1 class="title-bg">Picture Based Lesson to Train Farmers </h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
[[Image:9.5 page-0001.jpg|thumb|centre|Picture Based Lesson to Train Farmer|Click on the image to access a higher resolution image as well as lessons adapted for different geographic regions.]]</p>
<p>http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/9.5e.s.a.pdf (South Asia Post Harvest Instructions)</p>
<p>http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/9.5e.s.a.pdf (East/Southeast Asia Post Harvest Instructions)</p>
<p>http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/9.5subsaharan_africa_carribean.pdf (Sub-Saharan Africa/ Caribbean Post Harvest Instructions)</p>
<p>http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/9.5latin_america.pdf (Latin America Post Harvest Instructions) </p>
<p>http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/8.6n._africa_middleeast.pdf (North Africa and Middle East Post Harvest Instructions)</p>
<p>https://www.fao.org/3/t1838e/T1838E12.HTM (Long and Short Term Storage Methods for The Purpose of Drying)</p>

</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">Practical Links to Get Started</h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1KIO-P1ZsL8 (How to Use Hermetic Storage Bags (PICS)</p>
<p>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=05Mb9cmRv3Q (How to Use GrainPro Bags) </p>
<p>https://www.alibaba.com/product-detail/WHO-Approved-African-75D-100D-Direct_1600485613553.html?spm=a2700.galleryofferlist.normal_offer.d_title.7c0228c8sNNuIs (Link to Buy Treated Bed Net)</p>
<p>https://picsnetwork.org/ (Where to Buy PIC Bags)</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">References </h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>1. Dowell, F. E., & Dowell, C. N. (2017). Reducing grain storage losses in developing countries. Quality Assurance and Safety of Crops & Foods, 9(1), 93–100.</p>

<p>2. GrainPro. (n.d.). GrainPro. https://www.grainpro.com/grainpro-vacuum-bag</p>

<p>3. Kuyu, C. G., Tola, Y. B., Mohammed, A., Mengesh, A., & Mpagalile, J. J. (2022). Evaluation of different grain storage technologies against storage insect pests over an extended storage time. Journal of Stored Products Research, 96, 101945. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jspr.2022.101945</p>

<p>4. Luo, Y., Huang, D., Han, Y., & Wu, L. (2022). Storage losses, market development and household maize-selling decisions in China. China Agricultural Economic Review (ahead of print) https://doi.org/10.1108/caer-10-2021-0201</p>

<p>5. Purdue Improved Crop Storage (PICS). (n.d.). PICS. https://picsnetwork.org/</p>

<p>6. Who Approved African 75d/100d Direct Sell Long Lasting LLIN Treated Nylon Mosquito Net Bed Canopy (n.d.). Alibaba. https://www.alibaba.com/product-detail/WHO-Approved-African-75D-100D Direct_1600485613553.html?spm=a2700.galleryofferlist.normal_offer.d_title.7c0228c8sNNuIs</p>

<p>7. Ziegler, V., Paraginski, R. T., & Ferreira, C. D. (2021). Grain storage systems and effects of moisture, temperature and time on grain quality - A review. Journal of Stored Products Research, 91, 101770. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jspr.2021.101770</p>

<p>8. Kumar, D., & Kalita, P. (2017). Reducing Postharvest Losses during Storage of Grain Crops to Strengthen Food Security in Developing Countries. Food Science & Technology, 6(1), 8.</p>

<p>9. Sudini, H., Ranga Rao, G. V., Gowda, C. L. L., Chandrika, R., Margam, V., Rathore, A., & Murdock, L. L. (2015). Purdue improved crop storage (PICS) bags for safe storage of groundnuts. Journal of Stored Products Research, 64(SI), 133–138. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jspr.2014.09.002 </p>
<p>10. Jayas, D. S., & White, N. D. G. (2003). Storage and drying of grain in Canada: low cost approaches. Food Control, 14(4), 255–261. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0956-7135(03)00014-8</p>
<p>11. FAO (2022) Prices of key cereal staples continued to rise, but at a slower pace. Food Price Monitoring and Analysis (FPMA), Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome (2022, November 11). Www.fao.org. https://www.fao.org/giews/food-prices/regional-roundups/detail/en/c/1618324/</p>

<p>12. Woodhouse, P., Van Veldwisch, G.J., Venot, J-P., Brockinton, D., Komakech, H. and Manjichi, A. (2017) African farmer-led irrigation development: re-framing agricultural policy and investment?, The Journal of Peasant Studies, 44:1, 213-233, DOI: 10.1080/03066150.2016.1219719
</p>

Template:Chapters 8.3

2026-01-14T08:01:49Z

Mamta:

<div>
<div class="title"><h3>8.3 - Neem to combat pests during grain storage and the field</h3><br><h3 class="ch-owner">Gryphon Theriault-Loubier, University of Guelph, Canada</h3></div>
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[[File:4.jpg|300px]]

<p><b>Related video(s)</b>: Neem seed kernel extract (Source: Access Agriculture)</p>
<p><i> https://www.accessagriculture.org/neem-seed-kernel-extract?cat_id=1499</i></p>

<p>Suggested citation for this chapter.</p>
<p>Theriault-Loubier,G(2022) Neem to combat pests during grain storage and the field. In Farmpedia, The Encyclopedia for Small Scale Farmers. Editor, M.N. Raizada, University of Guelph, Canada. http://www.farmpedia.org</p>
<h3 class="title-bg">Introduction</h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Neem (Azadirachta indica) is a fast growing, drought tolerant deciduous, evergreen tree of Indo-Malay origin but now widely grown throughout the tropics and subtropics including in Africa (World Agroforestry Centre, 2011). Neem leaves and fruit have been in use since pre-history for a variety of purposes including ethnobotanical, medicinal, cultural and agricultural (Jamir, 1999; Harbant, & Mohamed, 2012). The plant or its extracts can be used as a multi-functional natural pesticide, for example as a seed coating to maintaining food quality during storage (Nisar, 2009), as a spray on field crops (Baidoo, 2012), and even as an adjunct prophylactic (preventative medicine) in aquaculture (Kumar, 2013). Neem can be used as an effect biopesticide in tropical vegetable gardens (e.g. kale and cabbage in Thailand) which often use large amounts of commercial pesticides (Tran 2003). The functionality of neem is due to some 35 active ingredients, among which are anti-feedants, deterrents, growth and reproduction limiting (sterility) compounds. Azadirachtin (Fig.1),</p>
<p>[[File:Capture_123.JPG]]</p>
<p>a complex terpenoid, is widely considered to be the most active insecticidal ingredient (Schmutterer, 1990). While the seeds have the highest concentration of azadirachtin, the fruit, leaves and bark also contain the compound (Bramachari, 2004). </p>
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<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">Use of Neem as a Field Spray</h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Neem extracts can be used as a bio-pesticide spray for field crops. Bramachari reported that neem has been found to be effective against 413 different species of insects in 16 different insect orders including beetles, caterpillars, aphids, leafhoppers, leaf miners, psyllids, thrips, mealy bugs and whiteflies. Research has shown some efficacy in application to mite species (V. jacobsoni) that commonly infest honey bee hives (Melathopoulos et al., 2000). Baidoo (2012) found that neem extract significantly reduced the population of cabbage pests, and increased cabbage weight (See Critical Analysis).
Neem is particularly effective at the juvenile insect stage, as it disrupts a common insect hormone ecdysone, preventing moulting. As a result, the larvae remain in an immature stage and die (Bramachari, 2005). Therefore, the extract works best on the second generation of insects and a delayed response in the field is a common observation, and this should be explained to farmers in advance to prevent disappointment (Schmutterer 1990). Similarily, food products which require a high visual quality or do not recover from insect feeding might not be best suited for neem compounds (Schmutterer 1990).</p>
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<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">Use of Neem to Prevent Food Storage Losses </h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>The pesticidal property of azadirachtin means an extract of the seed or pulverized seed powder can be applied to jute bags for storage of grain, and can serve doubly as an insect deterrent; alternatively neem leaves are sometimes directly added to grain storage bags (Melathopoulous, 2000, Brahmachari 2004).</p>
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<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">Possible Benefits</h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>The neem tree is exceptionally hardy – suitable growing conditions include those that experience >400 mm rainfall, extended drought and poor soil, including saline (salty) soils (Schmutterer 1990). Obara (2004) describes the potential of Kenyan neem trees as a supply of excellent quality carving wood. It is considered highly desirable for this purpose as it is easy to work with has an aesthetically pleasing grain. While this is a benefit on the side of productivity, it should be considered that in areas of limited wood supply, these trees might need protection from poachers (Obara, 2004).</p>
<p>Extract of the neem tree has the potential to reduce reliance on commercial pesticides. Neem extract has the potential to be a low cost, long-term solution that may reverse conventional income flow from farmer to input manufacturer (Tran, 2003). Neem has potential as a small-medium local business enterprise, and the reader is encouraged to read Tran (2003) who has explored this subject. There may be significant market demand for the product in the future given the wealth of research and possible applications of neem compounds, including as a treatment for dengue fever, as a contraceptive and analgesic, and for rheumatism (Bramachari, 2004).</p>
<p>In terms of environmental impact, neem has been reported to disturb aquatic life at lower rates than many synthetic pesticides since it degrades rather quickly (36-48 hrs) following application if exposed to sunlight (Scott, 2003). While aquatic invertebrates were unharmed at full agricultural applicable concentrations of neem, some benthic (bottom feeding) populations were disturbed (Scott, 2003).</p>
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<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">Critical Analysis</h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p><b>Tree propagation time:</b></p> Neem is propagated from seeds (see below). It is estimated that approximately 10 years (minimum) of growth is required for a tree to produce ~10 kg of fruit, of which only a portion is neem kernel (Schmutterer 1990). Development projects may find this to be outside of their project timelines. Therefore, trees must be locally pre-existing or a long-term plantation program must be implemented. There may also be regulations on importing neem seed if not locally available (see below).</p>
<p>Spraying frequency: Schmutterer (1990) states that neem compounds are generally less effective in the short-term than synthetic commercial alternatives. While ecologically beneficial, the relatively short half-life of 36-48 hours is a practical challenge, meaning that the compound will need reapplication every 5-7 days. However, it is noted that some conventional pesticides also have similar application requirements (Schmutterer 1990).</p>
<p>Impact on plant growth: While Baidoo (2012) noticed increased cabbage weight as a result of neem spraying, Egho (2011) noted delayed development of the cowpea plant at 5% neem extract concentration.</p>
<p>Impact on human health: Though neem extracts are generally considered to be safe by advocates, Bramachari (2004) found that there were some human health concerns related to neem application. Toxicity in mammals from neem has been reported at relatively high dosages (Bramachari, 2004). Long-term controlled studies do not appear to have been conducted, and hence the possible effects of prolonged exposure to low doses of neem extract are not clear. As with any effective pesticide, safety equipment is preferable, but according to Raizada (2001), this may not be necessary after the neem extract has dried.</p>
<p>Environmental impact: As neem is a wide spectrum pesticide (Bramachari), it may harm beneficial insects. Prolonged over-spraying of neem extract may also lead to insect resistance, and hence neem should be incorporated into integrated pest management (IPM) programs that promote good ecology to reduce pests (e.g. crop rotations) (Appropriate Technology, 2006).</p>
<p><b>Patent rights:</b></p> An ongoing legal battle exists between W. R. Grace & Co. and advocate Jeremy Rifkin. W.R. Grace has patented a method of extracting an active ingredient from neem for use in commercial pesticides, whereas Rifkin contends that the traditional use of neem means that such a technology cannot be patented (Wolfgang, 1995).</P>
</div>
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<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">How to make the extract: Small-Scale Production (Neem Foundation) </h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Preparing Neem Kernel Extract: The process for making a neem kernel extract is relatively simple. Following harvesting, neem kernels are ground, then the powder is usually gathered in a simple muslin cloth pouch and soaked overnight in water. The next morning, the pouch is squeezed to remove as much of the extract as possible. The ratio for an effective concentration of compounds is 50 g of neem kernel to 1 L of water. To increase surface area and decrease the time necessary for extraction, the outer coat of the neem kernel is removed, and the kernel is pounded gently. Some reports indicate that the outer coat is an effective addition to fertilizer. If the means do not exist locally to remove the seed coat, the ratio of the extract from (intact) neem kernels should be increased to 75 g per 1 L of water. The age of the neem kernels after harvesting is important; the seeds should be at least 3 months in age, and no older than 8 months to assure maximum azadirachtin content. For purposes of application onto leaves, an emulsifier is usually added, such as soap oil, soap cake powder, sandovit, or teepol, which are sometimes sold commercially. An emulsifier assists the active compounds in sticking to the leaves that will receive application.</p>
<p>Preparing Neem Leaf Extract: The concentrations of the active compounds are highest in neem kernels, but they are also present in the leaves (Bramachari, 2004). It is estimated that for 1 ha of land, nearly 80 kg of leaves would be required which is substantial. For practical purposes, it is therefore suggested that neem leaf extract should be applied to seedlings in nurseries and kitchen gardens. The process of making the leaf extract is nearly the same as producing the seed extract: the leaves are soaked overnight, then the next day the leaves are ground and the extract is filtered: 1 kg of green neem leaf is required per 5 L of water. As above, an emulsifier is added to facilitate better adhesion to applied leaf surfaces.</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">How to Spray Neem Extract or Commercial Neem Oil</h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>As the active compounds break down fastest in extended bright light, the compound should be applied in the evening or very early morning. During high temperatures, the frequency of spraying should be increased. Since the compound is washed away by water, daily spraying is recommended in the rainy season. As insects lay eggs on the underside of the leaves, it is important to spray neem extract on the underside of the leaves. Optimally, each acre of land can be sprayed with approximately 60 L of ready-to-use solution (see below).</p>
<p>As an alternative, neem oil can be purchased commercially. To apply onto crops or seeds, 30 ml of neem oil is added to 1 L of water, along with an emulsifier. The resultant product needs to be mixed thoroughly and applied before oil droplets start floating on the water surface. Backpack sprayers have been found to be more effective than hand sprayers as they often have a built-in mixing agitation technology.</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Picture Based Lesson to Train Farmers</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
[[Image:9.3.jpg|thumb|centre|Picture Based Lesson to Train Farmer|Click on the image to access a higher resolution image as well as lessons adapted for different geographic regions.]]</p>
<p><i>For the South Asian version (pictures only, text for you to insert), click this link for lesson 9.3:http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/9.3_south_asian.pdf</i></p>
<p><i>For the East/South Asian version (pictures only, text for you to insert), click this link for lesson 9.3:http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/9.3e.s.a.pdf</i></p>
<p><i>For the Sub-Saharan Africa/Caribbean version (pictures only, text for you to insert), click this link for lesson 9.3:http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/9.3subsaharan_africa_carribean.pdf</i></p>
<p><i>For the Latin-America version (pictures only, text for you to insert), click this link for lesson 9.3:http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/9.3latin_america.pdf</i></p>
<p><i>Source: MN Raizada and L Smith (2016) A Picture Book of Best Practices for Subsistence Farmers. eBook, University of Guelph Sustainable Agriculture Kit (SAK) Project, June 2016, Guelph, Canada.</i></p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">Further Information</h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p><i>Sources of seed and information on propagating neem trees</i>
<p>The trees are typically planted from seed. In India, there are commercial suppliers of neem seed including JDG Seeds which sell neem seeds for $1.10 USD per kg. Please refer to the Tree Seed Supplier Directory on the website of the World Agroforestry Center for local suppliers of neem seeds.</p>
<p>The Neem Foundation states that: “The seeds should be as fresh as possible as older seeds often do not germinate. Provided that only a few trees are to be planted, and there is sufficient moisture available, with minimum weeds, the seeds may be sown directly into the ground. Two to three seeds are placed together about 1 cm deep in loose soil. After germination, only the strongest plant should be retained. When planting a large number, it is advisable to cultivate young plants first in pots, trays or plastic bags. After 3 months, they should be transplanted into the ground. When using bags or pots care should be taken that the plants are not allowed to develop to a stage where the taproot has pierced the bottom and has to be shortened before transplantation. This weakens the trees and substantially slows their growth.”</p>
</div>
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<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">References </h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>1. Adarkwah, C., et al. "Bio-Rational Control of Red Flour Beetle Tribolium Castaneum (Herbst) (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae) in Stored Wheat with Calneem Registered Oil Derived from Neem Seeds." Journal of Pest Science 83.4 (2010): 471-9.</p>
<p>2. Baidoo, P. K., and J. I. Adam. "The Effects of Extracts of Lantana Camara (L.) and Azadirachta Indica (A. Juss) on the Population Dynamics of Plutella Xylostella, Brevicoryne Brassicae and Hellula Undalis on Cabbage." Sustainable Agriculture Research 1.2 (2012): 229-34</p>
<p>3. Bramachari, Goutam. (2005). Neem – An omnipotent Plant: A retrospection. ChemBioChem 2005(4), 408 – 421.</p>
<p>4. Egho, E. O., and E. M. Ilondu. "Seeds of Neem Tree (Azadirachta Indica A. Juss). Promising Biopesticide in the Management of Cowpea Insect Pests and Grain Yield in the Early Cropping Season at Asaba and Abraka, Delta State, Nigeria." Journal of Agricultural Science 4.1 (2012): 181-9.</p>
<p>5. Harbant, & Mohamed. (2012). Evaluating eco-friendly botanicals (natural plant extracts) as alternatives to synthetic fungicides. Annals of Agricultural and Environmental Medicine : AAEM, 19(4), 673-676.</p>
<p>6. Hummel, H., Hein, D.F., and Schmutterer (2012). The Coming of Age of Azadirachtins. Journal of biopesticides, 5(sup.) 82.</p>
<p>7. Isman, Murray B., Saber Miresmailli, and Cristina MacHial. "Commercial Opportunities for Pesticides Based on Plant Essential Oils in Agriculture, Industry and Consumer Products." Phytochemistry Reviews 10.2 (2011): 197-204. Biological Sciences.</p>
<p>8. Kumar, S., Raman, R. P., Pandey, P. K., Mohanty, S., Kumar, A., & Kumar, K. (2013). Effect of orally administered azadirachtin on non-specific immune parameters of goldfish carassius auratus (linn. 1758) and resistance against aeromonas hydrophila. Fish & Shellfish Immunology, 34(2), 564-573.</p>
<p>9. Melathopoulos, A. P., Winston, M. L., Whittington, R., Smith, T., Lindberg, C., Mukai, A., & Moore, M. (2000). Comparative laboratory toxicity of neem pesticides to honey bees(hymenoptera: Apidae), their mite parasites varroa jacobsoni(acari: Varroidae) and acarapis woodi (acari: Tarsonemidae), andBrood pathogens paenibacillus larvae and ascophaera apis. Journal of Economic Entomology, 93(2), 199-209.</p>
<p>10. Neem: The bitter truth. (2006). Appropriate Technology, 33(3), 29-29.</p>
<p>11. Nisar, K., et al. "Pesticidal Seed Coats Based on Azadirachtin-A: Release Kinetics, Storage Life and Performance." Pest Management Science, 65 (2) pp.175-182, 2009 (2009)Biological Sciences</p>
<p>12. Obara, A. O., Hoeft, M. G., & Hoeft, R. (2004). Neem, azadirachta indica A. juss. (meliaceae), and its potentialfor sustainable woodcarving in kenya. Economic Botany, 58(1), 98-111.</p>
<p>13. R. B. Raizada, M. K. Srivastava, R. A. Kaushala, R. P. Singh, Food Chem. Toxicol. 2001, 39(5), 477 ± 483.</p>
<p>14. Scott, I. M., and N. K. Kaushik. "The Toxicity of a Neem Insecticide to Populations of Culicidae and Other Aquatic Invertebrates as Assessed in in Situ Microcosms." Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 39.3 (2000): 329-36. Biological Sciences; Environmental Sciences and Pollution Management.</p>
<p>15. Schmutterer, H. (1990.) Properties and Potential of the Natural Pesticides from the Neem Tree, Azadirachta Indica. Annu. Rev. Entomol. 1990. 35:271-97.</p>
<p>16. Tran, V. M., & Perry, J. A. (2003). Challenges to using neem (azadirachta indica var. SianensisValenton) in thailand. Economic Botany, 57(1), 93-102.</p>
<p>17. T, T. Jamir, K. Sharma H, and K. Dolui A. "Folklore Medicinal Plants of Nagaland, India." Fitoterapia 70.4 (1999): 395-.ProQuest Agriculture Journals</p>
<p>18. Wolfgang, Lori. "Patents on Native Technology Challenged." Science 269.5230 (1995): 1506-. ProQuest Agriculture Journals.</p>
<p>19. World Agroforestry Centre (2011). A tree species reference and selection guide: Azadirachta indica. Available online at < http://www.worldagroforestrycentre.org/sea/products/afdbases/af/asp/SpeciesInfo.asp?SpID=271></p>

