Farmpedia - User contributions [en]

Template:Chapters 3.1

2023-01-03T10:51:42Z

62.8.66.139:

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<div class="title"><h3>3.1 - Yam in sacks on terrace walls</h3><br><h3 class="ch-owner">Emma Desilets, University of Guelph, Canada</h3></div>
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<p>Suggested citation for this chapter.</p>
<p>Desilets,E. (2022) Yam in sacks on terrace walls. In Farmpedia, The Encyclopedia for Small Scale Farmers. Editor, M.N. Raizada, University of Guelph, Canada. http://www.farmpedia.org</p>
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<h1 class="title-bg">Introduction</h1>
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<p>A staple crop in many parts of Africa and Southeast Asia (Opara, 2003), yams (Dioscorea sp. not to be confused with sweet potato) are an important source of carbohydrates, contain good amounts of fibre and vitamin C (Wanasundera & Ravindran, 1994), and can provide a family with a new source of income and nutrition. Unfortunately, many smallholder farmers in hilly regions lack enough cultivated land area to grow more crops and support their families (Chapagain et al., 2019). To overcome this, farmers utilize terrace farming, which creates step-like patterns on sloping hillsides, where the flat surfaces are cultivated; however the vertical walls are typically unused (Chapagain et al., 2019). For smallholder farmers, every inch of land counts - so taking advantage of these unused walls by vertically growing yam in sacks is an option to consider as shown in Figure 1. Yams can also be grown in sacks on flatlands, to save labour at harvest, fertilizer/manure and conserve water. </p>
<p>[[Image:YTR.jpg|thumb|centre|Figure 1. Practice of growing yam in sacks (Ghimire et al., 2016).]]</p>
<P>It is important to note that this practice is not reserved for hillsides, but yams can be grown in sacks against any wall, such as the side of a house or even leaning against one another. Growing yams in sacks not only utilizes unused space and provide yams with adequate sunlight, but it prevents leaching of critical fertilizers and water, and critically the practice also helps cut down on labour especially at harvest time – the bag can simply be opened rather than having to dig out a large and very heavy tuber (Chapagain et al., 2019). The practice appears to have started in Nepal in 2014 (Chapagain et al., 2019), but has now spread to West Africa where some farmers grow up to 5000 yams in sacks.</P>
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<h1 class="title-bg">Implementation of Yam in Sacks</h1>
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<p>This section will explain how to grow yam in sacks. According to the Food and Agriculture Association (FAO), yams are not typically grown from seeds and are instead grown by planting cut pieces of adult yam (Henderson, 1977).<p>

<P><B>How to Plant:</B></P>
<p>While seeds can produce yam, propagation is preferred to maintain high yields and similar traits of the parent tuber. To start, cuttings from the tuber are taken, preferably from the crown, which is the top section containing stems, or with a small whole tuber, weighing 250-400 grams each (Henderson, 1977). A sack or bag to grow the yam in is also needed. Appropriate sacks should be long enough to contain the average fully grown tuber, and a great option would be to use an empty seed sack or an empty fertilizer bag. The sack is filled up halfway, or enough so that it can be lifted, and then transported to rest against a wall or terrace or other bags, where it will remain for the duration. The bag should not contain any large stones, as this will impede the growth of the yam. In addition, the area should be exposed to the sun, as yams are light-loving, shade-sensitive plants which require warm temperatures after planting (Lebot, 2020). The remainder of the sack should then be filled with soil, leaving some space at the top for fertilizer or manure. The soil must be light, sandy, well-drained, and crumbly, as the tuber penetrates the soil while expanding during growth (Lebot, 2020). Subsequently, about five inches (12 cm) of soil near the back of the sack as opposed to the center should be dug to plant the yam. According to a video entitled “How to Plant Yam in Bags” which documented this process, the yam should be placed horizontally, so that the crown is in the centre of the soil, but the cut end of the yam is against the side of the sack. This is done because the growth of the yam will come from the crown; if it were not central, the yam could break through the bag (1/3 TV, 2021). The tuber should then be covered with soil. To protect the yam, dry, dead leaves and grass should be placed over top of the soil.</p>

<P><B>How to Fertilize:</B></P>
<p>The last step to planting the yams is to fertilize the soil. Fertilizing could be the key to healthy yams and a good harvest. One option is to simply scatter compost, manure or fertilizer on top of each bag in addition to the dry leaves. Fertilizing yams in sacks is different than in the ground, as the yam roots cannot travel when confined to the sack. When growing yams in a sack, the roots are planted near the top of the bag. Referencing the above video again, it was found that spreading fertilizer over top of the soil, or at the bottom of the bag, is an ineffective method. The concentration of the fertilizer is simply too strong if directly applied, which is why it is suggested to fertilize in batches (1/3 TV, 2021). Five to six weeks after planting, only seven or eight balls of fertilizer should be scatter on top of the dry leaves. Rain should dissolve the fertilize, or the sacks can be watered at least three times a week. This fertilizing process should be repeated weekly, for 1 month (1/3 TV, 2021).</p>

<P><B>How to Harvest:</B></P>
<p>Mature yams are distinguishable by the yellowing of leaves, and most edible yams reach maturity in 8-11 months after planting (Opara, 2003). To harvest, the sacks should be torn down the side. A shovel can be used to remove some of the soil but then the actual yam should be dug by hand as it is possible to damage the tuber. The stem of the yam should then be cut and removed. It is possible to recycle the sacks by lying them on their sides and emptying the contents. The soil can be reused again. The yams should be stored in a cool, dark area until ready for use. It is important to note that yams contain toxic substances when raw and must be sliced and soaked in water or cooked before consumption (Opara, 2003). </p>
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<h1 class="title-bg">Critical Analysis </h1>
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<p>While harvesting yams in sacks requires much less labour than harvesting on land, planting is slightly more difficult and requires more resources. Growing yams is typically a highly laborious and tiresome process. Yams grown in the ground require standing, bending, and squatting for long amounts of time, which is very intensive considering some yams can grow to weigh larger than 100 lbs or 45 kg (Opara, 2003). Planting in sacks cuts down on intensive labour, but it is more time-consuming as each individual sack must be prepared. As each tuber requires one sack, many sacks and pieces of the tuber will need to be acquired. A farmer may already have some empty sacks or fertilizer bags, or they can be acquired at the market, but accessing these materials may also be difficult. Acquiring sacks large enough to accommodate the size of the growing yam may also be difficult, as smaller bags will limit the size of the tuber. In addition, the disposal of the unusable sacks will create plastic waste, so consideration should be given to biodegradable bags. If materials needed to grow yam in sacks are accessible, some benefits are that it cuts down on hard labour, especially at harvest time, utilizes unused space, and mitigates weeds, soil fertility decline via reduced leaching, soilborne and leaf pests and diseases -- all of which comprise the highest constraints to yam production (Wanasundera & Ravindran, 1994). It also permits yams to be grown in regions with otherwise heavier (clay soil). Another aspect to consider when growing yams is their storage ability. Storage losses can be detrimental, as a yam can lose 10-20 percent of its weight after three months of regular storage in a cool, dry area. These figures include an element of moisture loss, and a decrease in the food value of the yam tubers also occurs (Coursey, 1967). Yams cannot be stored in cold storage, as they will suffer chilling damage, and yams are susceptible to insects and plant pathogens (Coursey, 1967). There are also added costs for materials, purchasing yam tubers, sacks, and fertilizer, but these items may already be common-place, or easy to acquire from the market. The range cost of yams per plant is $2 USD. This added source of income can make a dramatic difference to a smallholder farm if this technique is successfully adapted. </p>
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<h1 class="title-bg">Picture Based Lesson to Train Farmers</h1>
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<p>Sub-Saharan, Africa/Caribbean version: http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/4.1subsaharan_africa_carribean.pdf</p>
<p>South Asian version:
http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/4.1_south_asian.pdf</p>
<p>East/Southeast Asian version:
http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/4.1e.s.a.pdf</p>
<p>Latin American version:
http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/4.1latin_america.p</p> df

<p><b>Source: </b></p>
<p>MN Raizada and L Smith (2016) A Picture Book of Best Practices for Subsistence Farmers: Edition (note geographic region). eBook, University of Guelph Sustainable Agriculture Kit (SAK) Project, June 2016, Guelph, Canada. Available online at: www.SAKBooks.com</p>

<p><b>Helpful Links</b></p>

<p>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dV_D99fow4M
- Step by step process on planting yam in sacks</p>
<p>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PPJ-LBuVCzY&t=1431s
- Harvesting yam in sacks</p>
<p>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yTbG3GmavCU
- Benefits to planting yam in sacks</p>
<p>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bOtpdL8KFJo
- Alternate video showing the process of planting yam in sacks</p>
<p>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_m95fQ6rCOs
- Growing yam in sacks in Nigeria</p>
<p>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oHzV2DI0EEg
- Commercial yam farming</p>
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<h1 class="title-bg">References</h1>
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<p>1. Chapagain, T., & Raizada, M. N. (2017). Agronomic Challenges and Opportunities for Smallholder Terrace Agriculture in Developing Countries. Frontiers in Plant Science, 8, 331. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2017.00331</p>
<p>2. Chapagain, T., Ghimire, B., Pudasaini, R., Gurung, K., Choi, K., Rai, L., Magar, S., Bishnu, B. K., & Raizada, M. N. (2019). The Underutilized Terrace Wall can be Intensified to Improve Farmer Livelihoods. Agronomy for Sustainable Development, 39(3), 2–11. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13593-019-0574-2 </p>
<p>3. Coursey, D. G. (1967). Yam Storage—I: A Review of Yam Storage Practices and of Information on Storage Losses. Journal of Stored Products Research, 2(3), 229–244. https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-474x(67)90070-7 </p>
<p>4. Henderson, A. (1977). How to Propagate Yams. In Roots and Tubers (pp. 30–38). Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy.</p>
<p>5. Ghimire, B., Dhakal, R., Pudasaini, R., Devkota, R., & Chaudhary, P. (2016). Demonstration of yam cultivation in sacks at Laitak village [Photograph]. Leisa India. https://leisaindia.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/Demonstration-of-yam-cultivation-in-sacks-at-Laitak-village-300x169.jpg </p>
<p>6. Lebot, V. (2020). Yams: Agronomy. In Lebot, V, Tropical Root and Tuber Crops: Cassava, Sweet Potato, Yams and Aroids, (pp. 273–292). CABI. https://doi.org/10.1079/9781789243369.0273 </p>
<p>7. Opara, L. U. (2003). Yams - Food and Agriculture Organization. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Retrieved November 8, 2022, from https://www.fao.org/fileadmin/user_upload/inpho/docs/Post_Harvest_Compendium_-_Yams.pdf</p>
<p>8. 1/3 TV. (2021, May 17). Step by Step Process How to Plant Yam in Bags [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dV_D99fow4M</p>
<p>9. Wanasundera, J. P., & Ravindran, G. (1994). Nutritional Assessment of Yam (Dioscorea alata) Tubers. Plant Foods for Human Nutrition, 46(1), 33–39. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf01088459</p>

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Template:Chapters 12.8

2023-01-03T10:12:28Z

62.8.66.139:

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<div class="title"><h3>12.8 - Dual-purpose military shovels for disasters and farming</h3><br><h3 class="ch-owner">Raegan Wine, University of Guelph, Canada</h3></div>
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<p>Suggested citation for this chapter.</p>
<p>Wine,R. (2022) Dual-purpose military shovels for disasters and farming. In Farmpedia, The Encyclopedia for Small Scale Farmers. Editor, M.N. Raizada, University of Guelph, Canada. http://www.farmpedia.org</p>
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<h1 class="title-bg">Introduction</h1>
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<p>Militaries use low-cost, lightweight and multi-purpose shovels. These features are ideal for small-scale farmers that often lack basic tools A dual-purpose military shovel (Figures 1-4) has the potential to be useful for multiple tasks undertaken by small-scale farmers for a variety of reasons. It makes farm work potentially easy and fast to complete, and the shovel can fold in half easily by unscrewing the side bolts and folding itself inward. Additionally, its low weight allows for use in any location, at any distance, and may be practical for small children and women to use (Chapagain & Raizada, 2017). There are different attachments that can be used, including a rotating shovel head. The ability to change shovel heads allows for a better fit in different digging conditions. The head of the shovel has a pointy tip that pierces the ground as well as ridges on the side that help with breaking the material down for easy pickup. When digging, the handle can be replaced to allow for a better grip while digging through soils or heavy rocks, allowing for more mobility and preventing injuries during work. The handle attachment comes with easily removable handle sizes, which allows the farmer to dig at lower or higher distances from the ground (Mohan et al. 2021). </p>
<p>[[Image:JHK.JPG|thumb|centre|Sources: https://www.amazon.ca/Adjustable-Multi-Function-Survival-Backpacking-Gardening/dp/B08V4B3Y2Q/ref=pd_lpo_2?pd_rd_w=QH0Ir&content-id=amzn1.sym.bc8b374c-8130-4c45-bf24-4fcc0d96f4d6&pf_rd_p=bc8b374c-8130-4c45-bf24-4fcc0d96f4d6&pf_rd_r=MGY913C3RBNEA5MZXARX&pd_rd_wg=j69R8&pd_rd_r=df5b6d8f-ef23-41b3-8627-26b5af28ce96&pd_rd_i=B08V4B3Y2Q&th=1]]</p>
<p>[[Image:LLLLLL.jpg|thumb|centre|Figure 4. Use of a foldable military shovel (Chapagain and Raizada, 2017 .]]</p>
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<h1 class="title-bg">How Can It Be Beneficial To Make Farming And Natural Disasters Easier?Farming </h1>
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<p>Dual-purpose military shovels may allow farmers to have a healthier and safer work environment and farm life, which can have a positive impact on income (Lim et al., 2016). It helps move soil and grain around, move or mix farmyard manure, pick out unwanted weeds and helps with irrigation including forming bunds (Mohan et al., 2021). The dual-purpose shovel is very helpful when it comes to cleaning debris from the land (Chapagain & Raizada, 2017). Most farmers are used to picking up bricks, stones and mud with their bare hands. However, this can be challenging in different weather conditions because of potential injuries and infections, and the increased amount of time that has to be spent in treacherous conditions. As mentioned before, dual-purpose shovels have different head attachments, allowing for more flexibility. Every farm has different land conditions; the land could be uneven due to packed soil or large slopes, making it difficult to lift heavy material. The angle of the spade can be easily moved to 180 degrees, 90 degrees and 35 degrees for easier pick-up. Normal shovels fail to accommodate these challenges and are not efficient in hard soil conditions, leaving strain on the equipment and farmers (Mohan et al., 2021). </p>
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<h1 class="title-bg">Natural Disasters </h1>
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<p>Each year, smallholder farmers are faced with natural disasters such as earthquakes, landslides, floods, drought, fires, hailstorms, etc. that damage not only their land, but the crops they worked so hard to grow. These events lead to many losses on the farm (agricultural equipment, dry seeds, planted crops and other materials) leading to loss of income. A disaster can wipe out many if not all of the crops that are being grown (Chapagain & Raizada, 2017). Low to middle-income countries are typically hit the worst when it comes to natural disasters. From 2008 to 2018, natural disasters cost $108 billion USD in damages to crops and livestock, in low-income countries (United Nations, 2021). Often after a natural disaster, a large amount of debris is pushed onto the land, pushing the soil out of place. Furthermore, branches and large rocks disrupt crops, calling for time-consuming clean-ups. Cleaning up after a disaster can be very challenging and dangerous as objects can be large and hard to carry. Dual-purpose shovels are very useful for the clean-up and removal of wreckage, as they can break down large materials efficiently and within a timely manner (Jayasekara & Arisumi, 2015). </p>
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<h1 class="title-bg">Cost-Effectiveness Of Products Multiple Uses </h1>
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<p>The dual-purpose shovel is very cost-effective, as farmers do not have to buy multiple tools to complete one job. The different attachments for the head and the handle allow for different tasks including digging soil, mud, rocks and much more. Some of the shovels have pointed edges and tips, allowing them to puncture the ground easily. Another shovel head includes a flat top and sharp bottom which enables farmers to push the shovel down with their feet, helping to avoid placing pressure on their arms and lower back. The add-ons for the shovel are fairly inexpensive, manageable, and easy to work with (Kotowski et al., 2009). A regular shovel can cost between $22 and $66 USD which can become expensive if one is buying multiple shovels for different kinds of clean-up situations. A dual-purpose military shovel ranges from $14 to $36 USD, and it comes with all the attachments needed for all kinds of situations, thereby eliminating the need to purchase more items.</p>
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<h1 class="title-bg">Cost-Effectiveness Of Products </h1>
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<p><b>Multiple Uses</b></p>
<p>The dual-purpose shovel is very cost-effective, as farmers do not have to buy multiple tools to complete one job. The different attachments for the head and the handle allow for different tasks including digging soil, mud, rocks and much more. Some of the shovels have pointed edges and tips, allowing them to puncture the ground easily. Another shovel head includes a flat top and sharp bottom which enables farmers to push the shovel down with their feet, helping to avoid placing pressure on their arms and lower back. The add-ons for the shovel are fairly inexpensive, manageable, and easy to work with (Kotowski et al., 2009). A regular shovel can cost between $22 and $66 USD which can become expensive if one is buying multiple shovels for different kinds of clean-up situations. A dual-purpose military shovel ranges from $14 to $36 USD, and it comes with all the attachments needed for all kinds of situations, thereby eliminating the need to purchase more items.</p>
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<h1 class="title-bg">Injuries From Shovels </h1>
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<p><b>1.Traditional shelves</b></p>
<p>Working with traditional shovels causes significant negative impacts, including causing farmers to suffer more back pain. Most farming tools, including shovels, create awkward posture on the back and strain on other body parts, resulting in neck pain from poor shovelling techniques. This could potentially cause musculoskeletal disorders in farmers attempting to use old shovels, especially with a bad approach (Lim et al., 2016). This is especially problematic when it comes to youth handling farm work (Kotowski et al., 2009). When shovelling is done incorrectly, it places a lot of stress on one's body, as the joints and muscles are being used with an immense amount of pressure from the shovelling motion (Adeyemi et al., 2020). Most older shovels have a long wooden handle with no grip on the end, making them difficult to maneuver. Moreover, having a heavy metal head with no sharp edge for puncturing into the ground can cause great amounts of stress to farmers’ bodies and minds over time. To shovel effectively, taking breaks are essential. Heavy lifting can cause wear and tear in the heart and muscles. Breaks will allow for fewer injuries and fewer concerns about overworking (Adeyemi et al., 2020).</p>
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<h1 class="title-bg">New Advanced Shovels And The Proper Techniques</h1>
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<p>When shovelling, there are proper techniques that allow for reduced pain in the body and faster results. When preparing to handle a shovel, the user must make sure that it is the right size to fit how the user likes to work. For example, gender differences can be very impactful on the type of shovel needed. Women, who are commonly shorter in height, can remove the taller handle and attach one that is closer to their size. The same can be true for children on the farm as well. When looking for a new shovel, it is recommended that one's hands are at least 12 inches apart on the shovel; this will allow for improved leverage and makes it effortless to transport and lift. The proper shovelling technique consists of three parts. The first is to keep one’s feet wide apart; one foot in front, close to the shovel, and the other in the rear. Secondly, one’s weight should be placed on the rear foot and the front foot should be kept in position. Lastly, one’s feet should be turned in the same direction as where the shovel will be hitting the ground. This technique helps displace the body’s weight to avoid causing unnecessary damage or strain to the body while ensuring the job is done efficiently and quickly (Adeyemi et al., 2020).</p>
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<h1 class="title-bg">Links to Useful Resources</h1>
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<p>This is a guide for the correct way to shovel soil
https://www.buildingmoxie.com/guide-to-shovels/</p>

<p>Great shovel options for different types
Everyday gardening
https://www.gardenersedge.com/c/garden-spades-shovels?utm_source=bing&utm_medium=cpc&utm_campaign=Bing__Search__NB__Tools&utm_term=shovel&utm_content=428052603--1283130487031157--80195757321342&msclkid=7bfd2155d8251f1bf948420f3f08277e
https://gardenbeast.com/types-of-shovels/#:~:text=Shovel%20Grip%20%E2%80%93%20This%20is%20the%20top%20of,handle%20and%20the%20shovel%20will%20be%20handled%20directly </p>