Template:Chapters 8.2

2026-01-14T07:58:58Z

Mamta:

<div>
<div class="title"><h3>8.2 - Seed drying</h3><br><h3 class="ch-owner">Emily Overholt, University of Guelph, Canada</h3></div>
<div class="hero-img-2">
[[File:4.jpg|300px]]

<p><b>Related video(s)</b>: Well dried seed is good seed (Source: Access Agriculture)</p>
<p><i> https://www.accessagriculture.org/well-dried-seed-good-seed?cat_id=1499</i></p>

<p>Suggested citation for this chapter.</p>
<p> Overholt,E. (2022) Seed drying. In Farmpedia, The Encyclopedia for Small Scale Farmers. Editor, M.N. Raizada, University of Guelph, Canada. http://www.farmpedia.org</p>
<h3 class="title-bg">Introduction </h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>The Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) of the United Nations estimates that post-harvest crop losses in sub-Saharan Africa amount to 8% of the total annual cereal yield (Kaminski & Christiaensen, 2014). These foods also provide nourishment to pests including fungi, insects, and rodents which lead to post-harvest losses (Kaminski & Christianensen, 2014). Seed drying is a vital skill for farmers to possess, as seed moisture content and incidence of infestation/disease are positively correlated (Bam et al., 2007). Wet grain leads to fungal molds and is more palatable to pests. The moisture content of the air, also known as the relative humidity, is a combination of the air’s temperature and moisture content (FAO, 2016). In order for seeds to lose moisture, they must have a higher moisture content than the air around them, which makes it especially difficult to dry grain in the humid tropics (FAO, 2016). Seed size/porosity and wind speed are also important factors in determining the drying capacity of a grain. The intent behind writing this paper is to provide subsistence farmers with a toolkit to evaluate different seed drying methods according to their specific needs and capacities.</p>
</div>
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<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">Methods</h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>This section will provide a brief overview of different indigenous practices. Indigenous populations have long understood the importance of seed drying for food security (Taruvinga, Mejia, & Alvarez, 2014). Whilst indigenous drying practices can be sufficient in providing some communities with year-round access to grain, population growth and climate change are undermining the viability of these systems within certain contexts (Mrema et al., 2011). Population growth lends itself to land scarcity, which can cause farmers to reduce crop rotations, given their finite resources (Mrema et al, 2011). What results from this reduction in biodiversity is an increased incidence of pests/fungi which often prefer specific host plants (Mrema et al, 2011). Equally important, the increase in average global temperature is conducive to fungi and pests (Taruvinga et al, 2014). Indigenous post-harvest drying methods can be grouped into four categories: field drying, open air drying, semi-open storage drying, and heated air drying (Taruvinga et al, 2014).</p>
<p>With respect to field drying, crops can remain in the field following grain maturation for up to 5 days, as a pre-harvest drying method (Taruvinga et al, 2014). Open air drying often consists of leaving grains on wooden structures where they are directly exposed to the sun and wind (Taruvinga et al, 2014); although, grains are also frequently hung from trees/poles. These methods are often used in very hot/humid environments, as well as with recently-harvested grain (Taruvinga et al, 2014).</p>
<p>The third method, semi-open storage drying, involves the construction of "cribs", which generally consist of a combination of timber, reeds, and bamboo (Taruvinga et al, 2014). The cribs are supported by a foundation of stone or wood with baffles, to protect grain from rodents (Taruvinga et al, 2014); ideally, the crib should be located at least 90 cm from the ground (Taruvinga et al, 2014). The semi-open method is employed to dry both threshed and unthreshed grain (Taruvinga et al, 2014); whilst unthreshed grain is limited in its drying capacity by the protective case which surrounds it, but is better fortified against potential predators (Taruvinga et al, 2014). </p>
<p>A fourth option for drying seeds is by means of heated air from fire (Sutherland & Ghaly, 1982). Whilst fuel may not be abundant, subsistence farmers can overcome this problem by placing grain in close proximity or above the cooking area. The heated air increases the relative air humidity, thus lowering the EMC (Mreme et al, 2011). It is important that heated air-dried seeds are stirred regularly, to avoid damage and/or under-dehydration of seeds (Taruvinga et al, 2014). Only after seeds reach an acceptable moisture content, can they be stored in bancos (Taruvinga et al, 2014). This indigenous concept involves crafting a container using mud or woven branches, bamboo, and grass as a method of insulating seeds from EMC (Taruvinga et al, 2014).</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">Practice</h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>The optimal drying method and duration of a given grain is contingent on the climatic conditions, as well as the structure of the grain itself (Kozanoglu et al., 2012). It should be noted within the parameters of constant relative humidity that an increase of 10 °C in temperature will cause an approximate 0.5 °C decrease in EMC (Mrema et al, 2011); it has been theorized that this decrease in EMC is the result of increased water pressure within the seed, lending to higher moisture mobility (Barozzo, Mujumdar, & Freire, 2014). Being that grains differ in their EMC at a constant temperature/relative humidity, one cannot adopt a homogenous approach toward grain drying. As Table 1 shows, there is significant variation in EMC between crops when analyzed at 27 °C and 70% relative humidity (FAO, 2016). In fact, the EMC of groundnuts is half that of maize, despite being dried under the same climatic conditions (FAO, 2016). In addition to the discrepancies in drying capacity, seeds also vary in their optimal storage moisture content. Table 2 shows the maximum moisture content recommended by FAO for short and long term storage of different grains. Close examination of this chart shows that there is more variation between crops than between drying durations (Mrema et al, 2011).</p>
<p>Although porosity and seed size do not directly affect the EMC, they do have an impact on the rate of drying; through their effects on surface area and diffusion can catalyze the drying process, or cause a major lag in it, leaving the crops vulnerable to disease/infestation (Kozanoglu et al, 2012). Drying occurs on the grain surface and hence a greater seed surface to volume ratio results in faster drying of grain (Kozanoglu et al, 2012). Due to the large surface area ratio found in smaller cereal grains, the initial rate of drying is must faster than large grain (Kozanoglu et al, 2012). Although the larger grains are at an initial disadvantage, they typically surpass the drying rate of smaller seeds (Kozanoglu et al, 2012). This phenomena can be explained by the relatively high porosity found within larger seeds. Once an adequate amount of moisture has been depleted from seeds, pores catalyze the drying process, as they become conduits for airflow, and in doing so, increase the surface area to which air is exposed (Kozanoglu et al, 2012). Figure 1 shows a simple formula which farmers can use to determine moisture content of their dried grains, using only a scale and calculator. Once informed of their grain's moisture content, a farmer can begin to consider the different factors which influence drying technique and duration.<p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">Application of drying methods</h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>As crops differ in their chemical compositions, they also differ in their relative vulnerabilities to different threats. Table 3 summarizes the strengths and weaknesses of maize, beans, groundnuts, and rice; all of which are grown in Africa. Maize, for instance, is less likely to require heated-air drying than beans, based on its ability to dry in the field, as well as its superior resistance to insects and pathogens. Good management strategies should also consider the effects of different drying practices on the overall quality of the seed. Over drying and exposure to high temperatures can have an adverse impact on the quality of a seed, as well as its germination rate. Excessive temperatures can lead to an increase in internal air pressure of a seed, and lead to external damage (FAO, 2016). Furthermore, essential proteins, sugars, and glutens can be altered by extreme temperatures, leading to nutrient deficiencies in the seeds (FAO, 2016). The standard safe seed drying temperature for oilseed grains is 43 °C (FAO, 2016); although, Tables 4 and 5 exemplify the drastic variation in heat tolerance of different grains (Sutherland & Ghaly, 1982). Overheating can also affect flavor and color of the products which will reduce their market price (Sutherland & Ghaly, 1982).</p>
<p>External factors that may influence the drying capacity of seeds, as well as their quality, include the cleanliness of seeds as well as the material on which they are dried. One study comparing the effectiveness of corrugated iron, cement, and wooden surfaces in promoting cowpea germination found that wood was superior for preventing pest infestation, and also had the highest rate of germination between the three (Ugwu et al., 1999). It has been suggested that the cleanliness of grain is an important determinant in the drying rate, given that these particles situate themselves within pores, and prevent full aeration (FAO, 2016). Rigorous cleaning should be undertaken in order to prevent this phenomenon, as well as reduce the risk of seed contamination (Kozanoglu et al, 2012). Caution should be taken during the cleaning process, as moisture-depleted seeds are more susceptible to compaction, which can limit porosity (Kozanoglu et al, 2012). Hopefully by now the reader has concluded that seed drying requires a complex management program as it is influenced by multiple factors. Figure 2 compares temperature with germination rate, insect activity, and fungal presence, in order to determine the safe drying temperature for most grain seeds (Mrema et al, 2011).</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">Critical evaluation</h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>While heated air drying can have a critical impact on poverty reduction, it is important that farmers do not over rely on this method. Farmers may be incentivized to over-use heat drying, because it lends itself to quick drying, and therefore, readily available products to sell at market. While one could debate the finite nature of fuel resources, it can be said that population pressure will continue to increase demand for them, and lead to scarcity (as it already has in countries such as Ghana which suffer from significant deforestation). It is important to utilize other indigenous methods when possible, not only for their eco-benefits, but also to ensure their survival.</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">Effects of drying on profit/production</h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Different methods of seed drying can affect production through their labor and resource requirements. While in-field seed drying can increase available drying time, it also hinders the ability of farmers to engage in crop rotation, as growing seasons for staple crops are often finite (Taruvinga et al, 2014). Heat-drying seeds can be time consuming, as the temperature must be monitored and seeds must be constantly stirred. Semi-open grain storage can be labor intensive, as cribs must be built to house the grain. It seems reasonable to suggest that there is a positive correlation between initial seed moisture content and required labor inputs in the drying process. That being said, farmers choose to grow lower maintenance crops (in terms of drying) such as maize, rather than focus on growing the components of a balanced diet. Although there are no simple answers in the world of seed drying, one thing is certain: improved access to drying resources is a crucial component in bringing about food security. Seed drying allows farmers to maintain grain reserves throughout the year, which serves a two fold purpose: not only do farmers maintain a buffer against famine, they also receive a higher market value for grain during non-growing seasons.</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Picture Based Lesson to Train Farmers</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
[[Image:9.2 image1.jpg|thumb|centre|Picture Based Lesson to Train Farmer|Click on the image to access a higher resolution image as well as lessons adapted for different geographic regions.]]</p>
<p><i>For the South Asian version (pictures only, text for you to insert), click this link for lesson 9.2:http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/9.2_south_asian.pdf</i></p>
<p><i>For the East/South Asian version (pictures only, text for you to insert), click this link for lesson 9.2:http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/9.2e.s.a.pdf</i></p>
<p><i>For the Sub-Saharan Africa/Caribbean version (pictures only, text for you to insert), click this link for lesson 9.2:http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/9.2subsaharan_africa_carribean.pdf</i></p>
<p><i>For the Latin-America version (pictures only, text for you to insert), click this link for lesson 9.2:http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/9.2latin_america.pdf</i></p>
<p><i>For North Africa And Middle East version (pictures only, text for you to insert), click this link for lesson Chapter 5. 8.2:http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/8.2n._africa_middleeast.pdf</i></p>
<p><i>Source: MN Raizada and LJ Smith (2016) A Picture Book of Best Practices for Subsistence Farmers: eBook, University of Guelph Sustainable Agriculture Kit (SAK) Project, June 2016, Guelph, Canada. Available online at: www.SAKBooks.com</i></p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">Additional resources</h3>
<div class="cont-bg">

<p>https://www.ag.ndsu.edu/graindrying/documents/eb35.pdfhttps://www.ag.ndsu.edu/graindrying/documents/eb35.pdf</p>

<p>• http://www.fao.org/3/a-i3769e.pdf\</p>

<p>• http://www.fao.org/docrep/015/i2433e/i2433e10.pdf</p>

<p>• http://www.fao.org/docrep/T1838E/T1838E00.htmlhttps://www.fao.org/docrep/015/i2433/i/i2433e.pdf</p>

<p>• https://www.fao.org/docrep/015/i2433/i/i2433e.pdf</p>
<p><b>Appendix</b></p>
[[File:capture 116.JPG]]
[[File:Capture 117.JPG]]
<p>M2 = 100 - [W1 (100 - M1)/W2]</p>
<p>W1 = weight of undried grain (kg)</p>
<p>W2 = weight of dried grain (kg)</p>
<p>M1 = moisture content of undried grain (%)</p>
<p>M2 = moisture content of dried grain (%)</p>
<p><b>Figure 1:</b></p> Equation for determining moisture content of dried seeds. Retrieved from: http://www.fao.org/docrep/015/i2433e/i2433e.pdf </p>
<p><b>Table 3:</b></p> Recommended drying practices of different crops. Retrieved from:http://www.fao.org/docrep/015/i2433e/i2433e.pdf </p>
<p>[[File:Capture_118.JPG]]</p>
<p><b>Table 4:</b></p> Impact of drying temperature on germination rates of sunflower seeds. Retrieved from:http://www.sciencedirect.com.subzero.lib.uoguelph.ca/science/article/pii/0022474X82900029</p>
[[File:Capture_119.JPG]]
<p>Table 5: impact of drying temperature on germination rate of rapeseeds. Retrieved from: http://www.sciencedirect.com.subzero.lib.uoguelph.ca/science/article/pii/0022474X82900029</p>
[[File:Capture_120.JPG]]
<p><b>Figure 2:</b></p> Optimal seed drying conditions. Retrieved from: https://www.fao.org/docrep/015/i2433e/i2433e.pdf</p>
[[File:Capture_121.JPG]]
<p><b>Table 6:</b></p> “Approximate” allowable storage time (days) for cereal grains. Replicated using information from https://www.ag.ndsu.edu/graindrying/documents/eb35.pdf</p>
[[File:Capture_122.JPG]]
<p>*Approximate storage time exceeds 300 days. The columns are categorized according to storage temperature, and the rows according to moisture content of seeds after drying.</p>
<p>-https://www.ag.ndsu.edu/graindrying/documents/eb35.pdf</p>
<p>-https://www.ag.ndsu.edu/graindrying/documents/eb35.pdf</p>
</div>
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<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">References </h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>1. Bam, R. K., Craufurd, P. U., Dorward, P. T., Asiedu, E. A., Kumuga, F. K., & Ofori, K. (2007). Introducing improved cultivars: Understanding farmers seed drying and storage practices in Central Ghana. Expl Agric, 43, 301-317, doi :10.1017/S001447970700498X</p>

<p>2. Barozzo, M. A. S., Mujumdar, A., & Freire, J. T. (2014). Air-drying of seeds: A review. Drying Technology, 32, DOI: 10.1080/07373937.2014.915220</p>

<p>3. Hellevang, K. J. (1993). Natural air/low temperature crop drying. NDSU Extension Service.Retrieved from: https://www.ag.ndsu.edu/graindrying/documents/eb35.pdf</p>

<p>4. Kaminski, J. & Christiaensen. (2014). Post harvest loss in sub-Saharan Africa-what do farmers say? Global Food Security, 3, 149-158, DOI: 10.1016/j.gfs.2014.10.002</p>

<p>5. Kozanoglu, B., Martinez J., Alvarez, S., Guerrero-Beltrán, J. A., & Welti-Chanes, J. (2012) Influence of Particle Size on Vacuum–Fluidized Bed Drying. Drying Technology, 30 (2), 138 – 145, DOI:10.1080/07373937.2011.628427.</p>

<p>6. Mrema, G. C., Gumbe, L. O., Chepete, H. J., & Agullo, J. O. (2011). Rural Structures within the tropics: Design and development. FAO, Rome, Chapter 16. Retrieved from: http://www.fao.org/docrep/015/i2433e/i2433e10.pdf.</p>

<p>7. Proctor, D. L. (1994). Grain storage techniques: Evolution and trends in developing countries. FAO Rome, Chapter 5.Retrieved from: http://www.fao.org/docrep/T1838E/T1838E00.html</p>

<p>8. Sutherland, J. W. & Ghaly, T. F. (1982). Heated air drying of soil seeds. J Stored Prod Res, 18, 53-54.</p>
<p>9. Taruvinga, C., Mejia, D., & Alvarez, J. S. (2014). Appropriate seed and grain drying systems for small scale farmers. A Field Guide for Disaster Risk Reduction in Southern Africa: Key Practices for DRR Implementer, FAO. Retrieved from: http://www.fao.org/3/a-i3769e.pdf</p>

<p>10. Ugwu, F. M., Ekwu, F. C., & Abo, J. (1999). Effect of different sun-drying surfaces on the functional properties, cooking, and insect infestation of cowpea seeds. Bioresource Technology, 69, 87-90.</p>

Template:Chapter 7.16

2026-01-14T07:53:45Z

Mamta:

<div>
<div class="title"><h3>7.16 - Magnifying Glass to Remove Diseased Seeds</h3><br><h3 class="ch-owner">Andrew Treigys, University of Guelph, Canada</h3></div>
<div class="hero-img-2">
[[File:4.jpg|300px]]

<p><b>Related video(s)</b>: Spotted Seed - Diseased Seed (Source: Access Agriculture)</p>
<p><i> https://www.accessagriculture.org/spotted-seed-diseased-seed?cat_id=1499</i></p>

<p>Suggested citation for this chapter.</p>
<p>Treigys,A. (2022) Magnifying Glass to Remove Diseased Seeds, The Encyclopedia for Small Scale Farmers. Editor, M.N. Raizada, University of Guelph, Canada. http://www.farmpedia.org</p>
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<div class="center-side" style="max-width: 100%;margin-right: 3%;">
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<h1 class="title-bg">Background Information </h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Removing diseased seeds with the aid of a magnifying glass or sheet is relevant to African and Asian smallholder farmers as it addresses several challenges they face in their daily lives. When planting seeds, it is important to distinguish between a healthy seed and a diseased seed. Diseased seeds often have a few discolored spots that are visible to the naked eye or under low magnification. Depending on the disease, they are distinguished by discoloration (black, brown) shriveling and/or cracks (Mancini, 2020). Picking out diseased seeds can drastically impact the crop yield and overall sustainability of future crops (Pellegrino, 2010). The risk comes from pathogens spreading and infecting the soil or other crops in the field (du Toit, 2004). Pathogens also decrease the nutrient properties of certain seeds (Lee, 2015). Many farmers already search for spots on seeds as a symptom of infection solely with their eyes. However, access to eyecare is scarce amongst smallholder farmers, with eyesight often starting to decline after age 40 (Collins, 1924). It is time-consuming to manually look through seeds, but the use of magnifying glasses or sheets can help reduce time and effort in searching for pathogens.</p>
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<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Magnifying glass options</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Magnifying glasses come in different shapes, sizes and lenses. Depending on the manufacturer and place of purchase, the prices vary. The need for the size will depend on the current eyesight of the individual or the need/want for a bigger piece of equipment. Figure 1 is the cheapest option as it is easily portable, and simple to use. It would have to be used up close rather than further away. Figure 2 is the standard option, coming in different optical sizes. Figure 3 is the most expensive option. It has a stand attached and the choice of increasing the contrast and brightness.</P>
<P><b>Step by step guide:</b></p>
<P>1. Gather your seeds in a pile or spread them out to begin sorting them.</p>
<P>2. Purchase and have your magnifying glass or sheet ready.</p>
<P>3. Start separating the seeds by sorting through them one by one while looking with the glass or sheet, making sure to dispose of the discolored seeds. Pay close attention to small or rare spots as they may be missed.</p>
<P>4. You can now sow using your healthy seeds.</p>
<p>[[File:Bag 12.jpg]]</p>
<p><b>Figure 1:</b></p> A magnifying sheet card. Approx $0.40 USD.
Image from:(https://5.imimg.com/data5/ECOM/Default/2024/3/398191745/UO/GR/TT/42960663/cslms-500x500.jpg)</p>
<p>[[File:Bag 13.jpg]]</p>
<p><b>Figure 2:</b></p> An example of a 100 mm magnifying glass. Price can vary from $0.40 - $1.25 USD, depending on the size, materials, and if they contain a handle.
Image from:(http://5.imimg.com/data5/SELLER/Default/2023/4/298776177/GK/KD/DC/12476938/magnifier-glass-lens-1000x1000.jpg)</p>