<p>Different military shovels, small size, easy for natural disaster cleaning
https://www.alibaba.com/trade/search?fsb=y&IndexArea=product_en&CatId=&tab=all&SearchText=shovels
https://www.operationmilitarykids.org/best-military-shovels/</p>

<p> Youtube video on the proper shovelling technique
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IUMxVJgtbOM </p>

<p><b>Picture-based lessons to train farmers</b></p>
<p>http://www.sakbooks.com/chapters3.html</p>
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<h1 class="title-bg">References</h1>
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<p>1.Adeyemi, H. O., Babalola, A. A., Opafila, O. T., Akinyemi, O. O., & David, A. O. (2020). Scientific African. Sand shovelling and related injuries among sand mine
workers in Nigeria, Scientific American 8, e00313
https://reader.elsevier.com/reader/sd/pii/S246822762030051X?token=81EC1736CCCF8CDA0427BECAAE10D99F83F637D1428ADED6DEB6E29B06900452FD16CA7D38C2045E992FB76465C2B89D&originRegion=us-east-1&originCreation=20221201194007</p>

<p>2.Chapagain, T., Raizada, M.N. (2017). Impacts of natural disasters on smallholder farmers: gaps and recommendations. Agric & Food Secur 6, 39. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40066-017-0116-6</p>

<p>3.Jayasekara, P.G. and H. Arisumi, H. (2015). Obstacle surmounting by arm maneuver for unmanned power shovel. IEEE/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems (IROS), 5540-5547.
https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/abstract/document/7354162</p>

<p>4.Kotowski, S. E., Davis, K. G. and Waters, T.R. (2009). Investigation of select ergonomic interventions for farm youth. part 1: Shovels. Journal of Agromedicine, 14(1), 33-43. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/10599240802612604 </p>

<p>5.Lim, C. L. et al. (2016). Development and assessment of shovel applying foothold. Journal of the Ergonomics Society of Korea, 35(2), 67-74. https://koreascience.kr/article/JAKO201614652758551.page</p>

<p>6.Mohan, T., Gajendra, P., Barkath, S.S. and Gopalakrishnan, S. (2021). Design analysis and fabrication of Multi-Purpose Shovel. Annals of the Romanian Society for Cell Biology, 25(6), 4494–4500. https://www.annalsofrscb.ro/index.php/journal/article/view/6281</p>

<p>7.United Nations. (2021). Natural disasters occurring three times more often than 50 years ago: New FAO Report, UN news. United Nations. https://news.un.org/en/story/2021/03/1087702</p>

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Template:Chapters 6.8

2023-01-03T09:43:39Z

62.8.66.139:

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<div class="title"><h3>6.8 - Crop rotation to suppress weeds in vegetable gardens</h3><br><h3 class="ch-owner">Thomas Jeneway, University of Guelph, Canada</h3></div>
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[[File:4.jpg|300px]]
<p>Suggested citation for this chapter.</p>
<p>Jeneway,J. (2022) Crop rotation to suppress weeds in vegetable gardens. In Farmpedia, The Encyclopedia for Small Scale Farmers. Editor, M.N. Raizada, University of Guelph, Canada. http://www.farmpedia.org</p>
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<h1 class="title-bg">An Introduction to Crop Rotation</h1>
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<p>Weeds are a major problem for smallholder farmers, requiring women to spend up to 50% of their on-farm time removing weeds manually, which also reduces child literacy because children are pulled out of school during peak weeding times (FAO, 2014). Crop rotation is a system of changing which crops are planted sequentially over time to help balance and support the nutrients in the soil (FAO, 2003). However, research has shown that introducing crop rotation can not only increase net returns by up to 4 times but also reduce the cost of weed prevention by 50% with reduced time spent weeding (Lichtfouse, 2009). This reduction in such weed prevention can allow women more free time to invest in themselves and their families (FAO, 2003). </p>
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<h1 class="title-bg">What Is Crop Rotation</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Crop rotation is a simple method of changing what crops are planted in a field to help balance and support the nutrients in the soil (FAO, 2003). Rotating different crops between the same pieces of land allows for different nutrients to be absorbed and others to re-accumulate through the soil. Each crop will have its distinct usage of different minerals and nutrients. It is important to balance which crops are planted to return soil to its natural healthy state (FAO, 2003). The most important nutrient to keep balanced is nitrogen which can be done by planning and use of crops like legumes that are already grown in Africa (Mohler, 2022). </p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Benefits Of Crop Rotation In Terms Of Weed Control</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>A major benefit of crop rotation is reduced weeding and parasitic plants. Crop rotation allows for different species of crops to be interchanged between the same set of land, meaning that no one crop stays in a particular area for a long period of time (FAO, 2003). This means that the seed bank of parasitic plants that are able to germinate in the soil is reduced as the plants struggle to find a consistent host to rely on for their parasitic relationship (Rubiales & Aparicio, 2011). Weeds thrive on similar crops that have similar nutrient requirements so when farmers move away from the same crop(s) being planted every season, it prevents weeds from building up and adapting to the singular crop or intercrop that is growing (Ministry of Agriculture, 2012). Further diversifying the crop rotation (additional seasons with different crops) has been shown to decrease the weed density by up to 49% (Weisberger et al., 2019). To help diversify crops, cover crops can be included, which also decreases input costs such as nitrogen if a legume/green manure is included (Martens et al., n.d.). For example, in temperate countries, winter wheat rotated with maize was shown to cause a 12% reduction in the total weed seed bank. This was over a testing period of 6 years, leading to the conclusion that crop rotation is not a short-term solution like herbicides but provides long term benefits (Koocheki et al., 2008). Not only was the overall level of weeds reduced by crop rotation, but the composition of weeds was drastically changed, with over a 30% reduction of some of the most common weeds making up the total seed bank (Koocheki et al., 2008). Another study found when crop rotation and fertilizers were used in combination, crop rotation cut out any increase in weeds associated with improved soil fertility associated with adding fertilizers. Not only that, but tests found that crop rotation was able to reduce the weeds past the level normally found without fertilizer treatment (Chamanadad et al., 2006). Finally, the use of multiple crops allows for those who use herbicides to use different types, making it harder for weeds to build resistance to a particular one (Canola Encyclopedia, 2022). Overall, crop rotation leads to fewer weeds which means that women will have more time for other tasks or even the possibility of time for education. Crop rotation has the added benefit of reducing pests, further releasing women from tasks related to pest management (FAO, 2003). </p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Other Benefits </h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<P>There are many benefits to crop rotation. Rotating different crops within the same piece of land allows for different nutrients to be absorbed and others to re-accumulate through the soil. Each crop will have its distinct usage of different minerals and nutrients (FAO, 2003). The most important nutrient to keep balanced is nitrogen which can be done by planning and use of crops like legumes within the rotation (Mohler, 2022). Using a crop like legumes alongside or between the desired crop can improve nitrogen levels by 50 to 200 pounds per acre (Mohler, 2022). This will save the farmer money and will ultimately be more sustainable (Flynn, 2015). Secondly, water consumption has been shown to be reduced by a successful crop rotation strategy. In one study, it was found that after a long-term crop rotation sequence, part of the system required 20-35% less water than without rotation (Lichtfouse, 2009). This means that even areas of low precipitation or water access can grow a wider variety of crops if they implement a crop rotation cycle (Lichtfouse, 2009).</P>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Steps For Successful Basic Basic Crop Rotation </h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<P><b>1. Identify the goals of your crop rotation</b><P>
<p>Examples:</p>
<p>Increase yield</p>
<p>Decrease weeds</p>
<p>Decrease cost</p>
<p>Increase soil health</p>

<P><b>2. Create a list of possible crops by group, with each group being a distinct cycle of rotation</b><P>
<p>Examples:</p>
<p>Legumes (beans)</p>
<p>Root Vegetables (sweet potato)</p>
<p>Leafy greens (cabbage)</p>
<p>Fruit-bearing (sweet corn)</p>

<P><b>3. Determine soil conditions and what crops suit them best</b><P>
Simple tests:</p>
<p>3.1 Smell test for organic matter</p>
<p>3.2 Clump test for soil texture</p>
<p>3.3 Litmus paper for soil pH</p>
<p>3.4 Soil colour for aluminum determination</p>

<p>4. Split the garden space into different plots </p>
<p>5. Decided what crop you would like to plant in each plot, with each plot to contain only a single crop species,</p>
<p>6. After a single farming season, rotate the crops in a constant pattern</p>
<p>7. After multiple seasons, readjust the crops and plan according based on knowledge gained</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Critical Analysis</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Even with crop rotation, diseases can still build resistance to the changing circumstances that the system offers (Canola Encyclopedia, 2022). This can happen because farmers use too few crops in a rotation, allowing diseases and even pests to survive in the soil long enough for the next appropriate host crop to be planted. This process can, over time, allow for weeds and pests to adapt and evolve to these conditions (Canola Encyclopedia, 2022). In addition, some diseases are unaffected by crop rotation and as such need to be combined with other techniques to reduce weeds (Chamanadad et al., 2006). Furthermore, a study found that successful reduction in weeds from crop rotation relied on other factors like tillage (Colleen et al., 1999). Another reason that some farmers do not implement crop rotation is that it reduces flexibility, since they must follow a specific planting cycle over long periods of time (Selim, 2019), perhaps reducing their ability to exploit and/or respond to changes in commodity prices (Chamanadad et al., 2006). Furthermore, starting crop rotations can cost more than monoculture, as farmers are forced to buy a diverse range of seeds in smaller quantities (Selim, 2019). Crop rotation is truly a long-term investment made to improve soil quality and crop yield while ultimately reducing weeds including parasitic plants.</p.
<p>[[Image:Skg.jpg|thumb|centre|Figure 1. Explanation of a crop rotation http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/9.__sak_north_africa_middle_east_dec_2016_compressed.pdf.]]</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Links to Useful Resources</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>https://extension.psu.edu/start-farming-planning-a-crop-rotation
- Helpful tips for planning a crop rotation and useful chart for knowing different types of crops.</p>

<p>https://www.organic-africa.net/fileadmin/organic-africa/documents/training-manual/chapter-02/Guidance_note_Poster-5_Crop-rotation-vegetables.pdf
- Helpful poster for organic crop rotation</p>

<p>https://www.accessagriculture.org/crop-rotation-legumes
- Video of Crop rotation with legumes</p>

<p>https://youtu.be/YhyPlrQN64A
- Basics of Crop Rotation</p>

<p>https://youtu.be/XeNA6XdMoF8
- Summary Video of Crop rotation on a small scale</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">References</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>1. Canola Encyclopedia. (2022, May 6). Crop rotation. The Canola Council of Canada. Retrieved November 8, 2022, from https://www.canolacouncil.org/canola-encyclopedia/field-characteristics/crop-rotation/</p>

<p>2. FAO. (2003). Gender and Development. Gender and Development Plan of Action. Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations, Rome. Retrieved November 8, 2022, from https://www.fao.org/3/Y3969E/y3969e04.htm </p>

<p>3. FAO. (2014). Youth and Agriculture: Key Challenges and Concrete Solutions. Rome, Italy: The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.</p>

<p>4. Flynn, R. (2015, June). Nitrogen Fixation by Legumes. BE BOLD. Shape the Future. New Mexico State University Retrieved November 8, 2022, from https://pubs.nmsu.edu/_a/A129/</p>

<p>5. Koocheki, A., Nassiri, M., Alimoradi, L., Ghorbani, R. (2008, October 31). Effect of cropping systems and crop rotations on weeds. Agronomy for Sustainable Development, 29, 401-408. https://doi.org/10.1051/agro/2008061</p>

<p>6. Lichtfouse, E. (2009). Organic Farming, Pest Control and Remediation of Soil Pollutants: Organic farming, pest control and remediation of soil pollutants. Netherlands: Springer Dordrecht</p>

<p>7. Martens, J. T., Derksen, D., Entz, M., Irvine, B., et al. (n.d.). Cover crops. Weed Management Options: Cover Crops. Give source. Retrieved November 8, 2022, from https://www.umanitoba.ca/outreach/naturalagriculture/weed/files/singleseason/cover_crops_e.htm </p>

<p>8. Chamanadad, M., H. R., Tulikov, A. M., Baghestani, M. A, et al. (2006, December). Effects of Long-Term Fertilizer Application and Crop Rotation on the Infestation of Fields by Weeds. Turkey Journal of Agriculture and Forestry, 33, 315-322. https://doi.org/10.3906/tar-0712-47</p>

<p>9. Mohler, C. L. (2022, September 1). Crop rotation effects on soil fertility and Plant Nutrition. Sustainable Agriculture Research and Education. University of Maryland. Retrieved November 8, 2022, from https://www.sare.org/publications/crop-rotation-on-organic-farms/physical-and-biological-processes-in-crop-production/crop-rotation-effects-on-soil-fertility-and-plant-nutrition/ </p>

<p>10. Rubiales, D., Aparicio, M. F., et al. (2011, August 4). Innovations in parasitic weeds management in legume crops. A review. Agronomy for Sustainable Development, 32, 433-449. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13593-011-0045-x</p>

<p>11. Selim, M. M. (2019). A review of Advantages, Disadvantages and Challenges of Crop Rotations. Egyptian Journal of Agronomy. 41, 1-10. http://dx.doi.org/10.21608/agro.2019.6606.1139</p>

<p>12. Weisberger, D., Nichols, V. Liebman, M., et al. (2019, July 18). Does diversifying crop rotations suppress weeds? A meta-analysis. PLOS ONE. 1, 1-12. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0219847</p>

<p>13. Doucet, C., Weaver, S.E., Hamill, A.S. and & Zhang, J. (1999). Separating the Effects of Crop Rotation from Weed Management on Weed Density and Diversity. Weed Science, 47, 729–735. doi:10.1017/S0043174500091402</p>

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Template:Chapter 4.20

2023-01-03T09:20:35Z

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<div>
<div class="title"><h3>4.20 - Leaf colour change to diagnose fertilizer needs</h3><br><h3 class="ch-owner">Justin Huber, University of Guelph, Canada</h3></div>
<div class="hero-img-2">
[[File:4.jpg|300px]]
<p>Suggested citation for this chapter.</p>
<p>Huber,J (2022) Leaf colour change to diagnose fertilizer needs. In Farmpedia, The Encyclopedia for Small Scale Farmers. Editor, M.N. Raizada, University of Guelph, Canada. http://www.farmpedia.org</p>
</div>
<div class="ch-navber" style="display: flex; justify-content: space-between;">
<div class="center-side" style="max-width: 100%;margin-right: 3%;">
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Introduction to Nutrient Deficiency Keys</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Nutrient deficiency keys use photos to show a leaf with various nutrient deficiencies plotted next to one another so a farmer can see the differences among nutrient deficiencies and compare the images to their own crops, helping diagnose fertilizer needs. For example, a woman who is growing maize can realize that the yellow discolouration in the margins of her maize leaves may mean that the soil is deficient in nitrogen (Tucker, 1984). Conversely, such photos can help smallholder farmers add only the fertilizers they need, preventing waste and improving incomes. Figure 1 is an example of a basic nutrient deficiency key. </p>
<p>[[Image:NTRY.jpg |thumb|centre|Figure 1. Example of a nutrient deficiency key. Source: https://www.haifa-group.com/articles/main-functions-plant-nutrients]]</p>
<P>Access to fertilizer varies significantly between developed and developing nations. In 2018, Canadian farmers applied an average of 85 kg/ha and 144 kg/ha of nitrogen fertilizer for wheat and maize respectively, while Senegalese farmers in Africa only applied 18 kg/ha for wheat and 25 kg/ha for maize (Ludemann et al., 2022). In recent years, the average rate of nutrients applied to Sub-Sahara African crops has been about 16 kg/ha, which is only more than a quarter of the 2016 goal set at the 2006 Africa Fertilizer Summit of 50 kg/ha (Vanlauwe & Dobermann, 2020). Since the 2006 African Fertilizer Summit, fertilizer prices have increased by 130% due to heightened petroleum prices (Chianu et al., 2011). In 2022, fertilizer prices have increased even further (Crespi et al. 2022).</P>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Advantages of Nutrient Deficiency Keys</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Variation in soil types at the local and continental level makes diagnosing nutrient deficiencies difficult; furthermore soil testing is not available to many smallholder farmers, and there is a lack of access to government extension, resulting in inadequate farmer training which is amplified by low levels of literacy (Sinyolo & Mudhara, 2017). Nutrient deficiency keys offer a way for smallholders to identify nutrient deficiencies that do not require the help of an expensive soil testing kit or having to rely on a government extension agent. Nitrogen, potassium and phosphorus are the most common types of fertilizers (Chianu et al., 2012). However, as there are 15 fertilizers required by crops, a more comprehensive addition of fertilizers, especially in extensively degraded soils (very common in Africa) may be needed in order to increase yield, but micronutrient fertilizers (e.g. zinc, boron) can be more expensive and difficult to diagnose since they are less well-known (Chianu et al., 2012). The production of nutrient deficiency keys that are specifically for micronutrients could help smallholder farmers use a more comprehensive approach to nutrient deficiencies. Knowledge about the diagnosis of nutrient deficiencies, specifically in rural areas is significantly lacking (Chianu et al., 2012). The use of photo based nutrient deficiency keys can help educate smallholder farmers with minimal interference caused by a language barrier. </p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Cost vs Benefit Analysis </h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>The most significant cause for decline of per capita food production in Sub-Sahara Africa is the decline in soil fertility (Sanchez et al., 1997), and therefore it is evident that improving fertilizer usage is vital for an increase in smallholder farmer income. Evidence of this was shown in Malawi, where farmers who used fertilizer experienced a 105% increase in yield and a 21-42% increase in profit. Smallholder farmers experience yields that are rarely above 0.5 T/ha, while commercial farms and research station trials with greater knowledge and access to fertilizer can have yields of 6-8 T/ha (Chianu et al., 2012), equivalent to a 1100-1500% increase in yield. The cost to produce the deficiency keys would be minimal. About $5 USD would be needed for language translation of a nutrient deficiency key. However, when significant numbers are being purchased, this cost would be negligible on a per farmer basis. Printing is relatively cheap, with the addition of colour adding costs at about 5 cents per key. Clear sheet covers in order to protect the nutrient deficiency keys from becoming weathered would also add about 10 cents to production. In total, the nutrient deficiency keys could easily be sold for less than 25 U.S. cents each, and with the use of fertilizer increasing yields by over 100% in some cases, the potential benefits of a nutrient deficiency key would help it pay for itself rapidly.</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Distribution</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<P>Getting nutrient deficiency keys to smallholder farmers could be difficult, specifically in rural parts of Africa, as well as in politically unstable regions which may not be safe. However, there are existing methods used for other minimal cost products that help distribute to rural areas. Women’s cooperatives can be an effective method of distribution. Women’s cooperatives can have many members coming from many villages. For example, a women’s cooperative run by the United Nations in Ethiopia included about 2,000 direct beneficiaries, and almost 32,000 community members that benefited indirectly (UN Women, 2020). This extensive outreach would be an excellent way to both distribute as well as spread the word on nutrient deficiency keys.</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Critical Analysis and Alternate Ways to Increase the Efficiency of Fertilizer for Subsistence Farmers</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>There are several factors that can render nutrient deficiency keys less useful. Some nutrient deficiencies can still decrease yields while still showing minimal to no symptoms. For example, manganese usually does not show any symptoms, unless the deficiency is severe (Schmidt et al., 2016). Some nutrient deficiencies have very similar symptoms. Molybdenum is used as a cofactor for nitrate reductase, meaning it is used to break down nitrate into nitrogen for a plant to use it (Zimmer & Mendel, 1999). So, even if there was excess nitrogen available to a crop in the form of nitrate, if there is insufficient molybdenum, the plant shows identical symptoms to a nitrogen deficiency (Cox, 1992). Similarly, cobalt and iron deficiencies can be very difficult to differentiate, as they both show chlorosis of younger leaves as their main symptom (Rathour, 2022; Anderson, 2008).</p>

<p>Nutrient deficiencies in trees can also be difficult to diagnose with a nutrient deficiency key. This is because, first, an important part of a nutrient deficiency key is whether newer or older leaves are affected, and second because the height of trees would make it difficult to use a nutrient deficiency key.</p>

<p>Symptoms very similar to that of a nutrient deficiency can also be present for other reasons. For example, Verticillium dahliae is a pathogenic fungus that causes the yellowing of older leaves (Hanson, 2000). Nitrogen deficiency also has this same symptom (Tucker, 1984). If a farmer were to use nitrogen fertilizer on this crop, it would not help get rid of the fungus, therefore potentially wasting fertilizer.</p>

<p>While nutrient deficiency keys will certainly help increase yields on subsistence farms, as well as educate smallholder farmers about the use of fertilizer, increased knowledge and access to fertilizer is ultimately critical for dealing with the decline in soil fertility in Africa. This issue is mainly due to minimal policy and institutional support concerning fertilizers (Chianu et al., 2012). Success of these programs and policies is not lacking evidence. Malawi has a specialized policy-led agricultural extension program concerning the use of fertilizer. This program caused more smallholder farmers to use more mineral fertilizers, resulting in a surplus of food in a county with previous food security problems (Chianu et al., 2012). The educational differences between women and men is another factor that contributes to the lack of access to fertilizer. Igbo women in Nigeria typically have little to no knowledge of fertilizer, compared to just 25% of men who do not have this knowledge (Chianu et al., 2012). Additionally, despite Africa having large deposits of raw materials, it produces only 13% of its own fertilizer, with the rest being imported, which is part of the reason that nutrients can be so expensive to African farmers (Chianu et al., 2012). Zimbabwe has provided evidence that domestic production of fertilizer can be very beneficial. Zimbabwe produces lots of its own fertilizer and as a result, uses the most fertilizer per hectare in Sub-Saharan Africa except for South Africa (Chianu et al., 2012).</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Conclusion</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>In summary, nutrient deficiency keys can be very helpful in helping smallholder farmers to diagnose fertilizer needs for crops. However, there is no use for them if farmers have no access to fertilizers and the knowledge needed to apply them. An increase in government extension programs, women’s education and policy can all be vital to helping Africa cope with its degrading soils.</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Links to Useful Resources</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Video on Diagnosing Fertilizer Needs based on Leaf Colour
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BftiT1WANdo</p>

<p>Helpful examples of nutrient deficiency keys for different crops</p>

<p>Maize
https://cropnuts.com/plant-nutrient-deficiency-symptom-guide-for-crops/</p>

<p>Rice
https://www.researchgate.net/figure/The-different-characteristics-of-rice-leaves-under-NPK-deficiencies_fig10_268875719</p>

<p>Soybean
https://cropwatch.unl.edu/soils/soybean-nutrients</p>

<p>Wheat
https://www.yaracanada.ca/crop-nutrition/wheat/nutrient-deficiencies/
https://cropwatch.unl.edu/soils/nutrient-deficiency-wheat</p>

<p>Banana
https://www.yara.in/crop-nutrition/bananas/nutrient-deficiencies-banana/</p>

<p>Cassava
https://www.kalro.org/asal-aprp/sites/default/files/cassava_farmers_guide_wambua_final.pdf</p>

<p><b>Picture Based Training Materials for Farmers</b></p>

<p>http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/5.20subsaharan_africa_carribean.pdf
- Sub-Sahara African and Caribbean</p>
<p>http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/5.20_south_asian.pdf
- South Asia</p>
<p>http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/5.20e.s.a.pdf
- East Asia</p>
<p>http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/5.20latin_america.pdf
- Latin America </p>
<p>http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/4.17n._africa_middleeast.pdf
- North Africa and the Middle East</p>

<p><b>English Version Guides from SAK Books</b></p>

<p>http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/5.20subsaharan_africa_carribean_engversion.pdf
- Sub-Sahara Africa and Carribean</p>

<p>http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/5.20_south_asian_eng.pdf
- South Asia</p>
<p>http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/5.20east_southeast_asia_englishversion.pdf
- East Asia</p>
<p>http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/5.20latin_america_eng_version.pdf
- Latin America</p>
<p>http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/4.17n._africa_middleeast_eng_version.pdf
- North African and the Middle East</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">References</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>1. Anderson, W.B. (2008). Diagnosis and correction of iron deficiency in field crops – an overview. Journal of Plant Nutrition. 5(4), 785-795. https://doi.org/10.1080/01904168209363008</p>
<p>2. Chianu, J.N., Chianu, J.N., Mairura, F. (2012). Mineral fertilizers in the farming systems of sub-Saharan Africa. A review. Agronomy for Sustainable Development. 32, 545-566. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13593-011-0050-0</p>

<p>3. Cox, D.A. (1992). Foliar-applied Molybdenum for Preventing or Correcting Molybdenum Deficiency of Poinsettia. HortScience. 27(8), 894-895. https://doi.org/10.21273/HORTSCI.27.8.894</p>

<p>4. Crespi, J.M., Hart, M., Pudenz, C., Schulz, L.L., Wongpiyabovorn, O., Zhange, W. (2022). An examination of recent fertilizer price changes. Center for Agricultural and Rural Development. https://www.card.iastate.edu/products/publications/pdf/22sr117.pdf</p>

<p>5. Hanson, L.E. (200). Reduction of verticillium wilt symptoms in cotton following seed treatment with Trichoderma virens. Journal of Cotton Science. 4(4), 224-231. https://pubag.nal.usda.gov/catalog/30124</p>

<p>6. Ludemann, C.I., Gruere, A., Heffer, P., Dobermann, A. (2022). Global data on fertilizer use by crop and by country. Data Descriptor. 1(9), 501. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41597-022-01592-z</p>

<p>7. Rathour, S.K. (2022). Cobalt: 18th Essential Nutrient for Plant Growth? Just Agriculture. 2(7), 1-4 https://justagriculture.in/files/newsletter/2022/march/06.pdf</p>

<p>8. Sanchez, P.A., Sheperd, K.D., Soule, M.J., Place, F.M., Buresh, R.J., Izac, A.N., Mokwunye, A.U., Kwesiga, F.R., Ndiritu, C.G., Woomer, P.L. (1997) Soil Fertility Replenishment in Africa: An Investment in Natural Resource Capital. In R.J. Buresh, P.A. Sanchez, F. Calhoun (Eds.), Replenishing Soil Fertility in Africa. pp. 1-46. https://doi.org/10.2136/sssaspecpub51.c1 </p>

<p>9. Schmidt, S.B., Jensen, P.E., Husted, S. (2016). Manganese Deficiency in Plants: The Impact on Photosystem II. Trends in Plant Science. 21(7), 622-632. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tplants.2016.03.001</p>

<p>10. Sinyolo, S., Mudhara, M. (2018). Farmer groups and inorganic fertilizer use among smallholders in rural South Africa. South African Journal of Science. 114 (5/6), 60-69 https://doi.org/10.17159/sajs.2018/20170083</p>

<p>11. Tucker, T.C. (1984). Diagnosis of Nitrogen Deficiency in Plants. In R.D. Hauck (Eds.), Nitrogen in Crop Production. pp. 247-262. https://doi.org/10.2134/1990.nitrogenincropproduction.c16</p>

<p>12. United Nations. (2018) Women’s cooperatives boost agriculture and saving in rural Ethiopia. UN Women. https://www.unwomen.org/en/news/stories/2018/7/feature-ethiopia-cooperatives-boost-agriculture-and-savings</p>

<p>13. Vanlauwe, B. & Dobermann, A. (2020). Sustainable intensification of agriculture in sub-Saharan Africa: first things first. Frontiers of Agricultural Science and Engineering. 7(4), 376-382. https://doi.org/10.15302/J-FASE-2020351</p>

<p>14. Zimmer, W. & Mendel, R. (2008). Molybdenum Metabolism in Plants. Plant Biology. 1(2), 160-168. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1438-8677.1999.tb00239.x
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Template:Chapters 8.17 8.18

2023-01-03T08:51:02Z

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<div class="title"><h3>8.17/8.18 - Use of a friend in the city to obtain selling price, sell directly</h3><br><h3 class="ch-owner">Anthony Turjuman, University of Guelph, Canada</h3></div>
<div class="hero-img-2">
[[File:4.jpg|300px]]
<p>Suggested citation for this chapter.</p>
<p>Turjuman,A. (2022) Use of a friend in the city to obtain selling price, sell directly. In Farmpedia, The Encyclopedia for Small Scale Farmers. Editor, M.N. Raizada, University of Guelph, Canada. http://www.farmpedia.org</p>
</div>
<div class="ch-navber" style="display: flex; justify-content: space-between;">
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<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Introduction</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>The challenge that I will be analyzing is that small scale farmers are unaware of the correct market prices of their harvested products and hence are exploited. Furthermore, often they have to pay large sums of money in order to have a middleman take their products to the market to be sold. This ultimately decreases their profit margins and takes money away from the farmer and their family. To that point, a study was conducted which confirmed that those who used a middleman to sell their goods made 10% less profit (Abebe et al., 2016, p210). Additionally, these farmers are sometimes scared to refuse to pay these middlemen their desired commission (Permadi and Winarti, 2018, p7). This is due to the fact that they would threaten to stop working with them and simply find another farmer who would be willing to pay him more (Permadi and Winarti, 2018, p7). One solution to eliminate this issue is for the farmer, a friend or member of their family to enter urban markets, find out the correct, fair-market prices for their products directly from vendors, and then go into town and sell the products themselves. That way they would not have to deal with middle men or be exploited. </p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Benefits Of Selling Farm Products Without A Third Party</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>The best way to find out fair market pricing would be to ask a trusted friend or family member who lives in the city to communicate the daily market pricing, perhaps via an SMS text message or a phone call. The mobile phone penetration rate is very high in South Asia and Africa (Ouma et al., 2017, p30). If this is not possible, then a family member (e.g. teenager) could consult the internet at internet cafes which are becoming more common (Ouma et al., 2018, p7). The next step would be for a farmer to use this information to decide product pricing, perhaps with help from local farmer organizations (Bizikova et al., 2020). The next step is to secure the transportation necessary to bring products to the market, which is challenging: 68% of the farmers who were surveyed in Central Kalimantan, Indonesia, did not have access to transportation (Permadi and Winarti, 2018, p7). However, a solution to this issue would be an agreement between neighboring farmers to hire a truck and truck driver together and split the cost of it. As this may be time consuming, a secondary solution could be that the farmers hire someone in the city who will help them deliver their products, as already mentioned. There are most likely many people in the city who are well versed in the market practices and would be willing to earn extra income.</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Critical Analysis</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Although this method has the potential to be successful and save farmers a large amount of money, there are also some associated problems. An obvious issue as already noted is that there will be more work required of the farmers if they are selling their crops themselves. There is much more preparation involved as well as the time it would take to physically transport all the crops to the market and then spend a large portion of the day selling the products, rather than maintaining the crops that are still growing. The earlier study noted in Central Kalimantan (Permadi and Winarti, 2018, p7) validates this statement, as when farmers were asked why they chose to use a middleman, 79% stated that it was because selling the crops themselves was too much work. Another limitation, dependent on the quantity of product that farmers have available to sell, is access to wholesale markets. Some small scale farmers earn more income from their crops by using a middleman than on their own (Abebe et al., 2016, p211). This is because they would not be able to directly sell to the wholesalers with their small amount of crop (Abebe et al., 2016, p211). Since the middleman is providing these wholesalers with crops from a few small farms, they have the quantity necessary to sell in bulk and by extension, sell for a higher price (Abebe et al., 2016, p211). However, this issue would not apply to farmers with larger farms, or farmers who can form cooperatives and sell in a larger volume, as already noted. Another challenge with a farmer selling crops on their own is the lack of relationships with buyers (Abebe et al., 2016, p211. To elaborate, when receiving large amounts of crops from new farmers, the vendor will want to do a quality check upon receiving them to ensure that they are not receiving sub-standard food products (Abebe et al., 2016, p211. Furthermore, when the wholesalers do this, they often do not inspect each bag of products thoroughly and instead assume that there are some less than average products included and pay the farmers the average price (Abebe et al., 2016, p211. This could be problematic, as some farmers would receive less money than their product is actually worth. Some farmers prefer working through middlemen because it is often easier for them to resolve these issues and negotiate a better price with wholesalers that is fairer for all parties included. Therefore, in some situations, it is due to a middleman’s relationships in the market that they may be able to secure farmers with better deals and negotiate on their behalf (Abebe et al., 2016, p211). Therefore, the success of friend or family members in the city depends on their ability to establish trusted relationships with vendors. </p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Links to Useful Resources</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>http://www.amis-outlook.org/amis-about/en/ The AMIS website has a large amount of information regarding the market prices and current global and political issues that pertain to agriculture (AMIS, 2022). This website is also useful for looking at prices for certain crops and keeping updated on global news that could affect prices and trends in the future (AMIS, 2022).</p>

<p>Additionally the FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization) has a website with large amounts of information on agriculture and farming and current national news and government policies (Data Collection, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 2022):
https://www.fao.org/statistics/data-collection/en/</p>

<p>This video describes an idea from Kenya where farmers’ markets are organized to help farmers sell directly to consumers. This video discusses the benefits of selling without a middleman.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pusPUO3LJLg&ab_channel=FarmKenya</p>

<p>Short video about the problems of using a middleman and why farmers should remove them from the equation.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MNJMi9EenG4&ab_channel=PostHarvestTechnologies</p>

<p>Video about the positives and negatives of using a middle man.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=73fPJ_vm4FI&ab_channel=ChannelsTelevision </p>

<p><b>FARMER PICTURE BASED TRAINING LESSONS</b></p>

<p>http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/9.17__south_asian_eng.pdf</p>
<p>http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/9.17east_southeast_asia_englishversion.pdf</p>
<p>http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/9.17subsaharan_africa_carribean_engversion.pdf</p>
<p>http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/9.17latin_america_eng_version.pdf</p>
<p>http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/8.12n._africa_middleeast_eng_version.pdf</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">References</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>1.Abebe, G. K., Bijman, J. and Royer, A. (2016). Are middlemen facilitators or barriers to improve smallholders' welfare in rural economies? Empirical evidence from Ethiopia. Journal of Rural Studies 43, 203-213. https://pdf.sciencedirectassets.com/271785/1-s2.0-S0743016715X00076/1-s2.0-S0743016715300553/main.pdf?X-Amz-Security-Token=IQoJb3JpZ2luX2VjEN3%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2FwEaCXVzLWVhc3QtMSJIMEYCIQDQs5GniyQXvWBVeXvhXq6NeKDZbecOl9LzIUDQ0WWxXgIhALz2qkhNViOGE</p>

<p>2.AMIS (2022). Agricultural Market Information System. Retrieved September 28, 2022,
from http://www.amis-outlook.org/amis-about/en/ Data collection | Food and
Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. (n.d.). FAO. Retrieved September 28,
2022, from https://www.fao.org/statistics/data-collection/en/</p>

<p>3.Bizikova, L. et al. (2020). A scoping review of the contributions of farmers’ organization to
smallholder agriculture. Nature Food. 1, 620-630
Retrieved September 28, 2022, from
https://www.nature.com/articles/s43016-020-00164-x</p>
<p>4.Malla, S. (2021) Situation of vegetable production and it’s marketing in the context of rural
farmers: a case study. Food and Agri Economics Review, 3, 124-126 http://doi.org/10.26480?faer.02.2021.124.126</p>

<p> 5.Ouma, S. A., Odongo, T.M. and Were, M. (2017). Mobile financial services and financial inclusion: Is it a boon for savings mobilization? Review of Development Finance 7(1), 29-35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rdf.2017.01.001</p>

<p>6.Permadi, R.and Winarti, L. (2018). The Analysis of Factors Affecting Farmers' Accessibility Towards Markets and Its Relation to Farmers' Bargaining Position. Journal Manajemen dan
Agribisnis, 15(1), 10.
https://www.mendeley.com/search/?page=1&query=The%20Analysis%20of%20Factors
%20Affecting%20Farmers%27%20Accessibility%20Towards%20Markets%20and%20It
s%20Relation%20to%20Farmers%27%20Bargaining%20Position&sortBy=relevance</p>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

Template:Chapter 1.8

2023-01-03T08:16:29Z

62.8.66.139:

<div>
<div class="title"><h3>1.8 - Tools to transplant seedlings</h3><br><h3 class="ch-owner">Selena Caltagirone, University of Guelph, Canada</h3></div>
<div class="hero-img-2">
[[File:4.jpg|300px]]
<p>Suggested citation for this chapter.</p>
<p>Caltagirone,S (2022) Tools to transplant seedlings. In Farmpedia, The Encyclopedia for Small Scale Farmers. Editor, M.N. Raizada, University of Guelph, Canada. http://www.farmpedia.org</p>
</div>
<div class="ch-navber" style="display: flex; justify-content: space-between;">
<div class="center-side" style="max-width: 100%;margin-right: 3%;">
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Introduction</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Many smallholder farmers transplant vegetables and other seedlings manually, which can cause negative consequences (Jorg et al., 2021). Smallholder farmers may transplant seedlings because it can help reduce pests as well as help crops to fight off weeds (Volente, 2021). This can in turn help women farmers who are especially given the laborious task of removing weeds manually (Volente, 2021). Transplanting is also undertaken to jumpstart crops in small irrigated nurseries, prior to the onset of rainfall, to help extend the growing season. Manual transplanting causes musculoskeletal problems including lower back pain by having to work in awkward positions, as well as hip and knee pain, by forcing farmers to kneel, bend and assume an uncomfortable posture (Xiao et al., 2012). In recent years, tools to transplant vegetable crops have increased, as manual labour becomes more expensive and is also prone to human error such as non-uniform spacing between seedlings (Jorg et al., 2021). In this chapter, I will describe 3 types of transplanting tools, which differ in design, cost and efficiency. </p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Pottiputki Transplanting Tool (Expensive)</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p><b>Background:</b></p>
<p>The Pottiputki transplanting tool is shown in Figure 1 below. This tool has become very popular amongst some farmers (BCC, n.d.). To use this tool, farmers stab the hollow tube into the soil, open the jaws of the tool by stepping on the pedal, drop the seedling in the tool so it can travel down the hollow tube into the ground, pull the tool out of soil, close the jaws and repeat (Bare Mountain Farm, 2017). This tool also has lots of flexibility: farmers can change how deep the seedling goes into the soil (Bare Mountain Farm, 2017). It is also very efficient, able to transplant 400-500 seedlings per hour (Bare Mountain Farm, 2017). The tool is used to transplant a diversity of crops including most flowers, vegetables, and fruits (Bare Mountain Farm, 2017).</p>
<p>[[Image:Lkj.jpg|thumb|centre|Figure 1. The Pottiputki transplanting tool (https://stuewe.com/product/55mm-pottiputki/)]]</p>
<p><b>Benefits</b></p>
<p>The Pottiputki planting tool offers many benefits for farmers. It is very important for farmers to maintain an ergonomically correct working position to avoid any pain or discomfort (BCC, n.d.). The Pottiputki tool is tall and works in a way that the farmer can stand while using the tool and not have to bend down. This can reduce back and knee problems. The Pottiputki tool is also lightweight (2.92 kg) and comfortable, making it possible for women and people of different strengths to use the tool for hours (BCC, n.d.). This tool is able to plant seedlings of many types of crops, has a sturdy construction, and increases the chances of seedling establishment success due to its mechanics which make the soil less compact (BCC, n.d.). The tool reduces the tiredness of farmers and makes them able to transplant 40% more seedlings than if done manually in the same amount of time (BAP Equipment, n.d). </p>
<p><b>Cost and access</b></p>
<p>The Pottiputki planting tool can be bought online or in stores for around $275 USD (BAP Equipment, n.d). However, if this is unaffordable, small scale farmers can buy cheaper versions made by different companies (Walmart, n.d). Farmers can also share these tools at the village level using a cooperative, or a local entrepreneur can purchase it using a microfinance loan and make it into a fee-for-service business.</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Widger Stainless Steel Seedling Transplanting Tool (Not expensive)</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p><b>Background:</b></p>
<p>Some farmers may want a smaller and less expensive tool for smaller scale plantings (e.g. home gardens). For this, the Widger Stainless Steel Seedling tool is ideal, as shown in Figure 2 below. This smaller tool, which is about the size of a hand, a farmer should make an indentation in the soil with the end of the tool, pick up small seedlings with the tool using the correct end depending on the seedling size, place the seedlings in the hole and cover with soil (TerroirSeeds, n.d). The tool has been shown to be helpful for multiple crops, including small radish or beets (Gardens, n.d.).</p>
<p>[[Image:Lpo.jpg|thumb|centre|Figure 2. The Widger stainless steel seedling transplanting tool (Source: https://store.underwoodgardens.com/Widger-Stainless-Steel-Seedling-Tool/productinfo/T1095/]]</p>
<p><b>Benefits</b></p>
<p>The Widger seedling tool has numerous benefits. One end of the tool is smaller and curved perfectly to carry seedlings that are very small. The tool is strong and therefore not easily breakable; it fits into the average hand; the curved support helps prevent injuring fragile seedlings; and the tool is the ideal size to open up spaces in the soil before transplanting (Burgon & Ball, 2022).</p>
<p><b>Cost and access:</b> The Widger stainless steel tool costs only $10 USD on many websites (TerroirSeeds, n.d).</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Gripper Tools to Transplant Vegetable Seedlings</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p><b>Background:</b></p>
Tools designed specifically to transplant vegetable seedlings include the the needle gripper and the two-finger gripper. These tools are shown in Figure 3 and Figure 4 below, respectively. These two types of grippers work very similar to each other with just a few differences (Jorg et al., 2021). For the two-finger gripper, a farmer can change the closing angle of the gripper as well as have a soft touch on their fingers due to the polyurethane foam which can stop any pain that may arise from continuous gripping (Jorg et al., 2021). On the other hand, the needle gripper grasps the seedlings with two needles, and the farmer is able to regulate the distance between the needles to fit the size of the seedlings they are transplanting (Jorg et al., 2021). To use the grippers, one should grip the handles with their fingers, put the tool into the soil over the seedling, and push the handles together to grip the seedling for transplanting (Jorg et al., 2021).</p>
<p>[[Image:Hyti.jpg|thumb|centre|Figure 3. Two-finger gripper vegetable seedling transplanting tool (Source: https://www.mdpi.com/2624-7402/3/3/43/htm)]]</p>
<p>[[Image:Jhn.jpg|thumb|centre|Figure 4. Needle gripper vegetable seedling transplanting tool (Source: https://www.mdpi.com/2624-7402/3/3/43/htm)]]</p>
<p><b>Benefits:</b></p>
<p>Gripper tools for vegetable transplanting have many benefits. Just like the previous tools discussed, the grippers transplant seedlings at a faster rate than traditional methods, saving labour time and money for farmers (Jorg et al., 2021). In one study, farmers tested both gripper tools on four different vegetable crop for their ability to transplant seedlings and the subsequent success of the seedlings (Jorg et al., 2021). Both grippers had great success lifting the seedlings from their tray; the two finger gripper had a success rate of 95%, while the needle gripper had a success rate of 81.75% (Jorg et al., 2021). Overall, the two finger gripper worked best and was most successful with lettuce and chicory.</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Critical Analysis </h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>The Pottipuki planting tool is a good tool overall to transplant large numbers of seedlings; however it may have difficulty transplanting soft seedlings that are floppy at early stages which causes them to roll around inside the tool (e.g. Dianthus ornamental plants) (Baremtnfarm, 2017). As for the Widger tool, it is only effective for tiny seedlings (TerroirSeeds, n.d). A tool that is able to transplant seedlings of all sizes could potentially benefit farmers and reduce the money they spend on tools. The two gripper tool for vegetable crops is very successful at lifting seedlings without damaging the plant (Jorg et al., 2021). However, when the needle gripper was tested with leek vegetable seedlings, when the tool lifted the seedlings, the soil frequently got detached from the roots and sometimes shattered (Jorg et al., 2021). Additionally, overlapping leaves of different seedlings sometimes made it difficult for the two-finger gripper to transplant seedlings, although this problem did not occur with the needle gripper (Jorg et al., 2021). These tools can save a farmer time which in turn saves money, and also saves the farmer strain and pain from manual transplanting. </p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Practical Links To Get Started </h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Alibaba and Indiamart have inexpensive seedling transplanters starting at $10 USD: Search “Seedling transplanter” at Alibaba.com and Indiamart.com</p>