<p>[[File:Bag 14.jpg]]</p>
<p><b>Figure 3:</b></p>Fiber Illuminated Stand Magnifier. Different models cause the prices to vary from $45 - $115 USD.
Image from:(https://5.imimg.com/data5/SELLER/Default/2024/2/383536071/IP/OC/UM/428636/illuminated-stand-magnifier-1000x1000.jpeg)
</p>
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<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Benefits</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Crop yield and quality: Removing diseased seeds is a crucial step as it can greatly improve the crop yield and quality. If diseased seeds are planted, they can drastically impact the production of food and the overall crop yield, for example soybean rust was reported to have caused 40 to 60% yield losses in the United States (Bradley, 2021), with some diseases causing a loss of 15% to 35% (Pellegrino, 2010). Profits are also negatively affected (Bradley, 2021).</p>
<p><i>Accessibility:</i></p> Many small-scale farmers live in poverty (Akpan, 2016) and are dependent on their agriculture to thrive to sustain their livelihood. The welfare of farmers is key to sustaining agricultural production in their region. Over 90 percent of farms around the world operate by families, with their food being scarce and their choice of resources being heavily constrained (Small family farmers, 2024). Economically, the choice of magnifying glasses is cheap and accessible to most farmers, making it a lucrative asset. The cost ranges from less than one U.S. dollar to more than 65 U.S. dollars for the most expensive options (e.g. stand magnifier) (Figures 1-3).</p>
<p><i>Eyesight & Training:</i></p> As mentioned previously, many smallholder farmers do not have access to proper eye care. Although the government makes efforts, with low funding, and a small number of healthcare workers, it remains a challenge for many to get the proper treatment and care they need (Bechange, 2020). Because of this, identifying spotted seeds proves to be a challenge for some, as eyesight tends to drop at age 40 and so on (Collins, 1924). With the help of a magnifying glass or sheet, it helps to view spotted seeds more easily and can help reduce the time spent on carefully examining each individual seed. The use of the equipment does not require any training or expertise.</p>
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<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 style="background: #FBB03B;padding: 15px;font-weight: 600;color: #000;font-size: 22px;margin:unset;text-align:center;">Critical Analysis</h1>
<div style="background: #FFD8A4;padding: 15px;font-weight: 400;color: #212529;font-size: 16px;margin:unset;line-height: 1.5;">
<p>While being a very cost-effective method, there are some challenges. The magnifying glass design can make it difficult to hold on for a long time as there is no support for the hands, unless the stand option is purchased or it is attached to a home-made stand. Sifting through seeds is tedious and time-consuming, and as a result it can be grueling with a lack of hand rest. When working outdoors, the sun may interfere with the glass, obstructing the visibility. In the outdoors there is a possibility of dirt and dust getting trapped within the glass. This hinders its efficacy and makes it inconvenient. The durability of the glass or sheet is dependent on the manufacturer, and the supplier. Common forms of damage might include scratches, tears, breakages, etc.. To mitigate cost, buying in bulk (e.g. within a female farmer cooperative) can help. Purchasing a glass or sheet with a stand as a collective may reduce the labour requirement and efficiency.</p>
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<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Conclusion</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>In conclusion, magnifying glasses and sheets provide a useful and cost-effective method for detecting and removing diseased seeds. It provides cost-effectiveness, an option for far-sighted individuals, and marginalized communities. There are very expensive options available. The benefits are great but also come with some problems that may deter some smallholder farmers.</p>
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<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Helpful Links To Get Started </h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>The following are picture(s) of the process of identifying diseased seeds with a magnifying glass/sheet from Sakbooks.com. All versions are in the same section (8.2) apart from the North Africa & Middle East version.
Sub-Saharan Africa/Caribbean version
http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/8._pests_and_disease.pdf</p>
<p>East/Southeast Asia version
http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/4.__sakbook_east_asia_jan_2017_english_captions_compressed.pdf</p>
<p>South Asia Version
http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/2.__sak_book_south_asia_jan2017_english_captions_compressed_copy.pdf</p>
<p>Latin America Version
http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/9._sakbook_latin_america_oct2016_english_version.pdf</p>
<p>North Africa & Middle East Version (Chapter 7 ~ 7.2)
http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/11._sak_nora_book.english_version_pdf.pdf</p>

<p><b>Videos(s):</b></p> The following is a video from Access Agriculture on the process of spotting diseased seeds. It may provide further context and helpful information. The video is available in multiple languages.
https://www.accessagriculture.org/spotted-seed-diseased-seed</p>

<p>Other Readings: Below are further readings on seed processing and seed quality assurance from the Food and Agriculture of the United Nations (FAO).
https://www.fao.org/3/ca1492en/CA1492EN.pdf
https://www.fao.org/3/ca1491en/CA1491EN.pdf</p>

<p><b>Websites to purchase from:</b></p>
<p>Alibaba.com:
https://www.alibaba.com/trade/search?spm=a2700.product_home_newuser.home_new_user_first_screen_fy23_pc_search_bar.associationItem_pos_0&tab=all&SearchText=magnifying+glass</p>
<p>Indiamart.com:
https://dir.indiamart.com/search.mp?ss=magnifying+glass&prdsrc=1&src=as-rcnt%7Cpos%3D1%7Ccat%3D-2%7Cmcat%3D-2%7Ckwd_len%3D0%7Ckwd_cnt%3D0&com-cf=nl&res=RC4&stype=attr=1|attrS&Mspl=0&qry_typ=P</p>
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<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">References</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>1.Akpan, S. B., Udoh, E. J., & Patrick, I. V. (2016). Sustaining small scale farming: Evidence of poverty and income disparity among rural farming households in south-south region of Nigeria. Path of Science, 2(9). https://doi.org/10.22178/pos.14-5</p>
<p>2.Bechange, S., Jolley, E., Virendrakumar, B., Pente, V., Milgate, J., & Schmidt, E. (2020). Strengths and weaknesses of eye care services in sub-Saharan Africa: A meta-synthesis of eye health system assessments. BMC Health Services Research, 20(1), 381. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12913-020-05279-2</p>
<p>3.Bradley, C., Allen, T., Tenuta, A., Mehl, K., & Sisson, A. (2021). Soybean Disease Loss Estimates from the United States and Ontario, Canada — 2020. https://doi.org/10.31274/cpn-20210607-2</p>
<p>4.Collins, S. D., & Britten, R. H. (1924). Variation in eyesight at different ages, as determined by the Snellen Test. A statistical study of the results of vision tests of 4,862 native white school boys and 6,479 male White Industrial Workers in the United States. Public Health Reports (1896-1970), 39(51), 3189. https://doi.org/10.2307/4577396</p>
<p>5.Dixon, J., Abur , A. T., & Wattenbach, H. (n.d.). Framework for analysing impacts of globalization on Smallholders. Smallholders, globalization and policy analysis. Food and Agricultural Organization, Rome. https://www.fao.org/3/y5784e/y5784e02.htm</p>
<p>6.du Toit, L. J. (2004). Management of diseases in seed crops. Encyclopedia of Plant and Crop Science, 675-677.</p>
<p>7.Lee, J. H., Hwang, S.-R., Lee, Y.-H., Kim, K., Cho, K. M., & Lee, Y. B. (2015). Changes occurring in compositions and antioxidant properties of healthy soybean seeds [Glycine max (L.) Merr.] and soybean seeds diseased by Phomopsis longicolla and Cercospora kikuchii fungal pathogens. Food Chemistry, 185, 205–211. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2015.03.139</p>
<p>8.FAO (n.d). Small family farmers | Family Farming Knowledge Platform | Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. (n.d.). https://www.fao.org/family-farming/themes/small-family-farmers</p>
<p>9.Mancini, V., Murolo, S., & Romanazzi, G. (2016). Diagnostic methods for detecting fungal pathogens on vegetable seeds. Plant Pathology, 65(5), 691–703. https://doi.org/10.1111/ppa.12515 </p>
<p>10.Pellegrino, C., Gilardi, G., Gullino, M. L., & Garibaldi, A. (2010). Detection of Phoma valerianellae in lamb’s lettuce seeds. Phytoparasitica, 38(2), 159–165. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12600-010-0084-x</p>

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Template:Chapter 7.12

2026-01-14T07:51:17Z

Mamta:

<div>
<div class="title"><h3>7.12 - Aflasafe to prevent aflatoxin contamination of grain in Africa</h3><br><h3 class="ch-owner">Lakshya Khurana, University of Guelph, Canada</h3></div>
<div class="hero-img-2">
[[File:4.jpg|300px]]

<p><b>Related video(s)</b>: Managing aflatoxins in maize during drying and storage, Managing aflatoxins in maize before and during harvest, Managing aflatoxins in groundnuts during drying and storage, (Source: Access Agriculture)</p>
<p><i> https://www.accessagriculture.org/managing-aflatoxins-maize-during-drying-and-storage?cat_id=1499</i></p>
<p><i> https://www.accessagriculture.org/managing-aflatoxins-maize-and-during-harvest?cat_id=1499</i></p>
<p><i> https://www.accessagriculture.org/managing-aflatoxins-groundnuts-during-drying-and-storage?cat_id=1499</i></p>

<p>Suggested citation for this chapter.</p>
<p>Khurana,L. (2022) Aflasafe to prevent aflatoxin contamination of grain in Africa. In Farmpedia, The Encyclopedia for Small Scale Farmers. Editor, M.N. Raizada, University of Guelph, Canada. http://www.farmpedia.org</p>
</div>
<div class="ch-navber" style="display: flex; justify-content: space-between;">
<div class="center-side" style="max-width: 100%;margin-right: 3%;">
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Background</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Crops such as sorghum, maize, groundnuts (peanuts), rice, and cassava can become infected with fungal pathogens including Aspergillus (PACA, 2015). Aflatoxin is a toxin (mycotoxin) produced by Aspergillus fungi, especially Aspergillus flavus (Ortega-Beltran and Bandyopadhyay, 2021). These crop pathogens are found in soils, and can infect grain, including legume and cereal crops.</P>

<p>Aflatoxin can cause serious health issues among humans, animals, and even plants. (Johnson et al., 2018). They are mainly problematic in warm and humid regions of the world (Senghor et al., 2020). Hence, Africa being one of the warmest and humid continents, faces the problem of aflatoxin. It affects the crops prior to being harvested. Even in storage the crops can also be affected if the conditions are suitable for aflatoxin to flourish (Senghor et al., 2020). If the crops get contaminated then it really harms the farmers since they cannot sell those crops, and all the inputs and labour would have been wasted. Aflatoxin affects the overall growth of the crops, therefore making them unsellable (Johnson et al., 2018).</P>

<p>Consumption of aflatoxin by eating infected food is believed to lead to various health issues among humans like liver cancer/failure, immune system suppression, growth retardation and rapid progression of HIV/AIDS (Johnson et al., 2018). Other than humans, it also affects the animals that are exposed to it. Reduced growth rate and productivity are the most common effects in livestock consuming aflatoxins (Johnson et al., 2018).
</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Introduction to Aflasafe</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">

<p>In Africa, it was common to lose crops to aflatoxin, so Aflasafe was introduced as a measure to combat it (Senghor et al., 2020. Aflasafe consists of friendly fungal spores of Aspergillus that never create aflatoxin; they can be delivered or transported to farmers on sorghum grains that have been recently harvested after the application of Aflasafe. The same approach can be used for maize and other cereal crops. This initial wave of spores begins to grow on the sorghum seeds a few days after treatment and immediately produces a large number of additional spores. The helpful fungus occupy the target plant, leaving no room for any further pathogenic strains to infect treated crops during flowering and seed production. The great majority of Aspergillus fungus present on the developing crop are hence safe. The four friendly strains that make up each Aflasafe formulation are all highly effective at reducing toxin levels. Aflasafe is exceptionally resilient and efficient under a variety of circumstances and environments because of these 4 types of friendly strains included (Johnson et al., 2018).</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Application timing </h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Aflasafe is distributed to farmers 2-3 weeks before their target crop flowers (PACA, 2015; IITA, 2020). Typically 10 kg of Aflasafe is spread on each hectare by throwing handfuls of the product onto the fields. Farmers might need to consult their local Aflasafe distributor for advice or be aware of the specific characteristics of their formulation. The location also affects exact application times (PACA, 2015; IITA, 2020). As general guidance, the best time to apply Aflasafe is when it is raining or when the soil is damp, as these conditions promote spore growth (PACA, 2015; IITA, 2020). Aflasafe has also been demonstrated to significantly lower aflatoxin levels even in drought-prone places by thriving as moisture becomes available (PACA, 2015; IITA, 2020). For aflatoxin, there are primarily two danger windows (PACA, 2015; IITA, 2020): the first window is when the crop is being produced by the plant. Aflatoxin-producing fungi are more likely to move into the plant if the weather is excessively hot and dry or if pests are attacking since unwell and stressed plants are more likely to become infected. The second infection window is when hot, humid weather might promote the fungi's rapid growth. This can occur to a fully grown crop in the field, but it is also quite possible that it will become an issue while food is being stored months later. Due to this, it is crucial that any product designed to fight aflatoxin continues to function, such as Aflasafe, long after harvest (PACA, 2015; IITA, 2020).</p>
</div>
</div>

<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 style="background: #FBB03B;padding: 15px;font-weight: 600;color: #000;font-size: 22px;margin:unset;text-align:center;">Benefits of Aflasafe</h1>
<div style="background: #FFD8A4;padding: 15px;font-weight: 400;color: #212529;font-size: 16px;margin:unset;line-height: 1.5;">
<p>Based on considerable studies across Africa, it can be said that Aflasafe is one of the most effective measures to help the crops being affected by aflatoxin, protecting farmers from losing months of hard work, improving profitability and food safety. As one example, Aflasafe (Aflasafe SN01) was shown to be an essential extra tool for managing aflatoxin in groundnut (peanut) and maize in Senegal (Senghor et al., 2020). Senegal's ability to produce safe legal groundnuts would enable exports to rise from 25,000 to 210,000 tonnes, generating an additional $300 million in yearly revenue (Senghor et al., 2020).</p>
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</div>