<p>How to use Pottiputki planting tool
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RDVr6X_jfh8.</p>

<p>Where to buy Pottipuki planting tool
https://www.walmart.ca/en/ip/Garosa-Seedling-Transplanter-Transplanting-Tool-1pc-Seedling</p>

<p>More cost efficient Pottipuki planting tool
g-Planter-Vegetable-Young-Plant-Garden-Greenhouse-Manual-Transplanting-Tool/19L9E962BMWV </p>

<p>Stainless steel transplant tool
https://store.underwoodgardens.com/Widger-Stainless-Steel-Seedling-Tool/productinfo/T1095/ </p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">References</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>1.Bare Mountain Farm (2017) Pottiputki- Great Planting Tool. www.baremtnfarm.com (Retrieved September 29, 2022)</p>

<p>2.BAP Equipment (n.d.). Pottiputki planting tool. BAP Equipment Ltd. Retrieved September 29, 2022, from https://www.bapequipmentstore.com/index.php?l=product_detail&p=1031m,</p>
<p>3.BCC (n.d.). Retrieved September 29, 2022, from http://pottiputki.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/Planting_email.pdf </p>
<p>4.Jorg, O. J., Sportelli, M., Fontanelli, M., Frasconi, C., Raffaelli, M., & Fantoni, G. (2021). Design, development and testing of feeding grippers for vegetable plug transplanters. AgriEngineering 3(3), 669-680. https://www.mdpi.com/2624-7402/3/3/43/htm </p>
<p>5.Burgon and Ball. (2022). Seedling Widger. Burgon and Ball company website. Retrieved September 29, 2022, from https://www.burgonandball.com/products/seedling-widger</p>
<p>6.Walmart. (n.d.). Garosa seedling transplanter: Walmart Canada. Walmart.ca. Retrieved September 29, 2022, from https://www.walmart.ca/en/ip/Garosa-Seedling-Transplanter-Transplanting-Tool-1pc-Seedling-Planter-Vegetable-Young-Plant-Garden-Greenhouse-Manual-Transplanting-Tool/19L9E962BMWV </p>
<p>7.Volente, G. (2021, March 23). Transplanting plants: Reasons, methods, & examples. Greenhouse Today. Retrieved December 2, 2022, from https://www.greenhousetoday.com/transplanting-plants-reasons-methods-examples/ </p>
<p>8.Widger stainless steel seedling tool. Terroir Seeds, Underwood Gardens. (n.d.). Retrieved September 29, 2022, from https://store.underwoodgardens.com/Widger-Stainless-Steel-Seedling-Tool/productinfo/T1095/ </p>
<p>9.Xiao, H., McCurdy, S. A., Stoecklin-Marois, M., Li, C.-S., & Schenker, M. (2012). Agricultural work and chronic musculoskeletal pain among Latino Farm Workers: The MICASA study. American Journal of Industrial Medicine 56(2) 216-225 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3593628/</p>
<p>10.YouTube. (2017). Cool Tool Speeds up Planting. YouTube. Retrieved September 29, 2022, from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RDVr6X_jfh8. </p>
</div>
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Template:Chapters 7.7

2023-01-02T18:39:58Z

62.8.66.139:

<div>
<div class="title"><h3>7.7 - Pesticide seed application</h3><br><h3 class="ch-owner">Nick Moroz, University of Guelph, Canada</h3></div>
<div class="hero-img-2">
[[File:4.jpg|300px]]
<p>Suggested citation for this chapter.</p>
<p>Moroz,N (2022) Pesticide seed application. In Farmpedia, The Encyclopedia for Small Scale Farmers. Editor, M.N. Raizada, University of Guelph, Canada. http://www.farmpedia.org</p>
</div>
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<div class="center-side" style="max-width: 100%;margin-right: 3%;">
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Introduction to Pesticide Seed Treatment and Alternative Seed Treatments</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Seed treatment – the application of insecticides, fungicides and/or other growth-promoting materials to seeds – is a rapidly expanding field for pre-harvest pathogen control, working effectively to kill and reduce pests and pathogens living directly on or within seeds as well as in the soils surrounding a treated seed (Mancini & Romanazzi, 2014; Taylor & Harman, 1990). Fungi and insect pathogens, including seed-borne pathogens, can infect a variety of seeds while also harboring disease and potentially transferring infection to the next seasons’ crops (Munkvold, 2009, p.295). There are a variety of seeds vulnerable to many pathogens, including cereals and vegetable seeds, requiring sterilization and protection (Mathre, Johnston, & Grey, 2006; Mancini & Romanazzi, 2014). Pesticide seed treatments have been shown to prevent plant disease epidemics caused by seed-borne infections, while also reducing the amount of pesticides needed to manage disease (Mancini & Romanazzi, 2014). An effective seed treatment requires a relatively small amount of pesticides to treat a seed, and new systemic pesticides will eliminate the need for multiple foliar or field applications of pesticides later in the growing season (Mancini & Romanazzi, 2014; Taylor & Harman, 1990). Seed-borne pathogens are killed before they get into the field, saving money and resources.</p>

<p>Applications of fungicides are almost always effective (Mancini & Romanazzi, 2014). However, they can also have poor effects on their non-target environment as well as contribute to greater pathogen resistance (Mancini & Romanazzi, 2014). Furthermore, aggravated use of pesticides can pose a serious hazard to farmers applying these substances without advanced safety equipment. Although pesticide seed treatment was found to be a substantial solution to reduce overall pesticide use, alterative disease-reducing treatments to pesticide use have also been sought to completely eliminate synthetic pesticide use (Mancini & Romanazzi, 2014).</p>

<p>Although the main goal of this critical review is to point to the effectiveness of pesticide seed treatment, it also directs the reader to consider effective alternative treatments, including physical treatments and bio-pesticides and bio-control agents. These alternatives can be used with pesticide seed treatments or if pesticide seed treatments are not an option. Chapters on “Compost Teas” and “Surface Sterilization of Seeds” within this encyclopedia also provide more information on less-effective but beneficial technologies. Overall, modern pesticide seed treatments are a safe and affordable pest and pathogen preventative measures, leading to increased seedling survival, disease-free plants and higher yields (Taylor & Harman, 1990).</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">What is Pesticide Seed Treatment?</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Pesticide seed treatments are specifically the application of a small amount of chemical agents to seeds in order to provide protection to seeds, at the time of planting and thereafter, against a broad range of pests and pathogens, while also helping with the establishment of healthy crops (Taylor & Harman, 1990). Plant pathogens can reduce the quantity and quality of seeds harvested for future planting seasons, and can also preserved in seed lots if they are seed-borne pathogens, leading to infection and disease in future crops (Mancini & Romanazzi, 2014). Thus, management of plant diseases is important as it directly impacts current yields, disease prevalence, and the quality of seeds that will be used for future yields (Mancini & Romanazzi, 2014).</p>

<p>Synthetic pesticides (fungicides, insecticides, etc.) for foliar use (i.e. pesticide leaf-spray) have some major drawbacks, as they are expensive and are typically not effective against viruses. Often foliar and soil spraying-pesticides are applied manually and in excess in regions with poor knowledge of sustainable pesticide management, posing a threat to human health and the environment. However, pesticide seed applications use less pesticide and can effectively reduce plant disease while also being much more affordable.</p>

<p>pesticide seed application can greatly enhance crop disease-resistance while reducing the harmful effects of aggravated pesticide use on humans and the environment. Fungicides represent a variety of modern pesticide chemicals used to treat seeds. Modern fungicides used today for seed treatment are generally low in toxicity to plant and animal life and are applied in such low doses they have a minimized impact on the environment (Mathre, Johnston, & Grey, 2006). Doses of these modern fungicides can be as low as 1 gram of active ingredient per hectare (0.4 grams/acre), resulting in a cost per hectare that is usually less than $5 per hectare and often lower than $2.50 per hectare, making seed treatment one of the least expensive growing applications on farms (Mathre, Johnston, & Grey, 2006).</p>

<p>The seed and crop protection industries have rapidly expanded both insecticide and fungicide seed applications since the 1990s, while also aiming to reduce the harmful impacts of active ingredients (Munkvold, 2009; Elbert, Haas, Springer, Thielert, & Nauen, 2008). This has led to systemic seed treatments that fight disease during germination, emergence, and plant growth (Munkvold, 2009). While breeding crops for pathogen resistance is key, crop protection products, such as seed treatments, are also needed to address unanticipated agronomic challenges (Munkvold, 2009). Finally, modern seed treatments can be, and is often, more than a single coating of fungicide or insecticide, and can contain several layers of active ingredients, wetting agents, colorants, and bird/wildlife repellents (DeLiberto & Werner, 2016; Munkvold, 2009).</p>

</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Insecticides Seed Treatment for Fighting Pests and Pathogens</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>This section outlines various insecticide seed treatments, the diseases they control, the chemicals used, and their systemic/non-systemic effects on preventing insect-related plant disease. Table 1.0 outlines various seed-applied insecticide chemicals that have become widespread in the past two decades, most notably the neonicotinoid chemicals. Insecticide seed treatments only became widespread with the introduction of neonicotinoid active ingredients, starting with imidacloprid in 1991 (Munkvold, 2009; Elbert et al., 2008). Prior to this some insecticides were approved but use was often limited and sometimes dangerous (Munkvold, 2009). Imidacloprid was first used as a seed treatment for maize in 1995 and was replaced by thiamethoxam in 1997 and clothianidin in 2003 (Munkvold, 2009). Since 2000, approximately 90% of the maize planted in the USA has been seed treated with either thiamethoxam or clothianidin (Munkvold, 2009). The increased use of pesticides seed treatment in crops like maize is prevalent, and this trend is occurring for many other crops, such as in sugarbeet in the United Kingdom (Munkvold, 2009). Sugarbeet insecticide seed treatment applications went from 0% in 1993 to 75% in 2002 in the area sown to sugarbeet, corresponding to a 95% drop in overall insecticide use in sugarbeets in the United Kingdom (Munkvold, 2009). This drop occurred because soil-applied insecticides were readily replaced by insecticide seed treatments (Munkvold, 2009). Now the same seed-applied insecticides (thiamethoxam or clothianidin) are also used on canola, soybean, and cottonseeds throughout North America (Munkvold, 2009).</p>
[[File:Capture_98.JPG]]
<p>Adapted from: Munkvold, 2009 and aPaulsrud et al., 2001; aPaulsrud et al., 2001; bYao et al., 2006; cHainzl & Casida, 1996; dGunning et al., 1996; eNauen et al., 2003</p>
<p>Insecticides seed treatments can be broad spectrum, meaning they are toxic to a variety of insects, or narrow spectrum, meaning they specifically target only a one or a few insect species. Seed-applied insecticides are used to control soil-borne insects, but these compound also have the systemic ability to control above ground leaf (foliar) and stem-feeding insects (Munkvold, 2009). The modern active ingredients mentioned in table 1.0 can provide broad-spectrum, long-lasting control of pests and diseases (Munkvold, 2009; Elbert et al., 2008). Pesticide seed treatments opened the door to more seed applications, going further than simple seed-dressings to include film coating, pelleting or multilayer coating (Elbert et al., 2008). Neonicotinoids are used for seed treatment in cotton, corn, cereals, sugar beet, oilseed rape and other crops to control against a broad range of plant disease from different orders (Coleoptera, Lepidoptera, Diptera, etc.) (Elbert et al., 2008).</p>

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<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Fungicides Seed Treatment for Fighting Pests and Pathogens</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>As in the previous section, this section outlines various fungicide seed treatments, the diseases controled, the chemicals employed, and the various modes of action of these treatments that prevent fungal-related plant disease. Table 2.0 outlines various seed-applied fungicidal chemicals that have also become widespread in the past two decades, as well as some older chemicals, such as Carboxin, which was introduced in the late1960s. Historically, fungicides were developed using dangerous sulfur, copper and mercury compounds, but the toxicity of these compounds resulted in the banning of these substances for health and environmental reasons (Mancini & Romanazzi, 2014). The use of mercury fungicides continued up until the 1970s, when concerns of their toxicity in humans and animals let to their expiration (Mathre, Johnston, & Grey, 2006). Now fungicide seed treatments protect seedlings from common soil-inhabiting fungi that often cause seed rots and damping-off diseases (Paulsrud et al., 2001). </p>
[[File:Capture_101.JPG]]
[[File:Capture 102.JPG]]
<P>Because is environmental and health concerns, there was a need to find strong replacements that were effective and affordable, and Carboxin was the first modern systemic fungicide to act as a replacement (Mathre, Johnston, & Grey, 2006). Carboxin was found to prevent loose smut in wheat and barley and to prevent common bunt in wheat (Mathre, Johnston, & Grey, 2006). This is impressive as loose smut pathogen can survive from one season to the next by living inside the seed embryo, so the fungicide had to penetrate into the developing seed and eliminate the pathogen (Mathre, Johnston, & Grey, 2006). Carboxin was effective in this regard (Mathre, Johnston, & Grey, 2006). Now fungicides can control various plant diseases, helping farmers produce grains (Mathre, Johnston, & Grey, 2006). Table 3.0 outlines the modes of action of many of the chemicals listed in table 2.0. Readers are directed to Mathre, Johnston, and Grey’s (2006) review, which outlines many applications of fungicidal seed treatments for fighting a variety of diseases that impact wheat and barley in a useful and concise summary.</P>
[[File:Capture_103.JPG]]
<p>Like insecticides, fungicide seed treatments can be broad spectrum or narrow spectrum and there are various types of fungicides, including contact fungicides and systemic fungicides, in which the latter can destroy pathogens living within seed tissue (Mancini & Romanazzi, 2014). Successful seed treatment depends on the pathogen’s location within the seed (Mancini & Romanazzi, 2014). Contact fungicides do not stop internal infections and are only effective in preventing fungal spores from growing on the seed surface (Mancini & Romanazzi, 2014). Cytotropic fungicides do penetrate the outer seed layers where some fungal infections can persist (Mancini & Romanazzi, 2014). Finally, other systemic fungicides can penetrate deep into the seed, protecting against early infection from airborne and soil-borne diseases, although these fungicides are more effective later in seed development (Mancini & Romanazzi, 2014). As such, based on the fungicide’s purpose and the disease threats, farmers can select the appropriate fungicide for a particular seed treatment.</p>
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<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Protection of Seeds and Seedlings</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Without seed treatment, it may be difficult to control for seed-borne or early season pests and diseases (Mancini & Romanazzi, 2014). Alternative treatments would have to be sought, and this could lead to the need for foliar pesticide spraying that is both harmful and expensive. Environmental stresses, including heavy rains, crusted soils, deep planting, cool soil, and very dry soils, led to ideal settings for even weak pathogens to contribute to plant population losses in young plants infected since germination and mal-equipped to survived extended such environmental stressors (Paulsrud et al., 2001).</p>

<p>Non-systemic fungicides or insecticides form a chemical barrier over the surface of the germinating seed preventing pests and pathogens from entering from systemic fungicides or insecticides protect the foliar parts from insects, diseases, and root rot (Paulsrud et al., 2001). Even a delay in infection can reduce plant losses due to stressors while early infection leads to more damage (Paulsrud et al., 2001). Some seed treatments last 10-14 days beyond planting, while other active ingredients can protect seedlings much longer if applied at the highest specified rate and given favorable environmental conditions (Paulsrud et al., 2001). Typically pesticide breakdown is most rapid in warm and moist conditions (Paulsrud et al., 2001). Finally, seed treatments can assist in plant-stand formation when seeds are planted in unfavorable soils or slow to germinate (Paulsrud et al., 2001; Mancini & Romanazzi, 2014).</p>
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<h1 class="title-bg">Specific Types of Seed Treatments</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Seed coating includes any process that for the addition of materials to seeds, but pesticide seed treatment itself has many forms, and seed coating can refer to seeds that have been dressed with dry powder, coated, or pelleted (Taylor & Harman, 1990). Seed dressing is when a dry formulation or a wet liquid formulation of this powder is applied to seeds and this method can be applied at the farm level (Taylor & Harman, 1990). However, these materials do not adhere well to the seed surface and active ingredients may be lost, therefore seed dressings are best applied in the form of a slurry (Taylor & Harman, 1990; Sharma, Singh, Sharma, Kumar, & Sharma, 2015). Seed coating is a formulation used with a special binders that enhance adherence of the active ingredient to the seed, increasing the seed size and shape (Taylor & Harman, 1990). Adhesives used for seed coating include methyl cellulose, dextran, gum Arabic, and vegetable oils (Taylor & Harman, 1990). Finally, seed pelleting an advanced seed treatment, changing the seed size and weight with the addition of multiple inert fillers/adhesives that also work to enhance seed growth and protection (Taylor & Harman, 1990). Seed coating and pelleting usually require treatment application machinery and, therefore, can be more expensive (Taylor & Harman, 1990; Paulsrud et al., 2001). Seed coating and pelleting has been reviewed (Taylor & Harman, 1990) and are not discussed further in this chapter.</p>

<p>In order for the safe application of insecticide/fungicide seed treatments, or combinations of active ingredients to seed treatments, ensure the composition of the seed treatment is thoroughly understood. The quality of the final seed treatment will depend on the treatment mixture, processing conditions, the application rate of the formulation, and the equipment available (Paulsrud et al., 2001). Seed treatments can be applied to true seeds (corn, wheat, soybean, all which have a seed coat and embryo conformation) or to vegetative propagation materials (including bulbs, corms, or tubers), such as potato seed pieces (Paulsrud et al., 2001). All pesticide seed treatment active ingredients and additives are applied to the seed stage.</p>

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<h1 class="title-bg">Advantages and Disadvantages of Pesticide Seed Treatment</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Seed treatments have many important benefits, as outlined in the above sections, but they also pose some risks that should be considered. As many of the advantages of seed treatment are mentioned above, this section will outline some of the risks and disadvantages to seed treatment to offer a critical approach.</p>
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<h1 class="title-bg">Advantages</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Seed treatments are very effective are preventing seed-borne pathogens, such as smut or bunt, by protecting seeds and attacking these pathogens when they are weak during their seed-borne phase (Paulsrud et al., 2001). Seedlings are generally more vulnerable to disease then mature plants, so the timing of seed treatment is optimal (Paulsrud et al., 2001). It should be noted that seed treatments, in protecting against pathogens and insects, can also ensure uniform stand establishment of crops, as is done for maize in many parts of the USA (Paulsrud et al., 2001). Seed treatments can also suppress root rots in some crops (Paulsrud et al., 2001). Finally, as mentioned in previous sections, new systemic seed treatments provide an alternative to traditional broadcast pesticide sprays for early-season foliar diseases (Paulsrud et al., 2001). </p>
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<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Disadvantages </h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>The risks of pesticide seed treatments revolve around human, environment, and food supply exposure to pesticides. Accidental exposure to workers who produce and apply seed treatment poses a constant risk of seed treatments (Paulsrud et al., 2001). Contamination of food supplies via accidental mixing of treated seed with finished foods is also a risk (Paulsrud et al., 2001). Treated seeds are intended for planting and can be harmful if ingested. Accidental poisoning is also a concern for livestock, as treated seed can look like food to animals, and some seed treatments may require grazing restrictions (Paulsrud et al., 2001). </p>

<p>The treated seed itself has a limited active ingredient capacity and duration of protection (Paulsrud et al., 2001). The treatment is limited to how much active ingredient will stick to the seed, which is why seed-coatings can help (Paulsrud et al., 2001). Still, there is a short duration of protection because of the small amount of ingredient applied, the dilution of the chemical as the plant grows, and its natural breakdown (Paulsrud et al., 2001). At high-doses, a few treatments can partially cause plant-toxicity, or phytotoxicity, damaging tender seed tissue and possibly leading to lower germination and stunting, although generally treatment phytotoxicity is low (Paulsrud et al., 2001).</p>

<p>On a macro-level, an increase of chemical inputs in seed treatments can have the negative effects of increased pathogen resistance as well as the spreading of active ingredients to non-target organisms in the environment (Mancini & Romanazzi, 2014). Furthermore, pesticide seed treatments have been shown to significantly impact the plant rhizosphere’s (root system) fungal and bacterial communities, although the consequences of these effects must be further studied and taken in context (Nettles et al., 2016). Finally, workers can be exposed to the active ingredients of pesticides when applying seed treatments.</p>
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<h1 class="title-bg">Seed Treatment as Part of Integrated Pest Management </h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Combining the use of synthetic pesticides and organic or ecological approaches is called Integrated Pest Management (IPM). The goal is IPM is to maximize crop productivity while minimizing the damages caused by pests and pathogens, while also using the practical resources available and minimizing environmental damages. IPM also aims to reduce pesticide residues from entering the food supply chain and environment, encouraging natural methods for pest control (Paulsrud et al., 2001; Elbert et al., 2008). Seed treatment is thus an integral part of IPM (Paulsrud et al., 2001). Pesticide seed treatment can control pests while reducing pesticide use per hectare, operator expose to pesticides, and can fit well into IPM programs (Elbert et al., 2008). Seed treatment can then be used in combination with biological mechanism to further control pests with IPM.</p>

<p>To implement IPM, identify the pests of interest and consider integrated synthetic and biological options needed to effectively manage the pest. This encyclopedia can direct the reader to other biological methods in this chapter outlined below as well as chapters on “Compost Teas” and “Surface Sterilization of Seeds” and that can be blended with the pesticide seed treatments discusses above for IPM. IPM calls for an integration of pesticide seed treatments with alternative methods for pest and pathogen control.</p.
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<h1 class="title-bg">Supplemental Seed Treatment Additives </h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Seed treatment products often contain a variety of additives to supplement the active ingredient, such as seed treatments with enhanced adhesive coatings in the pelleted form (Elbert et al., 2008; Paulsrud et al., 2001). If important additives are not in the initial seed treatment then they can be added to any pretreatment mixing tank before seed coating (Paulsrud et al., 2001). Be aware of the potential for redundant additives already supplied in the initial formulation in order to conserve resources (Paulsrud et al., 2001). Colorants are also a useful additive, often used to distinguish treated seeds from food grain for animals and to ensure uniformity in treatment coverage on seeds (Paulsrud et al., 2001). A specific colourant, Anthraquinone, has been shown to selectively repel birds from eating seeds treated with it, resulting from a learned avoidance of seeds treated with Anthraquinone by Avian species (DeLiberto & Werner, 2016). Anthraquinone is a common dye and a safe chemical repellent, deterring many wild birds, as well as mammals, from consuming treated seeds (DeLiberto & Werner, 2016).</p>
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<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Summary</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>In general, insecticide and fungicide seed treatments can eradicate or reduce seed-borne pathogens and are more reliable than the proposed alternative treatments, such as physical treatment, or biological controls (Mancini & Romanazzi, 2014). Despite this, alternative treatments are still often effective and sometime as effective as chemical treatments, especially physical treatments (Mancini & Romanazzi, 2014). Chemical seed treatments with insecticides and fungicides, along with alternative seed treatments, can improve crop stand quality and increase crop yields through protection and disinfection from seed-borne, and later airborne and soil-borne, pathogens (Mancini & Romanazzi, 2014).</p>
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<h1 class="title-bg">Picture Based Lesson to Train Farmers</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
[[Image:8.7 image.jpg|thumb|centre|Picture Based Lesson to Train Farmer|Click on the image to access a higher resolution image as well as lessons adapted for different geographic regions.]]</p>
<p><i>For the South Asian version (pictures only, text for you to insert), click this link for lesson 8.7:http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/8.7_south_asian.pdf</i></p>
<p><i>For the East/South Asian version (pictures only, text for you to insert), click this link for lesson 8.7:http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/8.7e.s.a.pdf</i></p>
<p><i>For the Sub-Saharan Africa/Caribbean version (pictures only, text for you to insert), click this link for lesson 8.7:http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/8.7subsaharan_africa_carribean.pdf</i></p>
<p><i>For the Latin-America version (pictures only, text for you to insert), click this link for lesson 8.7:http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/8.7latin_america.pdf</i></p>
<p><i>For North Africa And Middle East version (pictures only, text for you to insert), click this link for lesson Chapter 5. 7.7:http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/7.7n._africa_middleeast.pdf</i></p>
<p><i>Source: MN Raizada and LJ Smith (2016) A Picture Book of Best Practices for Subsistence Farmers: eBook, University of Guelph Sustainable Agriculture Kit (SAK) Project, June 2016, Guelph, Canada. Available online at: www.SAKBooks.com</i></p>

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<h1 style="background: #FBB03B;padding: 15px;font-weight: 600;color: #000;font-size: 22px;margin:unset;text-align:center;">Resources Moving Forward</h1>
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<p>FAO on integrated pest management: http://www.fao.org/agriculture/crops/core-themes/theme/pests/ipm/en/</p>
<p>FAO on chemical controls for seed storage: http://www.fao.org/docrep/t1838e/T1838E1g.htm#Chemical%20control%20techniques</p>
<p>Website on Pesticide Environmental Stewardship: https://pesticidestewardship.org/pollinator-protection/seed-treatment-concerns/</p>

<p>Excellent research book of many aspects of seed treatments: Gullino, M. L., & Munkvold, G. (Eds.). (2014). Global Perspectives on the Health of Seeds and Plant Propagation Material (Vol. 6). Springer.</p>
<p>Excellent outline of many pests and pathogens that seed treatments can prevent, as well as the many active ingredients in seed treatments that prevent infections: Paulsrud, B. E., Martin, D., Babadoost, M., Malvick, D., Weinzierl, R., Lindholm, D. C., ... & Maynard, R. (2001). Oregon pesticide applicator training manual. Seed treatment. University of Illinois Board of Trustees, Urbana.</p>

<p>Queensland Government Website on Integrated Pest Management: http://ipmguidelinesforgrains.com.au/ipm-information/chemical-control/seed-dressings-treatments/</p>
<p>OMAFRA: http://www.omafra.gov.on.ca/english/crops/insects/ipm.html</p>
<p>USDA: http://www.ipmcenters.org</p>
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<h1 class="title-bg">References</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>1. Bartlett, D. W., Clough, J. M., Godwin, J. R., Hall, A. A., Hamer, M., & Parr‐Dobrzanski, B. (2002). The strobilurin fungicides. Pest management science, 58(7), 649-662.</p>

<p>2. Davidse, L. C., Looijen, D., Turkensteen, L. J., & Van der Wal, D. (1981). Occurrence of metalaxyl-resistant ttrains of Phytophthora infestans in Dutch potato fields. European Journal of Plant Pathology, 87(2), 65-68.</p>

<p>3. DeLiberto, S. T., & Werner, S. J. (2016). Review of anthraquinone applications for pest management and agricultural crop protection. Pest management science, 72(10), 1813-1825.</p>

<p>4. Elbert, A., Haas, M., Springer, B., Thielert, W., & Nauen, R. (2008). Applied aspects of neonicotinoid uses in crop protection. Pest management science, 64(11), 1099-1105.</p>

<p>5. Gunning, R. V., Moores, G. D., & Devonshire, A. L. (1996). Insensitive Acetylcholinesterase and Resistance to Thiodicarb in AustralianHelicoverpa armigeraHübner (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae). Pesticide Biochemistry and Physiology, 55(1), 21-28.</p>

<p>6. Hainzl, D., & Casida, J. E. (1996). Fipronil insecticide: novel photochemical desulfinylation with retention of neurotoxicity. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 93(23), 12764-12767.</p>

<p>7. Huston, D. H., Roberts, T. R., & Jewess, P. J. (1999). Metabolic Pathways of Agrochemicals part 2. Instecticides and Fungicides. Royal Society of Chemistry.</p>

<p>8. Mancini, V., & Romanazzi, G. (2014). Seed treatments to control seedborne fungal pathogens of vegetable crops. Pest management science, 70(6), 860-868.</p>

<p>9. Mathre, D. E., R. H. Johnston, and W. E. Grey. 2001. Small Grain Cereal Seed Treatment. The Plant Health Instructor. DOI: 10.1094/PHI-I-2001-1008-01.Updated, 2006.</p>

<p>10. Morton, V., & Staub, T. (2008). A short history of fungicides. APSnet Features.</p>

<p>11. Munkvold, G. P. (2009). Seed pathology progress in academia and industry. Annual review of phytopathology, 47, 285-311.</p>

<p>12. Nauen, R., Ebbinghaus-Kintscher, U., Salgado, V. L., & Kaussmann, M. (2003). Thiamethoxam is a neonicotinoid precursor converted to clothianidin in insects and plants. Pesticide Biochemistry and Physiology, 76(2), 55-69.</p>

<p>13. Nettles, R., Watkins, J., Ricks, K., Boyer, M., Licht, M., Atwood, L. W., ... & Koide, R. T. (2016). Influence of pesticide seed treatments on rhizosphere fungal and bacterial communities and leaf fungal endophyte communities in maize and soybean. Applied Soil Ecology, 102, 61-69.</p>

<p>14. Paulsrud, B. E., Martin, D., Babadoost, M., Malvick, D., Weinzierl, R., Lindholm, D. C., ... & Maynard, R. (2001). Oregon pesticide applicator training manual. Seed treatment. University of Illinois Board of Trustees, Urbana.</p>

<p>15. Sharma, K. K., Singh, U. S., Sharma, P., Kumar, A., & Sharma, L. (2015). Seed treatments for sustainable agriculture-A review. Journal of Applied and Natural Science, 7(1), 521-539.</p>
16. Taylor, A. G., & Harman, G. E. (1990). Concepts and technologies of selected seed treatments. Annual review of phytopathology, 28(1), 321-339.</p>

<p>17. Taylor, A. G., & Harman, G. E. (1990). Concepts and technologies of selected seed treatments. Annual review of phytopathology, 28(1), 321-339.</p>

<p>18. Yao, X. H., Min, H., Lü, Z. H., & Yuan, H. P. (2006). Influence of acetamiprid on soil enzymatic activities and respiration. European Journal of Soil Biology, 42(2), 120-126.</p>

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<div class="title"><h1>Crop pest and disease control</h1></div>
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<h2>Crop rotation with a legume (bean) reduces pests/diseases**</h2>
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<h2>Evaluating the use of respirators for small scale farmers to protect them from pesticide sprays</h2>
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<h2>A,b,c vinegar, bleach, saltwater treatment of seeds</h2>
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<h2>Aflasafe to prevent aflatoxin contamination of grain in Africa</h2>
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<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapters_7.12 Read More]</div>
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Template:Chapter 7

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<div class="title"><h1>Crop pest and disease control</h1></div>
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<span class="cha-title cha-title-2">Chapter 7.1</span>
<h2>Crop rotation with a legume (bean) reduces pests/diseases**</h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapters_7.1 In progress]</div>
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<span class="cha-title cha-title-2">Chapter 7.2</span>
<h2>Evaluating the use of respirators for small scale farmers to protect them from pesticide sprays</h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapters_7.2 Read More]</div>
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<span class="cha-title cha-title-2">Chapter 7.3</span>
<h2>Backpack sprayers for smallholder farmers</h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapters_7.3 Read More]</div>
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<span class="cha-title cha-title-2">Chapter 7.4</span>
<h2>Water floatation to remove sick seeds before sowing</h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapters_7.4 Read More]</div>
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<span class="cha-title cha-title-2">Chapter 7.5</span>
<h2>Heat treatment of vegetable seeds</h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapters_7.5 Read More]</div>
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<span class="cha-title cha-title-2">Chapter 7.6</span>
<h2>A,b,c vinegar, bleach, saltwater treatment of seeds</h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapters_7.6 Read More]</div>
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<span class="cha-title cha-title-2">Chapter 7.7</span>
<h2>Pesticide seed application</h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapters_7.7 Read More]</div>
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<span class="cha-title cha-title-2">Chapter 7.8</span>
<h2>A,b Manure tea field spraying and seed application</h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapters_7.8 Read More]</div>
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<span class="cha-title cha-title-2">Chapter 7.10</span>
<h2>Push-pull intercropping to reduce flying insects</h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapter_7.10 Read More]</div>
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<span class="cha-title cha-title-2">Chapter 7.11</span>
<h2>Replenishing food of wild animals to prevent crop damage</h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapters_7.11 Read More]</div>
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<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title cha-title-2">Chapter 7.11</span>
<h2>Aflasafe to prevent aflatoxin contamination of grain in Africa</h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapters_7.11 Read More]</div>
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Template:Chapters 8.6

2023-01-02T15:34:16Z

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<div>
<div class="title"><h3>8.6 - Anti-ripening fruit bags </h3><br><h3 class="ch-owner">Samantha Martin, University of Guelph, Canada</h3></div>
<div class="hero-img-2">
[[File:4.jpg|300px]]
<p>Suggested citation for this chapter.</p>
<p>Martin,S. (2022) 8.6 - Anti-ripening fruit bags . In Farmpedia, The Encyclopedia for Small Scale Farmers. Editor, M.N. Raizada, University of Guelph, Canada. http://www.farmpedia.org</p>
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<h1 class="title-bg">Introduction</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Many smallholder farmers rely on the trading of fruits for income. Women are the most active sellers, making up roughly two thirds of the sellers, with 30% of them being children (Moyane et al., 2012). It was reported that over half of women’s income come from selling fruits as it is there only source of livelihood (Moyane et al., 2012). Therefore, post-harvest loss due to fruit ripening can have a negative impact on a farmer’s income. It has been reported that 40-50% of horticultural crops are lost before they can even be consumed due to fruit decay during post-harvest handling (Ahmad et al., 2015). Approximately one third of all fresh fruits and vegetables are lost before they are able to reach consumers (Ahmad et al., 2015). Diets that lack the incorporation of fruits and vegetables are often deficient in micronutrients such as iron, folic acid, vitamin A and zinc. A deficiency in micronutrients has the greatest impact on women, children, and the elderly (Tulchinsky, 2010). Deficiencies in micronutrients can contribute to birth defects, immune deficiency, stunting, obesity, thyroid deficiency, colorectal cancer, and cardiovascular diseases (Tulchinsky, 2010).</p>
<p>The loss of fruits is largely blamed on the lack of refrigeration, resulting in ripening and rotting (Moyane et al., 2012). While there is nothing that can be done to fully stop ripening, there are some innovations that can be implemented to slow it down. Anti-ripening fruit bags are a way to mitigate this food waste and preserve foods. This type of packaging extends the shelf life of foods, while maintaining their nutritional quality, inhibiting the growth of pathogenic and spoilage microorganisms (Keep it Fresh, 2022). Anti-ripening fruit bags are made with d2p ethylene adsorber technology developed to reduce spoilage of fresh fruit and vegetables (Keep it Fresh, 2022). Ethylene is a gas hormone that is released by fruits that causes the ripening of climactic and non-climatic fruits (Gaikwad et al.,2020). Climatic fruits include apples, bananas, mangos, and melons, while non climatic fruits include strawberries, grapes, and raspberries. In African regions it is climacteric fruits that are primarily grown, including apples, bananas, melons, and tomatoes An increase in ethylene also triggers a rise in respiration; this causes the colour of the fruit to change. Once ripening has been initiated by ethylene, the process cannot be stopped. </p>
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<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Details And The Usage Of Anti-Ripening Fruit Bags </h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>When fruit start to ripen, they release the gas hormone ethylene, which accelerates the ripening of nearby fruits (Etana, 2018). An effective way to govern the production of ethylene is through the use of an ethylene absorber, which takes ethylene out of circulation. Often the absorbing agent is an ethylene-permeable sachet, or fine particles of clay incorporated into packaging film (Gaikwad et al.,2020; Mabusela et al., 2021). Absorbers are materials that physically absorb and hold the ethylene molecule from the surrounding environment (Gaikwad et al.,2020) . The low oxygen environment and high carbon dioxide levels in packaging are able to reduce the ethylene accumulation and respiration rates of the fruits (Gaikwad et al., 2020).</p>
<p>Once fruits are harvested or purchased, they are placed in the bags, which should then be tied at the top or simply folded and then kept in a cool dry location. This practice will allow for an extended life of the fruit, allowing it to be sold in markets at a higher price. These bags are environmentally friendly and are easy to use; a male or female farmer can use them; and they require no extra physical labour since the bags are light weight they are easy to store and transport. The bags can also be reused multiple times if they are not damaged, which makes them even more sustainable. </p>
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<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Benefits Of Anti-Ripening Fruit Bags </h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Anti-ripening fruit bags can increase income by 40-60% (Acedo Jr et al., 2010). Ethylene absorbing packaging has been shown to prolong the life of many fruits such as bananas, apples, broccoli, and mangos. One experiment showed that, ethylene absorbing technologies could extended the life of harvested bananas for up to 18-36 days, broccoli for 20 days, mangos for up to 16 days, and apples up to 12 days (Wei, 2021). This technology is an excellent way to prolong quality and reduce waste without having to substantially increase costs (Wei, 2021). Using the brand “Keep it Fresh” as an example, an ethylene adsorbing bag costs 0.50 USD per bag or 2 bags for $1 USD and are re-usable (Keep it Fresh, 2022). This method is very practical as traditional cool storage or refrigeration is not always accessible as only 43% of the population in Sub Saharan Africa have access to electricity while 80% of people live without it (Tapsoba et al., 2021). Cool storage can conserve the fruit, but it cannot prevent it from spoilage or damage. However, if cool storage was combined with ethylene absorbing packaging it could have a synergistic effect. Effective storage is crucial to improve agricultural incomes and food security for small scale farmers. </p>
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<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Critical Analysis </h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Anti-ripening fruit bags are a post-harvest option to consider when trying to be cost efficient, ecofriendly, and sustainable. The bags are made by multiple companies, making the product easily accessible. Typically, the bags come in small sizes, each bag measures 17” x 7” x 4” and is gusseted, allowing for extra room (Keep it Fresh, 2022). The bags are sold in packs ranging from 10-30 reusable bags per package. The produce bags are reusable and washable for up to 10 uses (Keep it Fresh, 2022).The bags have been shown to prolong the life of mangos, bananas, broccoli, and apples, as noted above, but they could also be used for fresh cut flowers, and high value herbs such as cilantro. There are also wholesale vendors that are available that would be even more cost efficient but require bulk orders. These bags can be sold in local markets with a marketing strategy using picture-based lessons (see below). In order to initiate farmer demand, “Keep it Fresh bags” could be promoted on Farm Radio International to raise awareness. While there are many benefits to this product, two challenges are its small volume and the long-term plastic waste that it generates; a biodegradable version is needed,</p>
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<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Conclusion</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>When considering ways to improve farmers income and reduce food for smallholder farmers in Africa and elsewhere, anti-ripening fruit bags have potential. As just one example, the amount of food lost in South Africa due to poor post-harvest handling is equivalent to 2.1% of that country’s annual GDP (Nahman et al., 2013). It is already known that ethylene absorbing packaging has the ability to extend the life of fruits and vegetables for longer periods of time. Implementing this technology so that it is readily available for smallholder famers could reduce waste and improve incomes.</p>
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<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Further Information Regarding Ethylene Absorbing Packaging </h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9QAWl_G9geo&t=4s
Video explain how to use anti rippeing fruit bags</p>