<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Critical Analysis</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Studies show that there are a large number of farmers in Africa that have no idea about the existence of Aflasafe, and even if they knew, they would likely not have access to it. Sadly, even if the farmers did have access to Aflasafe, they would not have the financial resources to actually acquire it. To make sure that it is accessible to everyone, proper access to education and information distribution is required. Local governments and organizations could provide the farmers with Aflasafe at a subsidised rate and expand distribution programs (Ortega-Beltran and Bandyopadhyay, 2021). The International Institute for Tropical Agriculture (IITA) has licenced BAMTAARE SA, a private enterprise in Senegal that works with more than 70,000 smallholder farmers, to manufacture and distribute Aflasafe (Aflasafe SN01) in order to facilitate its widespread usage following registration. Smallholder farmers in particular and the entire population of Senegal will profit from the technique (Senghor et al., 2020).</p>
</div>
</div>

<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Helpful Links To Get Started </h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>
The story of Aflatoxin and Aflasafe (International Institute for Tropical Agriculture):
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=L-ZBWLYGSuY
</p>
<p>Aflasafe in Nigeria - YouTube video
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sipMrcFNmTE
</p>
<p>Aflasafe YouTube video
https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCux7qcOzLELrE5D3aD0c4ow
</p>
<p>What is aflatoxin? How it affects plants, poultry and fish? How to prevent it?
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bvZb2127aZk&ab_channel=IITAVideos
</p>
<p>Partnership for Aflatoxin Control in Africa (PACA) brochure:
https://www.un.org/esa/ffd/wp-content/uploads/sites/2/2015/10/PACA_aflatoxin-impacts-paper1.pdf</p>
<p>Aflasafe. How does it work? International Institute for Tropical Agriculture: https://aflasafe.com/aflasafe/how-does-it-work/</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">References</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>PACA (2015) Aflatoxin impacts and potential solutions in agriculture, trade, and health. An Introduction to Aflatoxin Impacts in Africa. Partnership for Aflatoxin Control in Africa (PACA). Retrieved December 1, 2022, from https://www.un.org/esa/ffd/wp-content/uploads/sites/2/2015/10/PACA_aflatoxin-impacts-paper1.pdf</p>
<p>IITA (2020) Aflasafe. How does it work? International Institute for Tropical Agriculture, Nigeria. Retrieved December 2, 2022, from https://aflasafe.com/aflasafe/how-does-it-work/</p>
<p>Johnson, A. M., Fulton, J. R., Abdoulaye, T., Ayedun, B., Widmar, N. J. O., Akande, A., Bandyopadhyay, R., & Manyong, V. (2018). Aflatoxin awareness and AFLASAFE adoption potential of Nigerian smallholder maize farmers World Mycotoxin Journal 11(3), 437-446. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7797632/</p>
<p>Ortega-Beltran, A., & Bandyopadhyay, R. (2021) Contributions of integrated aflatoxin management strategies to achieve the Sustainable Development Goals in various African countries. Global Food Security 30, 100559. Retrieved December 2, 2022, from https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2211912421000687</p>
<p>Senghor, L. A., Végétaux, L. D. de P., Ortega-Beltran, A., Agriculture, I. I. of T., Atehnkeng, J., Station, C. R., Callicott, K. A., Cotty, P. J., (2020) Aflasafe SN01 is a valuable tool to mitigate aflatoxin contamination of both maize and groundnut cultivated in Senegal. Plant Disease 104, 510-520. https://apsjournals.apsnet.org/doi/full/10.1094/PDIS-03-19-0575-RE </p>
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</div>
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Template:Chapters 7.4

2026-01-14T07:42:06Z

Mamta:

<div>
<div class="title"><h3>7.4 - Water floatation to remove sick seeds before sowing</h3><br><h3 class="ch-owner">Nick Moroz, University of Guelph, Canada </h3></div>
<div class="hero-img-2">
[[File:4.jpg|300px]]

<p><b>Related video(s)</b>: Seed sorting by flotation (Source: Access Agriculture)</p>
<p><i> https://www.accessagriculture.org/seed-sorting-flotation?cat_id=1499</i></p>

<p>Suggested citation for this chapter.</p>
<p>Moroz,N. (2022) Water floatation to remove sick seeds before sowing. In Farmpedia, The Encyclopedia for Small Scale Farmers. Editor, M.N. Raizada, University of Guelph, Canada. http://www.farmpedia.org</p>
<h3 class="title-bg">Introduction to Careful Seed Selection and Methods</h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>The importance of high seed quality for achieving a productive harvest cannot be overstated, especially over multiple harvest seasons. This paper will discuss what to look for in seed quality as well as describe methods on how to efficiently separate poor quality seeds from high quality seeds. In general, spotted or discoloured seeds mean diseased or unhealthy seeds (Rural Development Academy, 2006). In order to increase the yields of many grain crops globally, simple and low-cost solutions for seed quality control should be considered for farmers in developing countries (CSISA & IRRI, 2014; Mathur, Talukder, Veena, & Mortensen, 2004). The major method this paper will discuss is the Water Floatation Technique, a simple strategy that can be used to rid seed stocks or planting materials of infected or diseased seeds through separation. There are various techniques that can increase crop production by separating diseased seeds from healthy ones, including careful visual inspection of seeds or planting material and manual removal of discoloured or spotted seeds from the stock, hereby referred to as careful seed-selection (Rural Development Academy, 2006). One study in Bangladesh showed that careful seed-selection increased rice germination from 66% to 87%, increased seed quality and yields, and reduced disease and pest infestations in the local soils (Mathur et al., 2004). Similarly, the Water Floatation Technique can rapidly separate healthy, properly coloured seeds with those that are discoloured, malformed, and infected. Water floatation techniques assist in the rapid removal of sick or infected seeds, reducing the workload that is required in careful seed-selection by hand. Many farmers are currently employing water floatation techniques or careful seed inspection techniques but there are more who could benefit from these methods.</p>
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</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">Why choosing the best seeds matters</h3>
<div class="cont-bg">

<p>Farmers tend to select the best seeds over time and use them in the following seasons. Sometimes there are contaminated seeds that continue to be missed in the seed stock and unfortunately can be planted in following planting seasons, reducing yields and spreading infection (Mathur et al., 2004). This paper offers techniques to remove the contaminated seeds and maintain a fresh stockpile of healthy seeds for future planting, increasing seed germination and boosting yields over multiple years. In order to be confident in seed quality farmers must buy certified seeds or produce their own good seeds, and they should be constantly selecting for the healthy seeds, removing any infected seeds through water floatation or careful seed-selection (CSISA & IRRI, 2014). If a farmer is using their own seeds, the seeds should be clean and containing no weed seed, soil, or stones (CSISA & IRRI, 2014). Seeds must also be pure (only one variety), and healthy, meaning they are the same color with fully filled grains and free of cracks (CSISA & IRRI, 2014).</p>

<p>Supply of certified seeds is extremely limited in most developing countries, with more than 95% of the seeds used in these countries coming from the informal seed sector, mostly from farmers’ own saved grains (Mathur et al., 2004). Yields can be low due to diseased seeds that result in poor germination rates and ultimately sick, unproductive crops (Mathur et al., 2004). A crop management project that started in Bangladesh in 1998 showed that rice seed samples collected from local farmers were infected by bacteria, fungi, or disease and resulted in poor germination rates (Mathur et al., 2004). The seeds that were causing low germination rates were shown to be those seeds that visually looked discoloured or spotted (Mathur et al., 2004). After careful seed-selection and manual removal of these spotted seeds, germination rates of the rice seed increased to rates of 87% on average compared to 66% on average in the original (or unaltered) seed stock samples (Mathur et al., 2004). For a thorough explanation of the methods of this study see Mathur et al. (2004). Mathur et al. (2004) results show that rice seed samples that contained the discoloured or spotted seeds had low germination and poor looking seedlings compared to the carefully selected seeds (see Table 1.0). Discolouration and spots on rice seeds are coloured due to infectious fungi and bacterial infections (Mathur et al., 2004; Singh & Rao, 1977; Rural Development Academy, 2009), and the germination of such infected seeds is diminished. Thus, this paper proposes that simple manual removal of seeds through careful selection or by water flotation techniques will greatly benefit farmers by improving their seed stores and crop health and productivity</p>
[[File:capture 94.JPG]]
[[File:Capture_11.JPG]]
<p>The recommendations proposed by Mathur et al. (2004) would increase the healthy seedlings of rice per hectare over multiple years, but also resulting in lower contamination of disease organisms in planting soils (Mathur et al., 2004). Over the years there would be less seed and soil-borne infectious organisms in areas that practice careful seed-selection either manually or by water floatation (Mathur et al., 2004). Higher quality grains and increase yields will ultimately generate greater incomes for famers that can only access their own seedlings (Mathur et al., 2004; Rural Development Academy, 2009).</p>
<p>In order to assess and improve the quality of their own seed, farmers can employ the germination test and then employ the water flotation technique to select for the higher quality seeds from the original stock (CSISA & IRRI, 2014). These two methods are briefly outlined as follows:</p>
<p>1. The Germination test (or Between Paper, BP, method): This test involves carefully placing seeds on a wet rag and rolling the rag around a stick laid across the rag for support, while leaving the seeds undisturbed and inside the wet rag (CSISA & IRRI, 2014). After five days, unroll the rags and count the number of seeds with roots (CSISA & IRRI, 2014). The number of sprouted seeds represents the germination rate, with a rate of 70% or less being very unfavorable (CSISA & IRRI, 2014). It is the unhealthy and diseased seeds that will not germinate, lowering the germination rate of a sample. See CSISA document in the Reference List or the paper by Mathur et al. (2004) for more details.</p>
<p>2. Water Floatation Technique: ensure you have quality seeds for planting before soaking your seeds for germination or planting (CSISA & IRRI, 2014). Place seeds for planting into a bucket containing clean water and stir gently. Discard all grains that float to the surface (CSISA & IRRI, 2014). Carefully sort seeds and remove floating seeds, which are infected or deformed seeds, and extract all empty or partially filled grains (CSISA & IRRI, 2014). See the water floatation video in the Resources Moving Forward Section or Reference List for more details. More extensive credible water flotation information and research follows directly below.</p>
<p><b>The Water Floatation Technique</b></p>
<p>The water floatation technique involves separating hollow, diseased, or partially filled seeds from healthy seeds using water or salt water (Rural Development Academy, 2009). As seen in a video by the Rural Development Academy (2009) in collaboration with the International Rice Research Institute, after placing seeds into a bucket of clean water, unfilled or partially filled seeds will float to the surface because they are lighter. Following this separation, remove the floating seeds while keeping those that sunk to the bottom (Rural Development Academy, 2009). Washing with salt water can then refine this seed-selection, as infected partially filled seeds, which are harder to remove via unsalted water floatation, will float in salt water, when enough salt is added that a raw egg will float (Rural Development Academy, 2009). These seeds can then also be removed, resulting in only clean seeds that should be washed with freshwater and then dried before planting (Rural Development Academy, 2009). Rural Development Academy (2009) and CSISA & IRRI (2014) accredit this technique for increasing seed quality and maximizing the speed of selection.</p>
<p>Sivakumar et al. (2007) also showed that seed flotation techniques are not necessarily limited to water flotation, but that petroleum ether flotation techniques also were extremely advantageous in improving seeds germination percentages in certain seeds. They tested the viability of petroleum ether as a separation medium to increase the germination of Casuarina equisetifolia Forst seed lots. Petroleum flotation resulted in 90% germination in the sunken fraction and 4% in the floating fraction (Sivakumar et al., 2007). The percentage of seeds discarded as floaters that germinated was remarkably low in this study (Sivakumar et al., 2007). Thus, petroleum flotation appears to be able to increase the germination of C. equisetifolia seed lots through flotation and seed-separation, although its efficacy is influenced by variables such as wing surface area and seed density of filled and empty seeds. (Sivakumar et al., 2007). Sivakumar et al. (2007) showed that new techniques, such as the use of petroleum ether for flotation, could enhance seed floatation procedures, given the proper seeds and conditions.</P>
<p><b>Limitations of Floatation Method</b></p>
<p>There is a natural degree of seed variation that will be observed while farming, including within the seed morphology (colour, size, and weight), seed germination (viability, germination percent, etc.) and seedling growth parameters (survival percentage, seedling height, seedling biomass, etc.) (Ginwal, Phartyal, Rawat, & Srivastava, 2005). Farmers should understand this natural variability and select the seeds with the desired traits, looking for major discrepancies that indicate a diseased seed from a normal one. Furthermore, germination of seeds can be strongly influenced by genetic control and the heritability of genetic components, which can be exploited to increase germination rates of certain species (Ginwal et al., 2005). As such, farmers should not only look at careful seed-selection and water floatation as the only factor that can influence high germination or crop yields, especially across all grain crops and in all environments. Despite this variability, water floatation and seed-selection are proven techniques.</p>
<p>Another limitation of the water floatation technique is the potential for loss of viable seeds in the discarded fraction, reducing the genetic diversity of seed lots (Sivakumar et al., 2007). However, this can be addressed by carful seed-selection and following the procedures of these flotation techniques. However, floating seeds are proven to have a very low probability (sometime only 4%) to be capable of germination and are generally undesirable or diseased (Sivakumar et al., 2007; Mathur et al., 2004; Singh & Rao, 1977). The advantage of petroleum flotation techniques is the accuracy of the technique. The proportion of germinable seeds discarded as floaters is remarkably low, at 4% (Sivakumar et al., 2007). This is an important advantage, as a high loss of viable seeds in the discarded fraction as floaters may not be economical, and would reduce genetic diversity of the seed lot (Sivakumar et al., 2007).</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Picture Based Lesson to Train Farmers</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
[[Image:8.4.jpg|thumb|centre|Picture Based Lesson to Train Farmer|Click on the image to access a higher resolution image as well as lessons adapted for different geographic regions.]]</p>
<p><i>For the South Asian version (pictures only, text for you to insert), click this link for lesson 8.4:http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/8.4_south_asian.pdf</i></p>
<p><i>For the East/South Asian version (pictures only, text for you to insert), click this link for lesson 8.4:http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/8.4e.s.a.pdf</i></p>
<p><i>For the Sub-Saharan Africa/Caribbean version (pictures only, text for you to insert), click this link for lesson 8.4:http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/8.4subsaharan_africa_carribean.pdf</i></p>
<p><i>For the Latin-America version (pictures only, text for you to insert), click this link for lesson 8.4:http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/8.4latin_america.pdf</i></p>
<p><i>For North Africa And Middle East version (pictures only, text for you to insert), click this link for lesson Chapter 5. 7.4:http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/7.4n._africa_middleeast.pdf</i></p>
<p><i>Source: MN Raizada and LJ Smith (2016) A Picture Book of Best Practices for Subsistence Farmers: eBook, University of Guelph Sustainable Agriculture Kit (SAK) Project, June 2016, Guelph, Canada. Available online at: www.SAKBooks.com</i></p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">Resources Moving Forwards and Video Protocols for Removing Discoloured/Spotted Seeds: </h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Hand Picking and Water Floation Technique Videos:</p>