<p>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bCOo7BFb1ZA&t=109s
Video explain how ethylene affects fruits</p>

<p>https://conservatis.com/en/home/ethylene-absorbent-bag
Ethylene removing bags from a wholesaler: quantity of 400- unit price of €0.27</p>

<p>https://www.purchasekart.com/collections/keep-it-fresh/products/map-bags
Freshness bags sold in boxes</p>

<p>https://www.fao.org/3/au186e/au186e.pdf
Information on post-harvest handling and packaging</p>

<p><b>Picture based training lessons for farmers</b></p>
<p>http://www.sakbooks.com/south-asia-pictures-only.html</p>
<p>http://www.sakbooks.com/eastsoutheast-asia-pictures-only.html</p>
<p>http://www.sakbooks.com/sub-saharan-africacaribbean-pictures-only.html</p>
<p>http://www.sakbooks.com/latin-america-pictures-only.html</p>
<p>http://www.sakbooks.com/north-africa-and-middle-east-pictures-only.html</p>
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<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">References</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>1. Acedo Jr, A. L., & Weinberger, K. (2010). Vegetables postharvest: Simple techniques for increased income and market. AVRDC: The World Vegetable Center. Taiwan and GTZ-Regional Economic Development Program. Cambodia (KH). https://avrdc.org/aarnet/download/manuals/Veg_PHT_guide_2nd_Edition_Eng_Final.pdf</p>

<p>2. Ahmad, M. S., & Siddiqui, M. W. (2015). Factors affecting postharvest quality of fresh fruits. In Postharvest Quality Assurance of Fruits (pp. 7–32). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-21197-8_2</p>

<p>3. Boz, Z., Welt, B. A., Brecht, J. K., Pelletier, W., McLamore, E., Kiker, G. A., & Butler, J. E. (2018). Review of challenges and advances in modification of food package headspace gases. Journal of Applied Packaging Research, 10(1), 5, 64</p>

<p>4. Etana, M. B. (2018). Review on the effects of ethylene (C2H4) on quality of fresh fruit and vegetable. The case of banana and tomato. Basic Research Journal of Agricultural Science and Review, 6(5), 34-38.</p>

<p>5. Gaikwad, K. K., Singh, S., & Negi, Y. S. (2020). Ethylene scavengers for active packaging of fresh food produce. Environmental Chemistry Letters, 18(2), 269–284. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10311-019-00938-1</p>

<p>6. Mabusela, B. P., Belay, Z. A., Godongwana, B., Pathak, N., Mahajan, P. V., Mathabe, P. M. K., & Caleb, O. J. (2021). Trends in ethylene management strategies: towards mitigating postharvest losses along the South African value chain of fresh produce - a review. South African Journal of Plant and Soil, 38(5), 347–360. https://doi.org/10.1080/02571862.2021.1938260</p>

<p>7. Moyane, J. N., Mashau, M. E., & Jideani, I. A. (2012). Assessment of post-harvest losses of fruits at Tshakhuma fruit market in Limpopo Province, South Africa. African Journal of Agricultural Research, 7(29), 4145–4150. https://doi.org/10.5897/AJAR12.392</p>

<p>8. Nahman, A., & de Lange, W. (2013). Costs of food waste along the value chain: Evidence from South Africa. Waste Management (Elmsford), 33(11), 2493–2500. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2013.07.012</p>

<p>9. Saltveit, M. E. (1999). Effect of ethylene on quality of fresh fruits and vegetables. Postharvest Biology and Technology, 15(3), 279–292. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0925-5214(98)00091-X</p>

<p>10. Tapsoba, L. D. S., Kiemde, S. M. A., Lamond, B. F., & Lépine, J. (2022). On the potential of packaging for reducing fruit and vegetable losses in sub-Saharan Africa. Foods, 11(7), 952–. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods11070952</p>

<p>11. Tulchinsky, T.H. Micronutrient deficiency conditions: Global health issues. Public Health Rev 32, 243–255 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03391600

<p>12. Wei, H., Seidi, F., Zhang, T., Jin, Y., & Xiao, H. (2021). Ethylene scavengers for the preservation of fruits and vegetables: A review. Food Chemistry, 337, 127750–127750. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2020.127750</p>
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Template:Chapter 1.6

2023-01-02T15:09:04Z

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<div>
<div class="title"><h3>1.6 - Low-cost tools to sow seeds</h3><br><h3 class="ch-owner">Amira Radwan Ahmed, University of Guelph, Canada</h3></div>
<div class="hero-img-2">
[[File:4.jpg|300px]]
<p>Suggested citation for this chapter.</p>
<p>Amira,R,A. (2022) Low-Cost Tools To Sow Seeds. In Farmpedia, The Encyclopedia for Small Scale Farmers. Editor, M.N. Raizada, University of Guelph, Canada. http://www.farmpedia.org</p>
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<h1 class="title-bg">Current Methods to Sow Seeds</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>The current methods used by small-scale farmers to sow seeds are low cost but may be laborious or unattainable for certain households. Current sowing methods involve 2-3 people working together utilizing very few tools: usually a man will steer the cattle so they can create grooves in the soil while one or two women follow behind and drop the seeds into the grooves. However, as men in more rural communities are often unavailable as they have other responsibilities such as migrant work to generate income, they may not be able to help the women steer the cattle. In certain cultures, there is a certain taboo against women handling cattle (Meyer-Rochow, 2009), and therefore they would be unable to sow seeds if a male is not present to help them. It is important while conducting research on low-cost sowing tools to find tools that are durable, lightweight, and the correct height for women for them to be capable of sowing seeds independently. It is also important that these tools are adjustable for varying seed sizes, low-cost and able to be shared amongst different households to share cost. </p>
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<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Low-Cost Tools to Sow Seeds</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Seed sowing tools that low-cost, efficient, and durable tools are crucial for subsistence farmers. </p>
<p><i>•Electric sowing machines:</i> An efficient option for a seed sowing tool is a motorized seed sowing machine.</p>
<p>[[Image:Mcbv.jpg|thumb|centre|Figure 1: Electric seed planter from Alibaba.com .]]</p>
<p>The cost of such machines ranges from $60-90 USD for several vegetable crops and are available from Alibaba.com and Indiamart.com. This machine is made of metal and plastic and is around 55X25X60 cm in size, hence it is not too large and can be easily utilized by women farmers. This product takes away the labour of manually planting vegetables such as onions, tomatoes, and greens along with small and medium seeds such as sesame, which would include bending over and digging pits for many hours a day. Utilizing an electric machine would allow a farmer to sow more than 10 acres daily. The machine shown in Figure 1 is easy to operate and is portable which would be very suitable for small areas and sloping fields. This would be very simple for women farmers to utilize as it is small, durable, and simple to use. However, as this is an electric machine, it is more expensive than a manual machine, and may be unaffordable for small-scale farmers. This machinery is very simple to use, hence an unskilled farmer is also able to handle such machine (Swapnil et al., 2017). Such machinery has great potential to increase the productivity of planting; it is made ith raw materials which saves a lot of cost in the project and can be easily replicated in workshops (Swapnil et al., 2017). However, as this is a motorized machine, there is a cost of the metering device and the sensors.</p>
<p><b>•Manual seed sowing machines:</b> By doing some searching on Indiamart.com and Alibaba.com, there are some cheaper manual options that would be easily attainable and usable by women subsistence farmers.</p>
<p>[[Image:Mnty.jpg|thumb|centre|Figure 2: Agricultural Manual Seeder from Indiamart.com.]]</p>
<p>On Indiamart.com. there is a “Really Agricultural Manual Seeder RAPL-MS-2D” listed for ₹1,600 which would convert to $19.67 USD (see link at the end of this chapter). As shown in Figure 2: this machine is manually operated and is suitable for cultivated soils, especially sandy soils which would be ideal for subsistence farmers. This tool can be used to sow wheat, maize (corn), peanut (groundnut), beans, cotton and more. The efficiency of this machine is at least 4 times more than that of manual seeding. The price of this tool is much lower than the motorized seed sowing machine, making it more affordable for subsistence farmers, however it will be much less efficient. Compared to the 10 acres that could be sown using the motorized machine, this manual seeder will only allow one person to sow 8000-10 000 m2. This easy to use tool that can be shared amongst households easily. This tool is very lightweight and easy to use for women farmers as it is small and simple in operation.</p>

<p>Although these low-cost tools are very attainable for small-scale and subsistence farmers, they are mostly manual which results in a slow and very laborious process, especially for women farmers as they may be heavy or difficult to move around in remote areas. Manual sowing of small vegetable seeds is a slow and labour-intensive operation, which limits the production capacities of vegetable nurseries in India (Gaikwad & Sirohi, 2008). Although high capacity, imported, motorized seeders are very efficient, they are also high in cost, due to this they have not been adopted by subsistence farmers.</p>

<p><b>•Manual push-type planter:</b> To increase efficiency while also maintaining a low-cost and attainable manual labour for women subsistence farmers, a manually operated push-type planter is ideal as shown in Figure 3 below.</p>
<p>[[Image:Ytp.jpg|thumb|centre|Figure 3: Manual push-type planter from Alibaba.com]]</p>
<p>This machine has one wheel and is pushed by a farmer along a row to plant seeds. This machine is lightweight, affordable, and easy to use as it controls the planting depth and the number of seeds that can be planted in each hole. The Department of Farm Power and Machineries at the Bangladesh Agricultural University conducted research on the design and development of a low-cost planter for maize seeds as shown in Figure 4 below:</p>
<p>[[Image:Poli.jpg|thumb|centre|Figure 4: Low-cost planter for maize establishment designed by Bangladesh Agricultural University]]</p>
<p>This study explains how maize cultivation is manual, which is extremely time consuming, labour intensive and costly (Rabbani et al., 2016). This maize planter reduces these problems as it consists of two runner wheels, a seed hopper, an inclined plate type seed metering device, a seed tube, a pair of bed former and handle (Rabbani et al., 2016). This machine has two runner wheels that are used to move the planter forwards or backwards. The handle is used to push the planter, and the machine is manually operated to make it cost effective. This planter was designed to maintain the desired seed rate of 25-30 kg/ha; the operational cost of this planter was tested to achieve 410 Tk/ha while manual planting of maize is normally 5250 Tk/ha, showcasing that this planter can save around 92% of the cost for maize planting. The pushing force of the planter was 90 N which is quite low, meaning it is very attainable for women to operate it (Rabbani et al., 2016). The planter is cost effective, easy to operate, simple in design and light in weight. From the research conducted by the Bangladesh Agricultural University, this planter is very efficient, durable, and cost effective, however it was only designed to plant maize which can be noted as a disadvantage as subsistence farmers would require a cost-effective tool that is versatile in planting many different types of seeds. This product has not yet been sold to subsistence farmers as it was designed and tested as a prototype. The findings of this prototype showcase that this tool would be extremely beneficial to small-scale farmers and the idea could easily be picked up for production and sales by entrepreneurs.</p>
<p><b>•Pneumatic seeder:</b> Another great and effective low-cost tool for sowing seeds is a pneumatic seeder that was tested for its performance on sowing capsicum and tomato seeds in a plug tray as shown in Figure 5:</p>
<p>[[Image:Ftyu.jpg|thumb|centre|Figure 5]]</p>
<p>Figure 5: Pneumatic seeder for nursery plug trays from Biosystems Engineering Journal
This seeder is capable of making indents in one row of cells in a plug tray while simultaneously placing single seeds in the indented holes (Gaikwad & Sirohi, 2008). This seeder transfers the seed from the seed hopper into an air duct by an electrically controlled seeding shaft. This seeder can handle a bulk quantity of seeds and plant across large acreages efficiently. It also requires low maintenance and upkeep. However, as this is a motorized machine, it would be cost effective and may need some skills to operate which would not be ideal for small-scale farmers. The capacity of this seeder ranges between holding 38,000 and 60,000 planting holes. This tool is also in a prototype stage as it was being designed and researched for its efficiency and cost-effectiveness; if it were picked up for production by entrepreneurs it may be cost effective. The total cost of sowing 1000 holes using a prototype precision plug seeder was found to be equivalent to around $0.034 USD, which was only 15.27% of the estimated cost of manual sowing (Gaikwad & Sirohi, 2008). </p>
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<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Conclusion</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>It is important that subsistence farmers have access to low-cost tools to sow seeds for that can easily be operated by women by being light-weight, simple in design, not extensively laborious and most importantly, efficient. On Indiamart.com and Alibaba.com, there are very affordable manual options that would be easy to use and can be easily shared amongst households, such as hand sowing machines and manual seeders. The studies and research conducted by agricultural scientists in Bangladesh and India showcase the best, low-cost tools for subsistence farmers such as the push-type planter for maize establishment and the pneumatic seeder for sowing capsicum and tomato seeds in a plug tray. Both tools have proven to be even more efficient and lower in cost than manual planting and seeding. Even though there are disadvantages to low-cost sowing tools such as extensive manual labour and low rates of efficiency, these two seeders have been tested on their performance and efficiency and have proven to be more effective than manual sowing or other low-cost tools. As mentioned previously, one of the most important factors of utilizing low-cost tools is the ability for them to be easily operated and utilized by women subsistence farmers, meaning that they must be light in weight, appropriate in height and easy to move around in remote areas; the push-type planter for maize establishment is a great example of this. Low-cost tools may not always be the most efficient or effortless, however in low-income, remote, and small-scale areas, they are most definitely a necessity; finding the correct tool that decreases the disadvantages of low-cost tools is crucial. </p>
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<h1 class="title-bg">Links to Useful Resources</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>https://www.alibaba.com/product-detail/Electric-vegetable-chili-seed-planter-carrot_1600509625313.html?spm=a2700.7724857.0.0.257a423coBsKYP
Electric Seed Sowing Machine</p>

<p>https://www.indiamart.com/proddetail/really-agricultural-manual-seeder-rapl-ms-2d-26173527173.html?pos=21&kwd=seed%20sowing&tags=||||8042.3813|Price|product
Really Agricultural Manual Seeder - Indiamart.com</p>

<p>https://www.alibaba.com/product-detail/Hand-sowing-machine-5-rows-seeds_1600091127571.html?spm=a2700.galleryofferlist.normal_offer.d_title.14ba2381JqKBvo
Hand Sowing Machine - Alibaba.com</p>

<p>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=z2e06WZOkpE
Video Demonstration of Hand Sowing Machine</p>

<p>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7elxhlxwwQY
Video Demonstration of Pneumatic Seeder</p>

<p>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wSGBpcVbhCs
Video Demonstration of Push-Type Maize Planter</p>

<p><b>Picture Based Lessons to Train Farmers</b></p>
<p>http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/2.6subsaharan_africa_carribean_engversion.pdf</p>
<p>http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/chapter_2.5s.a.e.pdf</p>
<p>http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/2.8east_southeast_asia_englishversion.pdf</p>
<p>http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/2.9latin_america_eng_version.pdf</p>
<p>http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/2.2n._africa_middleeast_eng_version.pdf</p>
<p> SAKBooks Picture Lessons on Sowing and Tools</p>
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<h1 class="title-bg">References</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>1. Gaikwad, B. B., & Sirohi, N. P. S. (2007) Design of a low-cost pneumatic seeder for nursery plug trays Biosystems Engineering 99(3), 322-329. Retrieved from https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S153751100700298X#!</p>
<p>2. Meyer-Rochow, V. B. (2009). Food taboos: Their origins and purposes - journal of ethnobiology and ethnomedicine. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 5, 18. https://ethnobiomed.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1746-4269-5-18</p>
<p>3. Rabbani, M. A., Hossain, M. M., Asha, J. F., & Khan , N. A. (2016). Design and development of a low-cost planter for maize establishment. Journal of Science, Technology and Environment Informatics, 4 (01), 270-279. Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/311393820_Design_and_development_of_a_low_cost_planter_for_maize_establishment</p>
<p>4. Swapnil, T., Kasturi, M. L., & Girish, P. (2017). Design and fabrication of seed sowing machine. International Research Journal of Engineering and Technology (IRJET), 4(9), 704-707 Retrieved from https://www.irjet.net/archives/V4/i9/IRJET-V4I9122.pdf</p>
<p>5. Thomas, D. (2004). Low-cost tools for seed collection and seed sowing. Native Plants Journal, 5(1), 54–55. http://www.jstor.org/stable/43310306</p>
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<div class="title"><h3>1.7 - Reducing seedling crowding after sowing (thinning)</h3><br><h3 class="ch-owner">Ethan Brock, University of Guelph, Canada</h3></div>
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[[File:4.jpg|300px]]
<p>Suggested citation for this chapter.</p>
<p>Brock,E. (2022)Reducing seedling crowding after sowing (thinning). In Farmpedia, The Encyclopedia for Small Scale Farmers. Editor, M.N. Raizada, University of Guelph, Canada. http://www.farmpedia.org</p>
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<h1 class="title-bg">Introduction to Seedling Crowding</h1>
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<p>The success or failure of a smallholder farmer's crops is influenced by several variables, including germination percentage, seed planter accuracy, cost per seed, plant space per block, and costs of handling, thinning, and transplanting labour, among others (Steenis, 1970). The most common direct sowing practice, especially amongst smallholder farms, is to plant multiple seeds in the same place, due to the expectation of low rates of seed germination (Steenis, 1970). However, when crops are too close to each other, they will compete for the nutrients, water and sunlight they need (Steenis, 1970). Such competition results in lower initial growth rates, but ultimately one plant in the crowd becomes dominant, taking up most of the nutrients in the space. Thinning should be done as soon as possible to start this dominant plant’s full rate of growth potential when it is young. </p>
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<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Thinning Requires Labour</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>It is evident that eventually, adding more seeds does not increase the final yield but rather overcrowds the plants and adds labour due to the benefit of reducing the plant population (thinning plants). For example, sowing one seed with an 85% germination success rate per space will result in only 15% empty space. Sowing two seeds with the same rate may decrease the empty space to only 2% but can add thinning labour by 72% (Dumroese, 2009). In this case, it would have been better to over sow a smaller percent of the crop to reduce the time required for subsequent thinning (Dumroese, 2009).</p>
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<h1 style="background: #FBB03B;padding: 15px;font-weight: 600;color: #000;font-size: 22px;margin:unset;text-align:center;">Grain versus Fodder</h1>
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<p>If a farmer has a need to grow fodder grain for livestock, there may be an option for them to produce fodder and grain more efficiently at the same time. A seed lot with an 80% germination rate is an example. The likelihood of at least one surviving seed in 96% of the seedling slots is achieved by sowing two seeds per slot, but this method necessitates thinning and still would leave 4% of the slots empty. These unfilled cavities can be justified by an over-sow factor of 105% at the very least. Over-sowing factors above this minimum can be used to raise the "green stem count." The green stem count is useful to raise fodder, but otherwise, oversowing should stay to the minimum followed by thinning if required. No more than a small percentage of slots should be vacant after seeding (Steenis, 1970).</P>
<P>A test was done with maize, revealing a method to follow when thinning that allows farmers to grow more green fodder. Variations of two, three, and four seeds of maize were sown in each hole with regular spacing, and after eight and fourteen weeks the smallest plant or the second-largest plant was removed from each space. For producing grain, two plants per hole were allowed to grow. With no discernible impact on the grain production, increasing the planting density to three and four seeds per hole enhanced the output of green fodder. Without influencing the grain output, thinning large plants as opposed to small plants, resulted in more green forage thinning. On small farms, forage output could be increased by planting maize at higher densities than usual than thinning the crop (Methu, 2001).</p>
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<h1 class="title-bg">Lessons From Weeds Among Maize</h1>
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<p>During its early growing stages, maize is the crop that is one of the most susceptible to weed competition (Rajcan, 2001). Weeds fight with maize plants for resources including light, nutrients, space, moisture, and water, similarly, to overplanting in crops. It is the same concept as when two seeds are sown together and one plant takes nutrients from the other, resulting in a lower or lesser quality yield (Rajcan, 2001). Lessons can therefore be learned about thinning, from weed studies. It has been shown that weed control is a crucial management technique for yield that should be implemented to guarantee the highest grain output months later. It has been shown that weed control is essential during the first 4 to 6 weeks after crops are planted to prevent weeds from reducing crop yields. The point is that early season weed competition lowers yields further than late in the season, and so by extrapolation, thinning should occur as early as possible after sowing (Rajcan, 2001). </p>
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<h1 class="title-bg">Lessons from Maize in Kenya</h1>
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<p>Most Kenyan small-scale farmers sow a sizable number of acres of maize each year, making it the country's main food crop, with grain being the primary reason maize is farmed (Njoka, 2004). The suggested planting method for Kenyan hybrids and synthetics is one seed per space, which many farmers typically implement to maximise grain yield (Njoka, 2004). This method does not, however, allow for the thinning-based generation of feed. Farmers can use high planting densities along with a suitable thinning regiment during the vegetative phase of maize crops to reduce empty space in the crop and produce fodder through the season (Njoka, 2004).</P>