<p>1. Seed Flotation [TECAxFAO YouTube video]: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=e6G8bU9OkqE</p>
<p>2. Spotted Seeds Means Diseased Seeds [IRRI YouTube video]: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0NKVCNyPwuI</p>
<p>IRRI is the International Rice Research Institute. Please see the YouTube Video description to get more information on how to get this video on multiple formats. Other useful videos for subsistence farmers are provided by TECAxFAO and IRRI on YouTube.</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">References </h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>1.Cereal Systems Initiative for South Asia Phase II (CSISA) and International Rice Research Institute (IRRI). (2014). 8 tips for higher rice yields in Odisha (Oriya). Retrieved from http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PA00K83Q.pdf</p>
<p>2. Ginwal, H. S., Phartyal, S. S., Rawat, P. S., & Srivastava, R. L. (2005). Seed source variation in morphology, germination and seedling growth of Jatropha curcas Linn. in central India. Silvae genetica, 54(2), 76-79.</p>
<p>3.Mathur, S. B., Talukder, M. H., Veena, M. S., & Mortensen, C. N. (2004). Effect of manual cleaning on health and germination of rice seeds. Seed Science and Technology, 32(2), 405-415.</p>
<p>4.Rural Development Academy, Bogra, International Rice Research Institute, and CAB International (Producer), & unknown (Director). (2009). 2 Seed Flotation [YouTube video]. (Available from TECAxFAO on YouTube). Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=e6G8bU9OkqE</p>
<p>5.Rural Development Academy, Bogra, International Rice Research Institute, and CAB International (Producer), & unknown (Director). (2006). Spotted Seeds Means Diseased Seeds [YouTube video]. (Available from International Rice Research Institute on YouTube). Retrieved from http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0NKVCNyPwuI</p>
<p>6.Singh, R. A., & Rao, M. H. S. (1977). A simple technique for detecting Xanthomonas oryzae in rice seeds. Seed Science and Technology, 5(1), 123-127.</p>
<p>7.Sivakumar, V., Anandalakshmi, R., Warrier, R. R., Singh, B. G., Tigabu, M., & Oden, P. C. (2007). Petroleum flotation technique upgrades the germinability of Casuarina equisetifolia seed lots. New forests, 34(3), 281-291.</p>

Template:Chapters 6.12

2026-01-14T07:37:03Z

Mamta:

<div>
<div class="title"><h3>6.12 - Cono Weeder for Small Scale Paddy Rice Farmers </h3><br><h3 class="ch-owner">Izah Sajad, University of Guelph, Canada</h3></div>
<div class="hero-img-2">
[[File:Bag 5.jpg|300px]]

<p><b>Related video(s)</b>: Rotary weeder, Effective weed management in rice, (Source: Access Agriculture)</p>
<p><i> https://www.accessagriculture.org/rotary-weeder?cat_id=495</i></p>
<p><i> https://www.accessagriculture.org/effective-weed-management-rice?cat_id=1499</i></p>

<p>Suggested citation for this chapter.</p>
<p>Sajad,I. (2022) Cono Weeder for Small Scale Paddy Rice Farmers. In Farmpedia, The Encyclopedia for Small Scale Farmers. Editor, M.N. Raizada, University of Guelph, Canada. http://www.farmpedia.org</p>
</div>
<div class="ch-navber" style="display: flex; justify-content: space-between;">
<div class="center-side" style="max-width: 100%;margin-right: 3%;">
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Introduction to Paddy Rice and Cono Weeders </h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Paddy rice is cultivated in small, level, flooded fields — known as paddies (Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2023). It is a significant food source for South and East Asian rural populations (Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2023). Rice is also a staple food for more than 50% of the world's population, with rice making up 80% of their dietary requirements (FAO, 2002). The sale of rice in regions that suffer from poverty — such as the Greater Mekong Sub-region in Southeast Asia — has been linked with poverty reduction (Zorya, 2015). Furthermore, increased rice production typically results in increased family income (Rajindra et al., 2021), which underscores the positive impact of rice farming on economic well-being and poverty reduction. As demonstrated in Cambodia, a significant factor in poverty reduction is the development of the agriculture sector. From 2004 to 2012, poverty in Cambodia was reduced by 35%, with 63% of the poverty reduction attributed to improvements in agriculture (Zorya, 2015). Hence, improving the rice farming sector will positively influence crop yield, potentially increasing family income and reducing poverty (Rajindra et al., 2021).
Weed maintenance is a crucial component of rice cultivation, contributing to almost 33% of the cultivation costs and 25% of the total labour demand (Ningthoujam & Shrivastava, 2018). Weeds compete with rice crops for essential nutrients, light and space, thereby reducing crop yield and quality (Suryakant, 2016). Weeding to maintain rice crops is typically done via traditional methods (e.g., manual removal); however, these practices require extensive labour and time (Ningthoujam & Shrivastava, 2018). Use of weeding tools, such as the Cono weeder, provides additional advantages that traditional practices lack (Ningthoujam & Shrivastava, 2018).</P>
<p>Cono weeders are manually operated machinery used to remove weeds in lowland rice fields, including paddy rice (Selvan et al., 2014). The rotating cones on the Cono weeder provide the additional advantage of irrigating and aerating the soil, increasing water intake capacity (Shakya et al., 2016). This leads to better soil health, healthier root growth, and higher crop yield (Materu et al., 2018). Furthermore, Cono weeders integrate weeds into the soil, which act as an organic fertilizer to increase crop yield (Shakya et al., 2016). It provides more weeding efficiency than manual weeding, resulting in improved weed control and higher crop yield (Narwariya et al., 2016).
<p>[[File:Bag 5.jpg]]</p>
<p>Figure 1. Image of the Cono weeder (Packleader, 2017).
<p>[[File:Bag 11.jpg]]</p>
<p>Figure 2. Parts of the Cono weeder (Growin Enterprises, n.d.).</p>

</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Step-by-Step Instructions </h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Start at the edge of the paddy field and position the weeder between rows of rice crops, with the cones facing downwards (“User’s Manual,” n.d.). Begin to push the weeder forward, employing a back-and-forth motion to trap weeds in the rotating cones (see Figure 3) (“User’s Manual,” n.d.). Continue to use this rolling motion technique, overlapping each pass until you reach the end of the row. Use water to clean all parts of the Cono weeder (Figure 2), and store the machine in a dry, moisture-free area to prevent rusting (“User’s Manual,” n.d.).</p>
<p>[[File:Bag 7.jpg]]</p>
<p>Figure 3. Diagram depicting the rolling motion technique used for weed removal via the Cono weeder (Original illustration from Izah Sajad, University of Guelph).</p>

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<h1 class="title-bg">Cost Analysis of the Cono Weeder </h1>
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<p>Poverty among smallholder families in Asia is widespread (Rapsomanikis, 2015). In Bangladesh, smallholder families earn approximately US$ 2.90/person/day - US$ 3.40/person/day (Rapsomanikis, 2015). However, for 1 acre of land, the approximate cost of labour with maintenance cost is US$ 19.49/acre/day — with a weeder machine, and US$ 29.24/acre/day — without a weeder machine (Devanathan et al., 2021). With rice being a significant source of food for these populations (Zorya, 2015), rice farmers may benefit from investing in the Cono weeder, which will increase crop yield and decrease daily labour costs/time (Narwariya et al., 2016; Khandai et al., 2018).</p>
<p>[[File:Bag 9.jpg]]</p>

<p>Table 1 indicates that use of Cono weeders on rice fields results in a 50% cost savings and 25% time savings per day compared to traditional weeding methods (i.e. manual weeding) (Khandai et al., 2018). However, the initial cost of Cono weeders is significantly higher than traditional methods, with the retail cost being approximately US$ 18.05 - US$ 28.81 (Watershed Support Services and Activities Network [WASSAN], 2006; KSNM Drip, n.d.). The cost of Cono weeders may be expensive relative to daily income; however, there are long-term labour and time savings benefits that traditional methods lack. </p>
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<h1 class="title-bg">Labour Analysis of the Cono Weeder</h1>
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<P>The use of a Cono weeder for weed management consumes approximately 50% and 57.89% more energy from males and females, respectively, compared to manual weeding (Remesan et al., 2007). While the energy expenditure for manual weeding is lower, overall body discomfort is considerably higher in both sexes due to the drudgery required for weed removal (Remesan et al., 2007). Overall discomfort can be significantly reduced by using the Cono weeder (Remesan et al., 2007). Furthermore, the Cono weeder could improve women's pace of performance, saving them 76% of their time and doubling the productivity of women's labour (WASSAN, 2006).</p>
<p>Manual weeding requires significantly more drudgery due to the bending posture used to remove weeds (Remesan et al., 2007). The Cono weeder's ergonomic design helps reduce back pain by allowing farmers to maintain an upright position during weeding (Suryakant, 2016). Furthermore, the Cono weeder can be operated by a single person and can increase grain yield by approximately 23.88% (Balakrishnan et al., 2010).
Although the Cono weeder offers numerous benefits, there are limitations that must be addressed. First, Cono weeders are not recommended for black/loamy soils (WASSAN, 2006). Additionally, after continuous use, the axle hole — located at the point where the cone holder attaches to the rotating cones (see Figure 2) — becomes widened (WASSAN, 2006). Understanding the intricacies of weed management is crucial, as lacking such knowledge may result in damaged crops (WASSAN, 2006). Finally, the Cono weeder may not be the least costly mechanical weeder for paddy rice. The Mandava weeder has a retail cost of approximately US$ 6.60 - US$ 29.75 (WASSAN, 2006; Tools Villa, n.d.), and provides more labour-saving advantages.</p>
<p>[[File:Bag 10.png]]</p>

<p>Table 2 indicates that the Mandava weeder has approximately 23.94% more WCE and requires less energy/force to operate (Sarkar et al., 2017). Additionally, the Cono weeder typically weighs around 7.5 kg, while the Mandava weeder weighs around 5 kg and has more strength (WASSAN, 2006). Consequently, the Mandava weeder is more portable and easier to operate for women farmers (Earth Links, n.d.). A significant advantage of the Mandava weeder is that it is suitable for all soil types, whereas the Cono weeder has limitations (WASSAN, 2006). Ultimately, the decision between adopting the Cono or Mandava weeder or using traditional weeding practices is dependent on individual preferences and environmental factors, such as soil type. </p>
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<h1 class="title-bg">Adoption by Small-Scale Farmers</h1>
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<p>The Climate Smart Irrigated Agriculture Project (CSIAP) is a program committed to improving smallholder agriculture by supporting farmers in hot spot areas in Sri Lanka (The World Bank Group, n.d.). The CSIAP has already introduced the Cono weeder to the Anuradhapura district (CSIAP Sri Lanka, 2019). For more information on the availability of subsidies or similar programs, contact local agricultural offices. Additionally, the Cono weeder can be purchased through various online retailers (see Purchase Links for Cono Weeders). </p>
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<h1 class="title-bg">helpful links</h1>
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<p><b>Further Readings</b></p>
<p>https://www.fao.org/fileadmin/templates/tci/pdf/Investment_Days_2013/17_December/1c._System_of_Rice_Intensification__SRI__-_Selvaraju.pdf</p>
<p>https://www.fao.org/3/x6905e/x6905e0f.htm</p>
<p>https://www.fao.org/3/cb8681en/cb8681en.pdf</p>

<p><b>Links to Online Training Resources</b></p>
<p>How to use Cono weeder (English): https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=baVMvEBrz9g</p>
<p>How-to/function of Cono weeder (Hindi): https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WBxsVPVThmA</p>
<p>How-to/function of Cono weeder (Tamil): https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3lfDwbHMG78</p>
<p>How to use and clean Cono weeder: https://youtube.com/shorts/OTQYvtNg9-I?feature=shared</p>
<p>Training manual (English): https://drumseeders.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/04/User-Manual-Cono-Weeder.pdf</p>

<p><b>Links to Purchase Cono Weeders</b></p>
<p> IndiaMART: https://dir.indiamart.com/impcat/cono-weeder.html</p>
<p>KSNM Drip: https://ksnmdrip.com/products/drum-seeder/cono-weeder</p>
<p> Badikheti Agrolink: https://www.badikheti.com/weeder/pdp/cono-weeder/wh4u7fi5</p>
<p>Justdial: https://www.justdial.com/india/Cono-weeder</p>
<p>Krushikendra: https://krushikendra.com/Cono-weeder-online</p>

<p><b>Links to Picture-Based Lessons on Cono Weeder</b></p>
<p>http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/7.2_south_asian_eng.pdf#page=3</p>
<p>http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/7.2a_to_d_south_asia__nepali_uncaptioned.pdf#page=2</p>
<p>http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/7.2east_southeast_asia_englishversion.pdf#page=3</p>
<p>http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/7.2subsaharan_africa_carribean_engversion.pdf#page=3</p>
<p>http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/7.2latin_america_eng_version.pdf#page=3</p>
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<h1 class="title-bg">References</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>1.Balakrishnan, M., Ravisankar, N., Swarnam, T. P., & Din, M. (2010). Influence of prickly sesban (Sesbania cannabina) intercropping in wet-seeded rice (Oryza sativa) on productivity, profitablilty, energetics and nitrogen balance under island ecosystem. Indian Journal of Agricultural Sciences, 80(1), 21-23.</p>
<p>2.CSIAP Sri Lanka. (2019, December 3). The Cono Weeder is introduced to farmers in Anuradhapura by CSIAP. Climate Smart Irrigated Agriculture Project, Ministry of Agriculture, Sri Lanka. Retrieved March 29, 2024, from https://csiaplk.blogspot.com/2019_12_03_archive.html</p>
<p>3.Devanathan, C., DineshKumar, P., Selvaramkumar, A., Giri, R., & Dhandapani, S. (2021). Design and development of cost effective agricultural weeder. Materials Today: Proceedings, 47, 6590–6593.</p>
<p>4.Encyclopaedia Britannica (2023, December 13). Paddy (C. Parrott-Sheffer, Ed.). Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved from: https://www.britannica.com/topic/paddy</p>
<p>5.Earth Links. (n.d.). Mandava Weeder. Retrieved March 29, 2024, from https://earthlinksinc.org/equipments/mandava-weeder/</p>
<p>6.Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations [FAO]. (2002). FAO Rice Information (Vol. 3). Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. https://www.fao.org/3/Y4347E/y4347e00.htm#Contents</p>
<p>7.Growin Enterprises. (n.d.). Kisankraft Manual Cono Weeder, For Agriculture. IndiaMart. Retrieved March 25, 2024, from https://www.indiamart.com/proddetail/manual-cono-weeder-20477262491.html</p>
<p>8.Khandai, S., Tripathi, A., Kumar, V., Kerketta, A. K., & Pal, S. (2018). Modification of existing power weeder and study on the cost economics of different weeding methods. International Journal of Pure and Applied Bioscience, 6(6), 60–63. https://doi.org/10.18782/2320-7051.7108</p>
<p>9.KSNM Drip. (n.d.). Cono weeder. Retrieved January 28, 2024, from: https://ksnmdrip.com/products/drum-seeder/cono-weeder</p>
<p>10.Materu, S. T., Shukla, S. K., Sishodia, R. P., Tarimo, A. K. P. R., & Tumbo, S. D. (2018). Water use and rice productivity for irrigation management alternatives in Tanzania. Water, 10(8), 1018. https://doi.org/10.3390/w10081018</p>
<p>11.Narwariya, B. S., Tiwari, K. B., & Shrivastava, P. (2016). Performance evaluation of different manual operated weeding equipment for Paddy crop in vertisols. Ecology, Environment and Conservation Journal, 22, S357–S363. </p>
<p>12.Ningthoujam, B., & Shrivastava, A. K. (2018). Development and evaluation of self-propelled Cono weeder for rice cultivation in Vertisol. Indian Journal of Hill Farming, 31(2), 307–313. https://kiran.nic.in/pdf/IJHF/Vol_31_2/16%20Edited.pdf</p>
<p>13.Packleader. (2017, August 28). KSNM Cono Weeder. Engineering for Change. Retrieved March 25, 2024, from https://www.engineeringforchange.org/solutions/product/ksnm-cono-weeder/</p>
<p>14.Rapsomanikis, G. (2015). The economic lives of smallholder farmers: An analysis based on household data from nine countries. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome. https://www.fao.org/3/i5251e/i5251e.pdf</p>
<p>15.Remesan, R., Roopesh, Remya, N., & Preman, P. S. (2007). Wet land paddy weeding - A comprehensive comparative study from South India. Agricultural Engineering International: The CIGR Journal, 9, 1-21.</p>
<p>16.Sarkar, B., Singh, S., Kumar, R., Mishra, J. S., Kumar, A., Yadav, V. K., Reddy, R., & Bhatt, B. P. (2017). Comparative performance of manual weeders under system of rice intensification in Indo-Gangetic plains. Indian Journal of Weed Science, 49(1), 82. https://doi.org/10.5958/0974-8164.2017.00020.X</p>
<p>17.Selvan, M. M., Annamalai, S. J. K., Kathirvel, K., Thambidurai, S. (2014). Human factors intervention and design improvement of manual single row Conoweeder for gender neutrality in lowland rice. Agricultural Mechanization in Asia, Africa and Latin America, 45(4), 51–57.</p>
<p>18.Shakya, H. B., Parmar, M. R., Kumpavat, M. T., & Swarnkar, R. (2016). Development and performance evaluation of manually operated Cono-Weeder for Paddy Crop. International Refereed Journal of Engineering and Science, 5(7), 6–17. http://irjes.com/Papers/vol5-issue7/B570617.pdf</p>
<p>19.Suryakant, C. S. (2016). Development of women friendly Cono weeder for paddy [College of Agricultural Engineering and Technology]. https://earthlinksinc.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/05/Development-of-Women-Friendly-Cono-Weeder-2.pdf</p>
<p>20.The World Bank Group. (n.d.). Climate Smart Irrigated Agriculture Project - P163742. Retrieved January 30, 2024, from https://projects.worldbank.org/en/projects-operations/project-detail/P163742</p>
<p>21.Tools Villa. (n.d.). Manual Mandva weeder for removing weeds from Paddy Crops. Retrieved March 29, 2024, from https://www.toolsvilla.com/manual-mandava-weeder</p>
<p>22.User’s manual: Venus Cono weeder. (n.d.). In ASPL. Retrieved March 25, 2024, from https://drumseeders.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/04/User-Manual-Cono-Weeder.pdf</p>
<p>23.Watershed Support Services and Activities Network [WASSAN]. (2006). Weeders: A reference compendium (1st ed.). http://sri.ciifad.cornell.edu/countries/india/extmats/SRIWeederManual06.pdf</p>
<p>24.Zorya, S. (2015, December 15). Five facts about rice and poverty in the Greater Mekong Sub-region. World Bank Blogs. Retrieved March 25, 2024, from https://blogs.worldbank.org/en/eastasiapacific/five-facts-about-rice-and-poverty-in-the-greater-mekong-sub-region</p>

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Template:Chapters 6.6

2026-01-14T07:29:51Z

Mamta:

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<div class="title"><h3>6.6 - Striga weed suppression using Desmodium intercropping</h3><br><h3 class="ch-owner">Jade Muileboom, University of Guelph, Canada </h3></div>
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<p><b>Related video(s)</b>: Integrated approach against striga, Striga biology, Joining hands against striga, Composting to beat striga, (Source: Access Agriculture)</p>
<p><i> https://www.accessagriculture.org/integrated-approach-against-striga?cat_id=1499</i></p>
<p><i>https://www.accessagriculture.org/striga-biology?cat_id=1499</i></p>
<p><i>https://www.accessagriculture.org/joining-hands-against-striga?cat_id=1499</i></p>
<p><i> https://www.accessagriculture.org/composting-beat-striga?cat_id=1499</i></p>

<p>Suggested citation for this chapter.</p>
<p>Muileboom,J. (2022) Striga weed suppression using Desmodium intercropping. In Farmpedia, The Encyclopedia for Small Scale Farmers. Editor, M.N. Raizada, University of Guelph, Canada. http://www.farmpedia.org</p>
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<h3 class="title-bg">The Problem: Striga</h3>
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<p>For over 100 million farmers in Africa, food insecurity and crop failure is sealed by the sudden appearance of a few brightly flowered plants nestled between their cereal crop (Hooper et al., 2010). These flowers while visually attractive are an indicator of a Striga infestation. Striga, an overarching term used to describe a Genus of parasitic weeds, is by far one of the most destructive weeds in Eastern Africa which causes annual economic losses of over 132 million dollars (Woomer and Savala, 2008). The most common variety S. hermonthica can be identified by its bright green stems and leaves and small purple, pink or white flowers, and grows to around 1m in height (CTA, 2007). Striga, as a parasitic weed, needs to exploit a host plant, stealing its nutrients in order to complete its life-cycle. Studies have found it can reduce crop yields well over 50% or in certain cases cause complete crop failure (Khan et al., 2016).</p>
<p>Striga can be difficult to recognize early as it penetrates the crop roots and feeds off a plant for several weeks before any stems appear above ground, and once it has emerged it is quick to produce flowers and seeds. Effected host plants may at first show signs of various nutrient deficiencies, appearing stunted or of below average biomass, ultimately leading to severely reduced grain yield (khan et al., 2016). Corn, sorghum, rice and sugarcane are generally the greatest victims of the weed, though other grains like millets are affected as well (Midega et al., 2010).</p>
<p>Rooting out striga is made more difficult by the nature of its seeds. Striga is a prolific producer of thousands of tiny black seeds, commonly called “black dust” by locals. These seeds germinate in response to root exudates (or signals) from nearby planted cereal crops, but can also persist dormant in the soil for over 15 years (Khan et al., 2016). Therefore, it is no surprise that striga currently infects more than 40% of arable land in Sub-Saharan Africa (Hooper et al., 2010).</p>
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<h3 class="title-bg">The Intervention: Desmodium</h3>
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<p>Despite the concern of striga’s prevalence in countless cropping systems, there is great potential to eliminating not only the plants themselves, but also their seed bank in the soil through the use of desmodium. Desmodium, is a sprawling, perennial legume variety, indigenous to South America, that can be used as a forage, green manure and cover crop. Therefore, it can be used to add nitrogen to the soil, reduce erosion, and increase the health and milk production of livestock such as goats and cattle. Additionally, it has been observed to not cause bloat when fed to ruminants, even in large quantities (FAO, 2016). However, its arguably most important aspect is its impact on striga. Intercropping desmodium with striga-infested cereal crops, reduces the weed population dramatically. For instance, one study found striga counts were reduced up to 95% (Kifuko-Koech et al., 2012).</p>
<p>This feat can be explained by the release of various phytochemicals by the plant roots into the soil. Some of which cause the dormant striga seeds to germinate followed by others which then inhibit the striga root growth, preventing those seeds from attaching to a host plant and ultimately causing death. (Khan et al., 2008). This suicidal germination offers a proactive solution to the problem, targeting striga seeds before they can fully grow while clearing out the seed bank. Some researchers estimate that by incorporating desmodium into cropping systems one could eliminate striga seed entirely from a field within 6 years (Khan et al., 2008). As a cover crop, it reduces opportunities for other weed varieties to spread through the soil and complete with the main crop as well. It has also been found to repel stem borers which in combination with reduced striga prevalence has shown to increase cereal yields (Midega et al., 2010). Two main species of desmodium are used for intercropping and push-pull systems, D. uncinatum (Silverleaf) and D. intortum (Greenleaf).</p>
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<h3 class="title-bg">Field Prep, Planting and Maintenance</h3>
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<p>Desmodium can be planted from seed or cuttings. If planted from seed, desmodium will grow best in finely textured soil, enriched with phosphorus fertilizer. However, if fertilizer is too expensive or unavailable mixing the seed a handful of seed with fine sand at a 1:2 ration is recommended (Khan et al., 2005). Around 1 kg of seed is needed for a 0.4 ha field, which should be drilled into 1-2 cm deep furrows between the maize rows, and then gently covered with a small amount of soil (Khan et al., 2005). If desmodium cuttings can be obtained from neighbouring farms or local agricultural extension services, they can be an easier and quicker method to establish desmodium. Provided the cuttings have at least two internodes and adequate soil moisture, desmodium cuttings can be an effective mode of propagation.</p>
<p>Maize and desmodium should be planted at the same time during the first season in alternating parallel rows. Also during the first season (around 4 months) it is recommended that desmodium be left to establish and that no cuttings of the plants foliage be done (Kifuko-Koech et al., 2012). In following seasons, the plants should be cut at the start of every season, again 4 weeks after the cereal crop was planted (to ensure proper crop establishment) and then a third time 18 weeks after planting for optimal striga reduction (though a range between 12-18 is acceptable) (Kifuko-Koech et al., 2012). The process of trimming desmodium is important in preventing it from outcompeting its companion crop.</p>
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<h3 class="title-bg">Challenges</h3>
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<p>While Desmodium offers many opportunities for improving the livelihoods of subsistence farmers there remain some challenges in integrating this plant into current agricultural systems. Desmodium has shown to have varying results growing in soils that are either too dry or too acidic (below a pH of 5) (FAO, 2016). Desmodium can also be victim to other pests like the herbivorous bister beetles whom if left to feed on its flowers could negatively affect seed production (Lebesa et al., 2012). These pests are concerning as desmodium is not a prolific seed producer, which while adding value to the sale of its seeds, makes the loss of these potential profits a concern. Initial access to the desmodium seeds can also be a limiting factor as currently they are often not stocked in commercial seed enterprises.</p>
<p>Also, while desmodium has shown to increase the net profits of the farmers that intercrop it, there is a greater initial cost and labour requirement than mono-cropping systems. However, these costs (which include the initial purchase of desmodium seeds, and the labour required for planting and weeding) have been shown to significantly decrease after the first year, as it does not need to be replanted (Kifuko-Koech et al., 2012). Some further maintenance will be required to maintain the desmodium’s sprawl, taking cuttings to keep the spread contained, but the plant is not known to spread uncontrollably (rather one must be careful not to overcut or graze upon it). These cuttings can offer new economic prospects as well for farmers who choose to use them for fodder or sell to others for similar purposes. It should also be noted that some studies have found that during the first couple seasons the impacts of desmodium regarding striga suppression, increased yields and financial returns were not always pronounced, though in subsequent seasons they became much more evident and consistent (with striga being reduced by 76% and then 90%) (Kifuko-Koech et al., 2012).</p>
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<h1 class="title-bg">Picture Based Lesson to Train Farmers </h1>
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[[Image:7.6 page-0001.jpg|thumb|centre|Picture Based Lesson to Train Farmer|Click on the image to access a higher resolution image as well as lessons adapted for different geographic regions.]]</p>
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<h3 class="title-bg">Further Practical Resources and Useful Reading</h3>
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<p>1). The CTA Practical Guide Series, No. 2: How to control Striga and stemborer in maize
https://publications.cta.int/media/publications/downloads/1361_PDF.pdf</p>
<p>2). The Striga Technology Extension Project: Long Rains 2008 Report</p>
<p>3). Tropical Seeds LLC
About: A potential source for desmodium seeds, while currently desmodium seeds are not in stock, they hope to have a supply for 2018.
www.tropseeds.com</p>
<p>4). Dr. Samuel T. Ledermann
Project Coordinator and Scientific Advisor for Biovision
About: For more information regarding local organizations, providers or farmer co-ops with a desmodium material supply. Biovision has implemented previous projects focused on integrating desmodium into farming systems in Sub-Saharan Africa in partnership with ICIPE.
Email: s.ledermann@biovision.ch
Tel: +41 44 512 58 58
Website: http://www.biovision.ch/en/projects/sub-saharan-africa/push-pull/ </p>
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<h3 class="title-bg">References</h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>1. Amudavi, D. M., Khan, Z. R., Wanyama, J. M., Midega, C. A. O., Pittchar, J., Nyangau, I. M., … Pickett, J. A. (2009). Assessment of technical efficiency of farmer teachers in the uptake and dissemination of push–pull technology in Western Kenya. Crop Protection, 28(11), 987–996. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.cropro.2009.04.010</p>
<p>2. FAO. (2017). Desmodium intortum. Retrieved January 26, 2017</p>
<p>3. FAO. (2017). Desmodium uncinatum. Retrieved January 26, 2017</p>
<p>4. Hooper, A. M., Tsanuo, M. K., Chamberlain, K., Tittcomb, K., Scholes, J., Hassanali, A., … Pickett, J. A. (2010). Isoschaftoside, a C-glycosylflavonoid from Desmodium uncinatum root exudate, is an allelochemical against the development of Striga. Phytochemistry, 71(8–9), 904–908. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.phytochem.2010.02.015</p>
<p>5. Khan, Z., Midega, C. A. O., Hooper, A., & Pickett, J. (2016). Push-Pull: Chemical Ecology-Based Integrated Pest Management Technology. Journal of Chemical Ecology, 42(7), 689–697. http://doi.org/10.1007/s10886-016-0730-y</p>
<p>6. Khan, Z. R., Midega, C. A. O., Njuguna, E. M., Amudavi, D. M., Wanyama, J. M., & Pickett, J. A. (2008). Economic performance of the “push–pull” technology for stemborer and Striga control in smallholder farming systems in western Kenya. Crop Protection, 27(7), 1084–1097. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.cropro.2008.01.005</p>
<p>7. Khan, Z. R., Muyekho, F. N., Njuguna, E., Pickett, J. A., Wadhams, L. J., Pittchar, J., … Lusweti, C. (2005). A Primer on Planting and Managing “Push-Pull” Fields for Stemborer and Striga Weed Control in Maize. Kenya.</p>
<p>8. Kifuko-Koech, M., Pypers, P., Okalebo, J. R., Othieno, C. O., Khan, Z. R., Pickett, J. A., … Vanlauwe, B. (2012). The impact of Desmodium spp. and cutting regimes on the agronomic and economic performance of Desmodium–maize intercropping system in western Kenya. Field Crops Research, 137, 97–107. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.fcr.2012.08.007</p>
<p>9. Lebesa, L. N., Khan, Z. R., Krüger, K., Bruce, T. J. A., Hassanali, A., & Pickett, J. A. (2012). Farmers’ knowledge and perceptions of blister beetles, Hycleus spp. (Coleoptera: Meloidae), as pest herbivores of Desmodium legumes in western Kenya. International Journal of Pest Management, 58(2), 165–174. http://doi.org/10.1080/09670874.2012.673032</p>
<p>10. Midega, C. A. O., Bruce, T. J. A., Pickett, J. A., Pittchar, J. O., Murage, A., & Khan, Z. R. (2015). Climate-adapted companion cropping increases agricultural productivity in East Africa. Field Crops Research, 180, 118–125. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.fcr.2015.05.022</p>
<p>11. Midega, C. A. O., Salifu, D., Bruce, T. J., Pittchar, J., Pickett, J. A., & Khan, Z. R. (2014). Cumulative effects and economic benefits of intercropping maize with food legumes on Striga hermonthica infestation. Field Crops Research, 155, 144–152. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.fcr.2013.09.012</p>
<p>12. Midega, C., Khan, Z., Amudavi, D., Pittchar, J., & Pickett, J. (2010). Integrated management of Striga hermonthica and cereal stemborers in finger millet (Eleusine coracana (L.) Gaertn.) through intercropping with Desmodium intortum. International Journal of Pest Management, 56(2), 145–151. http://doi.org/10.1080/09670870903248843</p>
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Template:Chapters 5.70