<P>In this study, the most suitable number of maize seeds per hole to produce fodder was 8. However, it produced the least amount of grain of any thinning strategy. It was hypothesised that the competition for available resources caused the grain yield to decline as the seeding rate increased. A significant amount of grain and fodder yields were produced with 2 seeds per hole and thinning (Njoka, 2004).</p>
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<h1 class="title-bg">Lessons From Intercropped Sunflower And Soybean </h1>
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<p>A field study was conducted to examine the forage potential, in terms of productivity and quality, of thinned sunflower and soybean intercrops. The study used three nitrogen (N) fertiliser rates (70, 105, and 140 kg N per ha) and three ages at forage removal (thinning), namely 15, 30, and 45 days after sowing for sunflower, and 30, 45, and 60 days for soybean (Nawar, 2020). The evaluated soybean and sunflower fodder characteristics were not significantly affected by changing the nitrogen rate. With increasing the nitrogen rate, soybean fiber content greatly dropped while the crude protein and dry matter contents of sunflower and soybean significantly rose. The study's findings showed that after thinning, the removed sunflower and soybean plants could be used as feed while the remaining plants in the field could be used to produce seeds. Nitrogen fertiliser rate had no effect on forage yield and quality in the trial; however, forage removal at 30 and 45 days after sowing for sunflower and soybean, optimised forage yield and quality (Nawar, 2020). Primarily attempting to produce seeds, delaying thinning until a later maturity stage, would have a negative impact on the final seed output. This method would optimise the intercropping system's advantages, particularly on smallholder farms (Nawar, 2020).</p>
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<h1 class="title-bg">Lessons From Cotton In Africa </h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Contrary to many other annual crops, cotton yields are mostly unaffected by differences in plant spacing (Robinson, 1994). The main issue is that the operations of planting and thinning, which are carried out when there is labour scarcity, are made more difficult by closer spacing. Additionally, it makes labor-intensive processes like harvesting and sorting more difficult.</p>
<p>Typically, the first effort includes hand thinning. Initiatives that assist farmers in overcoming labour shortages in their fields during initial weeding would help to expedite thinning, which might increase yields by 10 to 15 percent. A common spacing used by smallholders in Africa for cotton is 37,000 plants per ha (Robinson, 1994).</p>
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<h1 class="title-bg">Labour and Cost of Thinning </h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>The cost per seed, if determined, offers a compelling reason to spare seed. To plant the crop, there is a basic fee per space. The price varies based on how many extra seedlings need to be thinned in each space. A percentage of seedling production costs can be considered to carry less weight when growing larger and more desirable seeds, which counter balances the cost of thinning. This has to do with how much it costs to have each empty space, which is more expensive for higher quality seed. A more expensive seed can raise costs, but also lower costs and labour when it comes to thinning after they are sown. With a higher success rate of the seed, there is less needed waste in the form of putting 2 or 3 seeds in one space. This will encourage there to be less required thinning and less vacant space (Steenis, 1970).</p>

<p>As a lesson, a farmer can imagine a scenario of a one cent per seed price based on Steenis’ study. Depending on a farmer’s circumstances, this may appear high or low. If the germination rate was 94% and single seeding resulted in a 1 cent increase in the minimal cost per seedling, and any increase in sowing raised the cost of each seedling by similarly substantial amounts from seed and thinning expenses, then planting up to 2 seeds per space progressively increases the costs. But after that, the law of diminishing returns prevails. In this instance, 1 seed per slot (hole) results in the lowest cost per seedling generated, however, one can think about sowing up to 2 seeds per slot if the growth space is limited, thus reducing the required growth space by 8%. Beyond 2 seeds in each space, it would become expensive, and the farmer is also not saving any further land area. Single seed planting becomes more economically feasible with smaller crop sizes, good for smallholder farms (Steenis, 1970).</p>

<p>It is expensive, risky, and takes time to transplant thinned seedlings into empty slot, but if done correctly, it may be rewarding. This strategy can be applied to lower both the sowing factor and the oversowing factor. To generate enough thinned seedlings to enable transplanting to 100% crop fill, the sowing factor simply must be slightly increased. Compared to just planting multiple seeds and throwing away the thinned seedlings, far less seed is needed. By doing this, it is also possible to lower the green stem count and reach 100% fill. However, the seedlings may not survive transplanting (Dumroese, 2009). When transplanting is the plan, a transplanting tool can be very helpful.</p>
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<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Practical Tips And Further Reading</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Competition between plants: https://www.jstor.org/stable/2462213#metadata_info_tab_contents</p>
<p>Harvest and planting costs: https://www.fao.org/3/ca6411en/ca6411en.pdf</p>
<p>Growing cotton in Africa: https://doi.org/10.1017/s0014479700024856 </p>
<p>Intercropping sunflower and soybean: https://orgprints.org/id/eprint/19489/4/19489.pdf</p>
<p>Effects of weeds within crops: https://zaszambia.wordpress.com/2020/11/22/effects-of-weeds/</p>
<p><b>Picture based training lessons for farmers</b></p>
<p>http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/chapter_2.7_s.a.e.pdf
5 versions</p>
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<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">References</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>1. Steenis, E. van. (1970, January 1). Calculating optimum sowing factor: A tool to evaluate sowing strategies and minimize seedling production cost. US Forest Service Research and Development. Retrieved November 10, 2022, from https://www.fs.usda.gov/research/treesearch/45630 </p>
<p>2. Rajcan, I., & Swanton, C. J. (2001). Understanding maize–weed competition: Resource competition, light quality, and the whole plant. Field Crops Research, 71(2), 139–150. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0378-4290(01)00159-9 </p>
<p>3. Methu, J.N, Owen, E, Tanner, J.C, Abate, A.L. (2001). The effect of increasing planting density and thinning on forage and grain yield of maize in Kenyan smallholdings. Tropical Science, 41(2): 68-73. From, https://hdl.handle.net/10568/29813 </p>
<p>4. Nawar, A. I., Salama, H. S. A., & Khalil, H. E. (2020). Additive intercropping of sunflower and soybean to improve yield and land use efficiency: Effect of thinning interval and nitrogen fertilization. Chilean Journal of Agricultural Research, 80(2), 142–152. https://doi.org/10.4067/s0718-58392020000200142</p>
<p>5. Dumroese, R. K., Luna, T., & Landis, T. D. (2009). Nursery Manual for native plants: A guide for tribal nurseries. U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Forest Service https://www.fs.usda.gov/rm/pubs_series/wo/wo_ah730/wo_ah730_153_175.pdf</p>
<p>6. Meland, M. (2009). Effects of different crop loads and thinning times on yield, fruit quality, and return bloom inmalus×domesticaborkh. ‘elstar.’ The Journal of Horticultural Science and Biotechnology, 84(6), 117–121. https://doi.org/10.1080/14620316.2009.11512607 </p>
<p>7. Robinson, J. B. (1994). Improving cash crops in Africa: Factors influencing the productivity of cotton, coffee and tea grown by smallholders (World Bank Technical Paper No. 216.) by S. J. Carr. The World Bank, Washington DC. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0014479700024856 </p>
<p>8. Njoka, E. M., Muraya, M. M., & Okumu, M. (2004). Plant density and thinning regime effect on maize (Zea mays) grain and fodder yield. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture, 44(12), 1215. https://doi.org/10.1071/ea03015</p>

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Template:Chapter 1

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<div class="title"><h1>Land preparation and sowing</h1></div>
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<h2>Low-cost grain moisture sensor for drying and storing grain</h2>
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<h2>Soaking seeds before planting (seed priming)</h2>
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<h2>Sowing seeds in rows (line sowing)</h2>
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<h2>Evaluation of low-cost fanning mills for cleaning seed</h2>
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<h2>Tools to sow seeds</h2>
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<h2>Reducing seedling crowding after sowing (thinning)</h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
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<h2>Tools to transplant seedlings</h2>
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<h2>Raking tool (e.g. to collect weeds)</h2>
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<h2>Back brace</h2>
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Chapters 8.5

2023-01-02T12:28:28Z

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<div class="title"><h3>8.5 - Improving grain storage to delay sales until commodity prices are high </h3><br><h3 class="ch-owner">Grant Larizza, University of Guelph, Canada</h3></div>
<div class="hero-img-2">
[[File:4.jpg|300px]]
<p>Suggested citation for this chapter.</p>
<p>Larizza,G (2022) Improving grain storage to delay sales until commodity prices are high. In Farmpedia, The Encyclopedia for Small Scale Farmers. Editor, M.N. Raizada, University of Guelph, Canada. http://www.farmpedia.org</p>
<h3 class="title-bg">Introduction</h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Improving storage, specifically in regards to grains, is absolutely essential to increase profits for smallholder farmers. Poor storage causes decay in the grain, which means the product must be sold before this occurs or later at a lower quality. Either of these options means that a farmer has to sell their grain at a lower price. The focus of this chapter will be on how improved grain storage can be adopted and can help farmers to sell when commodity prices are high. This will be accomplished through a critical analysis of different storage methods as well as practical links to get started. </p>
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<h3 class="title-bg">How Improved Grain Storage Can Be Adopted by Smallholder Farmers</h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Grain is susceptible to different kinds of insects such as the grain borer, maize weevil, and red flour beetle (Dowell et al., 2017). These are common pests that can infiltrate storage areas for grain and eat the harvest. Grain losses due to these pests are very high in developing countries and therefore need to be addressed using viable solutions. One of the most effective methods of improving grain storage in order to combat these insects is through controlling the atmosphere around grain (Dowell et al., 2017). This means lowering the oxygen or raising the carbon dioxide levels within the storage areas (Dowell et al., 2017). These conditions are met within the hermetic technologies discussed below. </p>
<p>Increasing carbon dioxide levels is relatively simple. It can be accomplished by adding composting materials into the grain storage area (Dowell et al., 2017). The decaying compost will raise the carbon dioxide levels so that insect activity is either reduced or nearly stopped altogether due to the death of the pests (Dowell et al., 2017). </p>
<p>Creating a low oxygen, air-tight (hermetic) environment is another method that can be effective at stopping different pests. This can be accomplished with glass jars, metal containers, Ziploc bags or even plastic bags (Dowell et al., 2017). In terms of effectiveness, glass jars and metal containers rank the highest among the items listed above (Dowell et al., 2017). Another strong option is the GrainPro grain storage bag. These are vacuum sealed bags that protect from insect infestation as well as maintain the quality of its contents (www.Grainpro.com). These are much more effective than Ziploc or plastic bags and have a relatively low cost (Dowell et al., 2017). Similarly, Purdue Improved Cowpea Storage (PICS) bags are also highly effective at preventing insects as well as keeping the quality of grain high. These bags will retain the quality of its contents as well as resist against disease (Sudini et al., 2015). Toxin accumulation is noted to be significantly lower in PICS over its cloth counterpart (Sudini etal., 2015).</p>
<p>Another viable option is the use of treated bags or bed nets to stop pests before they enter the grain area. Treated bed nets are readily available online and are an effective method at stopping insects from entering grain storage. The most effective way of using these bed nets is as a netting over top of an existing container filled with grain (Dowell et al., 2017). A study has shown that after one month, there were zero insects found within the grain (Dowell et al., 2017).</p>
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<h3 class="title-bg">How Improved Grain Storage Helps Smallholder Farmers</h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>While the points above demonstrate how different practices can be adopted, the other important topic to delve into is how these methods help smallholder farmers. Specifically, 50-60% of cereal grains are lost in the storage process in developing countries due to inadequacies (Kumar et al., 2017). With hermetic storage, this number can be reduced to 1-2% (Kumar et al., 2017). As well, poor storage conditions negatively affect micronutrients in the grain. All of these points demonstrate the need for better storage conditions for grain.</p>
<p>Aside from the positive nutrient benefits, these methods aid farmers in reaping a better profit. One of the biggest issues smallholder farmers currently face is timing in regards to selling grain. When grain storage is poor, the profit received by the farmer will be low due to grain being diseased or destroyed. Furthermore, farmers are forced to sell their grain at whatever the current market price is because they will lose too much if they attempt to wait (Luo et al., 2022). At harvest time, supply will be very large and commodity prices will drop, meaning the farmers will make much less (Luo et al., 2022). Improving grain storage means smallholder farmers can store grain until prices are high and then make the most profit (Luo et al., 2022). For example, within Canada, farmers store their grain within metallic grain silos and keep checking commodity prices until they increase enough for a good profit (Jayas et al., 2003). </p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">Critical Analysis/ Cost-Benefit </h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<P>While the points mentioned above demonstrate the benefits of improving grain storage, a critical analysis must be completed in order to evaluate the real-world application of these methods.</p>
<p>To begin, the method which uses composting material to increase carbon dioxide levels has zero cost due to the fact that composting materials are found readily on a farm. This can include any plant matter, from decaying leaves to banana peels. The results seem to show that this method is highly effective in terms of pest resistance and cost (Dowell et al., 2017).</p>
<p>Treated bed nets also seem to be an effective option considering the material is readily available within developing countries due to high insect levels affecting humans directly (Dowell et al., 2017). They can also be purchased from Alibaba.com for prices ranging of $1.98 USD - $2.30, depending on the quantity ordered (www.alibaba.com). The corresponding labour cost should be very low as all that is needed is to receive the material and cut it into bag like shapes.</p>
<p>Other storage methods such as glass jars or metal containers do well in terms of protecting against diseases and pests for seeds destined for replanting, but are too small to contain any significant amount of grain for food (Dowell et al., 2017). Making up for this with many containers would take up too much space as well as heavily increasing cost.</p>
<p>Hermetic storage bags are the other method, including GrainPro or PICS bags, are very effective due to the low oxygen conditions they create (Dowell et al., 2017). GrainPro bags are about $0.05 USD/kg and can be ordered from their website (www.grainpro.com) while PICS bags are between $2-4 USD depending on the region (Dowell et al., 2017; www.PICSnetwork.org). Notably, PICS bags are available at many dealers within Africa, and the specific locations can be found on their website (www.PICSnetwork.org). Although hermetic bags are an effective solution to improving grain storage, there have been some observed negatives. Insects can penetrate the bags from the outside which means the bags can get infested and ruin the low oxygen conditions (Dowell et al., 2017). One way to combat this is through raising the bags on pylons (www.grainpro.com). This height will stop certain pests from being able to attack the bags from ground level. Aside from insect prevention, storing grain off the ground serves other benefits. Rainwater and moisture collect on the ground which serves as a breeding area for insects (Zeigler et al., 2021). Keeping away from heavy rainwater collection areas as well as elevating the grain will help prevent the possible damages that could occur.</p>
<p>The economics of grain also play an important role in the selling process. Currently, maize prices have increased by 64% over the course of one year within Southern Africa (FAO, 2022). This means farmers who had to sell early, lost much of this price increase. More generally, however, grain prices are lowest at harvest and much higher late in a dry season or after planting in the subsequent rainy season; good grain storage could take advantage of such price increases. As discussed, oversupply during the harvest season causes a supply and demand imbalance (Luo et al., 2022). Being aware of this as well as commodity prices are both essential to a smallholder farmer but not always viable as markets can be far away. This is where an intermediary (e.g. friend or family member in the city) would be beneficial as they can provide a farmer with updates on market prices via SMS messages or voice calls or personal visits. The intermediary would have to be compensated so some of the profit would be diminished. Currently, farmers will sell their grain through middlemen which removes the hassle of transportation (Woodhouse et al., 2017). Overall, this is negative as a farmer will almost always be selling at a lower price if they do not know the market value.</p>
<p>In conclusion, these observations show the value of improving grain storage. These techniques can be implemented at a relatively low cost and will save smallholder farmers money in the long run. </P>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">Practical Links to Get Started</h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1KIO-P1ZsL8 (How to Use Hermetic Storage Bags (PICS)</p>
<p>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=05Mb9cmRv3Q (How to Use GrainPro Bags) </p>
<p>https://www.alibaba.com/product-detail/WHO-Approved-African-75D-100D-Direct_1600485613553.html?spm=a2700.galleryofferlist.normal_offer.d_title.7c0228c8sNNuIs (Link to Buy Treated Bed Net)</p>
<p>https://picsnetwork.org/ (Where to Buy PIC Bags)</p>

<p><b>Picture Based Lessons to Train Farmers</b></p>
<p>http://www.sakbooks.com/chapter-9---post-harvest1.html (South Asia Post Harvest Instructions)</p>
<p>http://www.sakbooks.com/chapter-9---post-harvest7.html (East/Southeast Asia Post Harvest Instructions)</p>
<p>http://www.sakbooks.com/chapter-9---post-harvest4.html (Sub-Saharan Africa/ Caribbean Post Harvest Instructions)</p>
<p>http://www.sakbooks.com/chapter-9---post-harvest.html (Latin America Post Harvest Instructions) </p>
<p>http://www.sakbooks.com/chapter-8---post-harvest1.html (North Africa and Middle East Post Harvest Instructions)</p>
<p>https://www.fao.org/3/t1838e/T1838E12.HTM (Long and Short Term Storage Methods for The Purpose of Drying)</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">References </h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>1. Dowell, F. E., & Dowell, C. N. (2017). Reducing grain storage losses in developing countries. Quality Assurance and Safety of Crops & Foods, 9(1), 93–100.</p>

<p>2. GrainPro. (n.d.). GrainPro. https://www.grainpro.com/grainpro-vacuum-bag</p>

<p>3. Kuyu, C. G., Tola, Y. B., Mohammed, A., Mengesh, A., & Mpagalile, J. J. (2022). Evaluation of different grain storage technologies against storage insect pests over an extended storage time. Journal of Stored Products Research, 96, 101945. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jspr.2022.101945</p>

<p>4. Luo, Y., Huang, D., Han, Y., & Wu, L. (2022). Storage losses, market development and household maize-selling decisions in China. China Agricultural Economic Review (ahead of print) https://doi.org/10.1108/caer-10-2021-0201</p>

<p>5. Purdue Improved Crop Storage (PICS). (n.d.). PICS. https://picsnetwork.org/</p>