2026-01-14T07:20:37Z

Mamta:

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<div class="title"><h3>5.70 -Porous Pots to Irrigate Fruit Trees </h3><br><h3 class="ch-owner">Joelle Connolly , University of Guelph, Canada </h3></div>
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<p><b>Related video(s)</b>: Pitcher irrigation (Source: Access Agriculture)</p>
<p><i> https://www.accessagriculture.org/pitcher-irrigation?cat_id=1499</i></p>

<p>Suggested citation for this chapter.</p>
<p>Connolly,J. (2022) Porous Pots to Irrigate Fruit Trees, In Farmpedia, The Encyclopedia for Small Scale Farmers. Editor, M.N. Raizada, University of Guelph, Canada. http://www.farmpedia.org</p>
<h3 class="title-bg">Porous Pots to Irrigate Fruit Trees </h3>
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<p>Successfully growing and harvesting tree fruits is a challenge for many smallholder farmers, as many are located within regions of poverty that are dry, hot and have unpredictable climatic obstacles with limited access to water (Bainbridge, 2001). An effective method that has been used for centuries to irrigate fruits trees in dry regions is the porous pot (Bainbridge, 2001). Typically, this is an orange terracotta pot or referred to as an olla (Permaculture, 2018) (Figure 1). A porous clay pot is filled with water and buried next to fruit trees to irrigate them (Figure 2).</p>
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<p>Porous pots are made from clay material which naturally forms micropores -- tiny holes that function as natural water dispersion/drainage for the plant (Permaculture, 2022). When being made, the wet clay is baked at high temperatures to produce a dry unglazed pot. Pot based irrigation systems used are either buried within the ground or are sub-buried leaving the pot partially exposed (Permaculture, 2022). The method selected by farmers is based on what is best for that crop. Fruit trees grow best in subsurface buried pots (Woldu et al., 2015). Porous pots represent a low input system which releases water slowly, based on the needs of the plant and soil moisture content. A potted crop system would be suitable for areas with low rates of precipitation levels of less than 500 mm of rainfall per year (Woldu et al., 2015). Many dry regions have soil with a high saline content, leaving farmers with poor-quality soil; however, the clay balances the pH of the soil and plants (Bainbridge, 2001). </p>
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<h3 class="title-bg">How to use porous pots</h3>
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<p>Before planting, farmers must determine the size number of pots needed per crop. Pot selection is based on pot volume needed per unit area of land (m2); approximately 5 L/m2 should be considered. The process of planting is relatively easy and has minimal steps:</p>
<p><b>Steps:</b></p>
<p>1. Obtain the porous pot. Soak the pot in water for 3- 24 hours to prepare the pot for a plant which allows the clay material to “breathe”.</p>
<p>2. Empty the water in the pot after soaking; the pot will become dark in color when it is ready for use.</p>
<p>3. Once the pot is primed for planting, obtain soil and transplant or sow seeds of choice.</p>
<p>4. Dig a hole in the ground and place the pot subsurface beside the plant, leaving <5cm of the pot exposed).</p>
<p>5. Fill the pot with water, then place an adhesive cover stone on the opening of the pot if it is sub-buried.</p>
<p>6. Repeat watering every 24 hours until the plant is ready to be harvested </p>
<p>7. The pot may need to be replaced every 3-4 years. </p>
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<h3 class="title-bg">Understanding the product and critical analysis</h3>
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<p>Drip irrigation functions via the microporosity of the pot and slowly releases water to the soil directly surrounding the plant (Permaculture, 2022). The “pores” of the pot allow for moisture levels to be self-regulated when the water content is high or low (Woldu et al., 2015). Once a pot has been buried and is watered/fertilized, excess water diffuse out via the pores, but it stops when the plant reaches maximum absorption capacity (Woldu et al., 2015). This self-sufficient drip irrigation system prevents the need foradditional, expensive water systems such as pressured water pipe systems, sprinklers, or automated watering technologies (Woldu et al., 2015). A porous pot must have an appropriate number of pores with a diameter that allows for water to exit and oxygen to circulate, as improper irrigation results in water stress/nutritional stress on the plant (Bunt et al., 1970). The structural design of pores prevents drainage clogging (Woldu et al., 2015).</p>
<p>Porous pots offer numerous benefits to farmers. The clay material used is sustainable, accessible, and easy to harvest. Clay has insulating properties that efficiently utilize energy from the sun. Clay also promotes the growth of the plant by providing a healthy environment that supports the plant and soil microbes. Unfortunately, the contained water and humidity increase the risk of bacterial growth (Budelo et al., 2018). Bacterial growth can be harmful due to the formation of a biofilm on the pot’s interior surface (Budelo et al., 2018). Additionally, clay contains minerals, including silver or iron which prevents bacterial overgrowth. Silver is advantageous because it inhibits the growth of bacteria that may be pathogenic to the plant (Budelo et al., 2018). Silver contains nanoparticles that inhibit bacterial growth as a disinfectant, disrupting bacterial replication and cell structure (Budelo et al., 2018). Iron benefits the plant as it stores thermal energy and contains nanoparticles that are reactive with oxygen which promote plant growth (Budelo et al., 2018). </p>
<p>However, there are a few additional limitations to consider. Carrying heavy clay pots and digging large holes may be too physically demanding for some farmers. Pot capacity may limit farmers if the volume is inadequate to support plant growth.
Regardless of limitations, a porous pot is very simple to use, requiring minimal training and hence represents an appropriate technology for small scale farmers. Finally, many smallholder farms already have good access to clay pots or the materials needed to make them. </p>
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<h3 class="title-bg">Why Porous Pots for Fruit Trees </h3>
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<p>Many farmers that plant fruit trees reside in unpredictable climates where the soil is dry and high in minerals. Fruit trees have large root systems that radiate horizontally from the tree trunk. Porous pots can drip water onto these root systems and provides fruit trees with a continuous water source. Porous pots with a volume greater than 12 liters is sufficient for a single fruit tree (Woldu et al., 2015). As the fruit tree grows alongside a porous pot, a self-regulated watering system between the tree, soil, and pot forms (Woldu et al., 2015). </p>
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<h3 class="title-bg">How to Implement Porous Pots on Smallholder Fruit Tree Farms </h3>
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<p>Implementation on smallholder tree fruit farms is dependent on cost, accessibility to local resources/aids, and what crop species is being planted. Most smallholder farmers are poor, and dealing with unpredictable environmental circumstances or scarce agricultural resources. Fortunately, porous pots are low-cost and affordable ($10 - $12 USD or less) and can be purchased from local vendors (Woldu et al., 2015). Local organizations can partner with the International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA) which provides land, soil, and water management tools to struggling farmers (ICARDA, 2024). The assistance of ICARDA can equip farmers with knowledge of agronomic topics and how to use porous pots. Understanding the function of porous pots, water management, and soil science is critical for introducing this new farming practice (ICARDA, 2024). </p>
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<h3 class="title-bg">Helpful resources to get started </h3>
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<p> Farmer Training Manual of Porous Pot Irrigation
https://www.fao.org/family-farming/detail/en/c/1401660/#:~:text=With%20pitcher%20irrigation%2C%20round%20porous,seep%20out%20from%20the%20pot.</p>

<p> Quick video demonstrating an easy way to plant a buried porous pot and irrigation explanation
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0MDQsydIGlg</p>

<p> Additional reading resource providing information about use of ollas as an irrigation method
https://www.permaculturenews.org/2022/11/29/irrigation-with-ollas/</p>

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<h3 class="title-bg">References </h3>
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<p>1.Bainbridge, D.A (2001). Buried clay pot irrigation: a little-known but very efficient traditional
method of irrigation. Agricultural Water Management 48(2), 79 -88. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0378-3774(00)00119-0 </p>

<p>2.Budeli, P. Moropeng, C. Mpenyana-Monytasi, L. and Momba, N. (2018). Inhibition of biofilm
formation on the surface of water storage containers using biosand zeolite silver-impregnated clay granular and silver-impregnated porous pot filtration systems. PLoS one, 13(4), e0194715. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0194715 </p>

<p>3.Bunt, A.C and Kulwiec, Z.J. (1970). The effect of container porosity on root environment and
plant growth: 1. Temperature. Plant and Soil, 32(1), 65–80. http://www.jstor.org/stable/42933077 </p>

<p>4.ICARDA. (2024). Soil, Water, and Agronomy. ICARDA. Retrieved from:
https://www.icarda.org/research/soil-water-and-agronomy </p>

<p>5. Kondo, T. Ikazaki, K. Koala, J. and Takenake, k. (2022). Effects of porous material and
irrigation frequency on the survival rate and vegetative growth in mango seedlings at Burkina Faso. Trop. Agr. Develop. 66(3). 89-94. </p>

<p>6.Permaculture. (2018). How to make your garden drought proof using unglazed clay pots.
Retrieved from: https://www.permaculturenews.org/2018/12/25/how-to-make-your-
garden-drought-proof-using-unglazed-clay-pots/ </p>

<p>7.Permaculture. (2022). Irrigation with ollas. Retrieved from
https://www.permaculturenews.org/2022/11/29/irrigation-with-ollas/</p>

<p>8.Woldu, Z. (2015). Clay pot pitcher irrigation: a sustainable and socially inclusive option for
homestead fruit production under dryland environments in Ethiopia (a partial review). Journal of Biology, Agriculture and Healthcare 5(21), 157 - 167. </p>