<p>6. Who Approved African 75d/100d Direct Sell Long Lasting LLIN Treated Nylon Mosquito Net Bed Canopy (n.d.). Alibaba. https://www.alibaba.com/product-detail/WHO-Approved-African-75D-100D Direct_1600485613553.html?spm=a2700.galleryofferlist.normal_offer.d_title.7c0228c8sNNuIs</p>

<p>7. Ziegler, V., Paraginski, R. T., & Ferreira, C. D. (2021). Grain storage systems and effects of moisture, temperature and time on grain quality - A review. Journal of Stored Products Research, 91, 101770. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jspr.2021.101770</p>

<p>8. Kumar, D., & Kalita, P. (2017). Reducing Postharvest Losses during Storage of Grain Crops to Strengthen Food Security in Developing Countries. Food Science & Technology, 6(1), 8.</p>

<p>9. Sudini, H., Ranga Rao, G. V., Gowda, C. L. L., Chandrika, R., Margam, V., Rathore, A., & Murdock, L. L. (2015). Purdue improved crop storage (PICS) bags for safe storage of groundnuts. Journal of Stored Products Research, 64(SI), 133–138. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jspr.2014.09.002 </p>
<p>10. Jayas, D. S., & White, N. D. G. (2003). Storage and drying of grain in Canada: low cost approaches. Food Control, 14(4), 255–261. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0956-7135(03)00014-8</p>
<p>11. FAO (2022) Prices of key cereal staples continued to rise, but at a slower pace. Food Price Monitoring and Analysis (FPMA), Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome (2022, November 11). Www.fao.org. https://www.fao.org/giews/food-prices/regional-roundups/detail/en/c/1618324/</p>

<p>12. Woodhouse, P., Van Veldwisch, G.J., Venot, J-P., Brockinton, D., Komakech, H. and Manjichi, A. (2017) African farmer-led irrigation development: re-framing agricultural policy and investment?, The Journal of Peasant Studies, 44:1, 213-233, DOI: 10.1080/03066150.2016.1219719
</p>

Chapters 8.4

2023-01-02T12:13:32Z

62.8.66.139:

<div>
<div class="title"><h3>8.4 - Hermetic grain storage bags</h3><br><h3 class="ch-owner">Gryphon Therault-Loubier, University of Guelph, Canada</h3></div>
<div class="hero-img-2">
[[File:4.jpg|300px]]
<p>Suggested citation for this chapter.</p>
<p>Therault-Loubier,G (2022) Hermetic grain storage bags. In Farmpedia, The Encyclopedia for Small Scale Farmers. Editor, M.N. Raizada, University of Guelph, Canada. http://www.farmpedia.org</p>
<h3 class="title-bg">Introduction</h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Though often overlooked, effective and affordable food storage technology desperately needs implementation in the developing world to protect from a wide variety of pests such as insects, rodents, and fungi.</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">Hermetically Sealed Technology</h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p><i>Principles</i></p>
<p>Hermetically Sealed Technology (HST) has been proven to be highly effective at preserving grains in many studies. A HST, when properly sealed and maintained, prevents the exchange of oxygen and moisture between the outside atmosphere and the stored grain (IRRI, 2004). This lack of oxygen creates an anaerobic environment; pests which rely on an aerobic environment, like fungal molds and insects are effectively controlled without the use of pesticides or other inputs, which are often out of reach for subsistence farmers (Kamanula et al., 2011).</p>
<p>HSTs have been found to be effective for storage of rice, cocoa beans, coffee, corn, dates, flour, millet, sorghum, sugar and wheat amongst others (GrainPro Inc., 2013). HSTs maintain flavor and aroma, prevent rancidity in foods such as peanuts, control insects and rodents, reduce fungal growth, and maintain harvest weight effectively (GrainPro Inc., 2013). Importantly, HSTs have been found to maintain seed viability for extended periods (FAO, 2011).</p>
<p>In a comparison with commonly used woven polypropylene bags (WPG), hermetic grain bags (HGB) were found to cause 99.5% mortality within 60 days of some common Sub-Saharan African maize pests that were artificially placed in the bags (Ognakossan 2013). In the same study, loss of grain was between 0.5-6% using HGB compared to 19-27% in WPG. Moisture rates were also maintained in the hermetic grain bags while moisture losses occurred in the WPG.</p>
<p>In an economic analysis of maize storage technologies in Kenya, Kimenju and De Groote (2010) presented the results of six-month crop storage loss trials in comparing metal silos, HSTs, a common pesticide and a standard woven polypropylene bag as control. Standard polypropylene bags were found to have the highest loss (24%), compared to the HST (6.3%), and metal silos (0.5-1.7%). While metal silos are perhaps a more effective means of storage in-place, they are not portable and not practical financially for a subsistence farmer (World Bank, 2011). Kimenju and De Groote (2010) noted that metal silos would take in excess of ten years to recoup the investment, whereas HSTs have the benefit of a relatively low initial investment and high return-on-investment. In fact, hermetic sacks are being bartered in some communities throughout Africa, as they are viewed as a high value commodity (FAO, 2011). An HST, effectively implemented, benefits farmers by allowing them to control when they sell their grain, and preventing the surplus at the end of the harvest which diminishes commodity prices for all farmers (Kimenju and DeGroote, 2010).</p>
<p>The World Bank does note that construction of mud silos in areas that do not traditionally use them has been effective (World Bank, 2011). For example, in northern Ghana 1,000 mud silos were commissioned by the Ministry of Food and Agriculture and associated organizations. It was found that in these areas, mud silos were effective in increasing effective crop storage time and preventing pest access, accounting for only 6.5 percent of losses over the study period as compared to jute bags and traditional granary structures (World Bank, 2011). However, construction of these silos requires the availability of suitable timber, which is sparse, and maintenance of the silos in the long term casts doubt over the ability of these silos to continue to offer such benefits (World Bank, 2011). Also, food security issues have encouraged individuals to store grain in their homes (often in the bedroom), and HSTs are more suitable for this (World Bank, 2011).</p>
<p><i>Critical Analysis</i></P>
<p>Grain needs to be suitably dried before being hermetically stored. Weinburg (2008) found that it is possible to store higher moisture content grain in HST, however losses do occur; it is still preferable, where possible, to dry grain adequately. Therefore, high humidity climates might find limited use if no effective method for drying foods can be practiced. The International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) estimates that to effectively reduce spoilage of foods inside HSTs, grains need to be dried to less than 12-14% moisture content depending on species (IRRI, 2010).</p>
<p>An HST needs to be kept protected, as any punctures leading to air leakage will minimize the benefits of the technology. To protect the bag, manufacturers recommend placing the HST into an existing type of storage such as a jute bag or woven polypropylene bag. To check for leaks, manufacturers suggest gently fill the bag with air, tying the bag shut, and placing a light book or hand on top, while observing the bag to check for air loss.</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">The Cowpea Bag</h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<P>A variant of the HST is the Purdue Improved Cowpea Storage bag, which is a triple layer bag. It includes an outer protective layer and has been found to be quite effective in the protection of cowpea from a number of insects. Purdue maintains an extensive library of videos and information on their cowpea bag.</P>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">Purchase</h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<P>The International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) co-developed one of the leading HST technologies with GrainPro Inc. GrainPro maintains an international distribution network, which is easily accessed through their site.</P>
<P>Large commercial systems cost about $100-130 per tonne, with an expected product life-cycle of at least ten years. Smaller scale ‘Super Bags’ cost approximately $1-2 depending on the volume of order and shipping destination. If protected from physical damage, they have been confirmed to last six growing seasons or more.<P>
<P>The cowpea bag can be purchased by visiting the Purdue website and consulting region specific dealers.</P>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">Practical tips</h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<P>The International Rice Research Institute recommends that the grain should be dried to 12-14% moisture content. The HST should be placed inside an existing woven polypropylene bag or jute bag to provide protection. After the HST is filled with dried grain, excess air should be removed. The top of the bag should be twisted and folded into two, then tied with an elastic band or tape. The protective outer bag should also be closed. A very helpful and beautifully illustrated PDF is available through Purdue with many tips and basics</P>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Picture Based Lesson to Train Farmers</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
[[Image:9.4.jpg|thumb|centre|Picture Based Lesson to Train Farmer|Click on the image to access a higher resolution image as well as lessons adapted for different geographic regions.]]</p>
<p><i>For the South Asian version (pictures only, text for you to insert), click this link for lesson 9.4:http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/9.4_south_asian.pdf</i></p>
<p><i>For the East/South Asian version (pictures only, text for you to insert), click this link for lesson 9.4:http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/9.4e.s.a.pdf</i></p>
<p><i>For the Sub-Saharan Africa/Caribbean version (pictures only, text for you to insert), click this link for lesson 9.4:http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/9.4subsaharan_africa_carribean.pdf</i></p>
<p><i>For the Latin-America version (pictures only, text for you to insert), click this link for lesson 9.4:http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/9.4latin_america.pdf</i></p>
<p><i>Source: MN Raizada and L Smith (2016) A Picture Book of Best Practices for Subsistence Farmers. eBook, University of Guelph Sustainable Agriculture Kit (SAK) Project, June 2016, Guelph, Canada.</i></p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">Further Information</h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<P>The International Rice Research Institute has excellent information on grain storage (http://www.knowledgebank.irri.org/rkb/grain-storage-systems.html), and detailed information on hermetic storage including practical tips (http://www.knowledgebank.irri.org/rkb/grain-storage-systems/hermetic-storage-systems.html</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">References </h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>1. Ali, S., & Villers, P. (2002). Cocoons dramatically reduce pests in store. Appropriate Technology, 29(3), 20-20.</p>
<p>2. Baoua, I. B., Amadou, L., Margam, V., & Murdock, L. L. (2012). Performance of triple bagging hermetic technology for postharvest storage of cowpea grain in Niger. Journal of Stored Products Research, 51, 81-85.</p>
<p>3. Chen, S., Zhang, M., & Wang, S. (2011). Effect of initial hermetic sealing on quality of ‘Kyoho' grapes during storage. Postharvest Biology and Technology., 59(2), 194-199.</p>
<p>4. Edoh Ognakossan, K., Tounou, A. K., Lamboni, Y., & Hell, K. (2013). Post-harvest insect infestation in maize grain stored in woven polypropylene and in hermetic bags. International Journal of Tropical Insect Science, 33(1), 71-81.</p>
<p>5. IRRI Knowledgebank </p>
<p>6. Kimenju, S. and De Groote, H. (2010) Economic Analysis of Alternative Maize Storage Technologies in Kenya. Contributed Paper presented at the Joint 3rd African Association of Agricultural Economists (AAAE) and 48th Agricultural Economists Association of South Africa (AEASA) Conference, Cape Town, South Africa, September 19-23, 2010.</p>
<p>7. Johnson, J. A., & Zettler, J. L. (2009). Response of postharvest tree nut lepidopteran pests to vacuum treatments. Journal of Economic Entomology, 102(5), 2003-2010.</p>
<p>8. Weinberg, Z. G., Yan, Y., Chen, Y., Finkelman, S., Ashbell, G., & Navarro, S. (2008). The effect of moisture level on high-moisture maize (zea mays L.) under hermetic storage conditions-in vitro studies. Journal of Stored Products Research, 44 (2) Pp.136-144.</p>
<p>9. World Bank. (2011). Missing Food: The Case of Postharvest Grain Losses in Sub-Saharan Africa. World Bank, Natural Resources Institute, and Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. 1-116.</p>

Template:Chapters 6.7

2023-01-02T12:07:22Z

62.8.66.139:

<div>
<div class="title"><h3>6.7 - Solarization to kill parasitic weeds, pathogens and nematodes </h3><br><h3 class="ch-owner">Elin Hughes, University of Guelph, Canada</h3></div>
<div class="hero-img-2">
[[File:4.jpg|300px]]
<p>Suggested citation for this chapter.</p>
<p>Hughes,E(2022) Solarization to kill parasitic weeds, pathogens and nematodes. In Farmpedia, The Encyclopedia for Small Scale Farmers. Editor, M.N. Raizada, University of Guelph, Canada. http://www.farmpedia.org</p>
</div>
<div class="ch-navber" style="display: flex; justify-content: space-between;">
<div class="center-side" style="max-width: 100%;margin-right: 3%;">
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Introduction </h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Weeds, pathogens, and nematodes have serious environmental and socioeconomic implications for smallholder farmers, particularly diminishing yields, as they compete with crops for sunlight, nutrients, water, and/or space (Chauhan, 2020). Controlling weeds is an important task undertaken by farmers, and progressively more methods of weed control are being introduced into modern agricultural practices. Traditionally, the most common approach of weed control by smallholder farmers in Africa involves physical labour – manual hoeing or pulling weeds by hand (Lee & Thierfelder, 2017 p. 6). Such traditional weed control methods are often a burden borne by the women and children, and if there is insufficient access to male labour, livestock, herbicides or mechanization, alternative cost-effective and feasible methods of weed control such as solarization could positively influence the livelihoods of female smallholder farmers (Lee & Thierfelder, 2017 p. 6). In this process, the heat of the sun is used to kill weed seeds as well as soil pests and pathogens while simultaneously increasing nutrient release (Stapleton, 2019).</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">The Practice of Solarization and its Benefits </h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>The soil solarization process involves covering moist soil with a thin, ideally transparent polyethylene sheet or tarpaulin/silpaulin during the hot summer months prior to crop planting to raise soil temperatures (Patel et al. 2005). To achieve the most fruitful outcome: soil must be heated to between 40-55°C; a thin clear tarpaulin as opposed to a thick one should be used; and between 4-6 weeks of coverage are recommended (Merfield, 2019; Patel et al. 2005). Additionally, it is important to seal the edges of the tarpaulin with the soil to ensure the heat cannot escape. There are two primary forms of coverage, complete and strip coverage. Complete coverage involves covering the complete surface of land, whereas strip coverage involves covering strips or lines of crop fields (Elmore et al. n/d). Solar heating is effective in eliminating many types of perennial/annual parasitic weeds such as bermudagrass and johnsongrass, as long as they are not too deeply rooted in the soil, as the heat has minimal effect if weeds are rooted less than 12 inches (30 cm) below ground level (Stapleton, 2019). As well, solarization has minimal to no effect on some crops because tubers, tough seed shells, and rhizomes are resistant to the heat, making this an ideal method of weed control for crops such as cassava and potatoes (Stapleton, 2019). Additionally, solarization is effective in killing some nematodes – pests that feed on plants and soak nutrients from the soil; however, there are concerns about its effectiveness due to nematode mobility and their ability to submerge deeper into the soil to avoid the heat (Stapleton, 2019). Finally, solarization is highly effective in killing some harmful bacteria and fungi that cause plant disease such as various wilting, rotting, cankers, and scabbing symptoms that decrease yields (Stapleton, 2019). As shown in a video published by the Nigerian Organic Agricultural Network (NOAN)(see link below), solarized fields as compared to fields which are handpicked have noticeable advantages for both the farmers who maintain the land and the yields that grow from the soil.</p>
<p>Across the semi-arid and sub-tropic regions of Africa, parasitic striga weeds, also known as “witchweed” or “the killer weed”, are one of the most common pests endangering smallholder farmer crop yields (El-Dabaa et al. 2022 p. 54). Evidence supports solarization as beneficial in targeting striga weeds in Sub-Saharan Africa, namely in cereal crops such as sorghum, maize, rice, and pearl millet (El-Dabaa et al. 2022 p. 58). Once again, depending on the geographic location, soil type, crop type, and economic position of smallholder farmers, soil solarization could be an overall effective method for tackling the ever-growing concerns of striga infestations.</p>
<p>Under a system of conservation/no-till agriculture, mechanical disturbance of soils is kept to a minimum and emphasis is placed on alternative solutions to maintaining healthy farming land (Lee & Thierfelder, 2017 p. 1). However, within no-till agriculture, a major concern arises in terms of weed control, and a well-researched solution is that of solarization. Solarization as a potential alternative for controlling weeds comes with both benefits and consequences for farmers which are situational depending on factors such as geographic location, farm size, access to labour, and economic position. Solarization has been used both in small scale gardening as well as larger scale farms, however there are costs associated with this. </p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Critical Analysis: Problems and Solutions</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>For solarization to work effectively, land must be idle for 6-8 weeks in the peak of the summer growing season (Yaron et al. 1991 p. 179). Depending on the crops being grown, this loss of season may be unreasonable for some farmers if specific crops are best suited to the warm weather of the summer months (i.e., okra and amaranth in West Africa). In temperate climates, it is more difficult to pinpoint the ideal solarizing season, however in the subtropics and tropics, it is hot year-round allowing for more leniency in terms of when to solarize the soil. The top 6 inches (15 cm) of soil must reach between 43-52 degrees Celsius for effective results, and since high daily temperatures in the tropics range between 30-35 degrees Celsius, it is important for coverage to be applied for 6-8 weeks as already noted (Stapleton, 2019). Additionally, there is a labour requirement of between 10–20-man days/ha in order to prep, lay, and maintain the solarizing land over the 6–8-week period (Yaron et al. 1991 p. 179). To minimize soil disruption, this practice must be undertaken manually which requires increased labour as compared to alternative solutions such as the use of chemical herbicides or ecological approaches (e.g. cover crops, high density cropping, etc.).</p>
<p>Financially, there are other factors that must be considered by farmers who are interested in solarization. The cost of purchasing polyethylene tarpaulin alone may raise concerns for smallholder farmers. For reference, according to one supplier of polyethylene tarpaulin, one square meter of material will cost roughly 50 U.S. cents – meaning that in order to cover one hectare of land it will cost a farmer roughly $5000 USD for just the tarpaulin alone, not including shipping and labour costs (Alibaba.com, 2022). The tarpaulin is meant to last between 1-5 years due to their UV protection and waterproofing qualities, however it would be an investment requiring replacement every few years. Additionally, in order to extend the life of the material, the tarpaulin will need to be properly removed and stored during the off season in which they are not out on the field. For smallholder farmers in low-income countries, $5000 USD every 1-5 years for one hectare of coverage is not feasible. However, for small home gardens and patches of high value fruits and vegetables, this method of weed control could greatly benefit farmers in terms of benefits to women farmers including helping women grow more high value fruits and vegetables for commercial sales; the profits could then be used to purchase more tarpaulin to expand their gardens over time. With the labour saved on manual weed control, female smallholder farmers would be able to invest into more productive activities, and reduce the burden on children, creating more time for them to be able to go to school during peak weed times.</p>
<p>Solarization is admired as being a more sustainable and environmentally friendly method of nematode and weed control as compared to common alternatives such as chemical herbicides. However, a counter argument can be made based on the requirement to dispose large quantities of plastic material at the end of their life cycle (Russo et al. 2005). Traditional plastic film is often not disposed of in accordance with environmental guidelines, and therefore often contributes to damaging the land and environment in which it was intended to help (Russo et al. 2005 p. 718). As such, a potential solution being tested is the use of biodegradable plastic. The cost of biodegradable film is approximately 3 times higher than traditional film; however, long-term costs may be saved in labor since there would be less maintenance required annually (Russo et al. 2005 p. 718). For more information on Mater-Bi biodegradable film, see the additional links below.</p>
<p>One of the key components of solarization is its ability to kill unwanted weeds and nematode pests. Although solarization has been shown to be successful in doing this, there is another concern. Solar heating is harmful to some important beneficial soil microbes and microbial biodiversity which is vital in maintaining the structure of the soil (Scopa et al. 2009 p. 544-545). Therefore, there is a tradeoff to be made with this method of weed control.</p>
</div>
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<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Conclusion</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>It is vital to consider the various dimensions which might affect the overall success of solarization on small scale farms. For farmers in hot climates, utilizing the heat to promote healthier soil before growing certain crops could dramatically increase yields, and create long-term benefits for the sustainability of their fields. However, although there are benefits, it is also important to weigh the costs for individual farmers to ensure that this method will encourage long-term benefits to smallholder farmers and their land. It is recommended that the practice first be undertaken on a small parcel of land as a trial.</P>
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<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Practical Links to Get Started </h1>
<div class="cont-bg">

<p>How to Use Solarization to Prepare Areas for Planting</p>
<p>- Prepping the soil, setting the tarps, end of season steps.</p>
https://www.alibaba.com/product-detail/Durable-agricultural-poly-greenhouse-cover-150_1600104741141.html?spm=a2700.galleryofferlist.normal_offer.d_image.2baa120fB0e07z
<p>- Polyethylene Tarp Rolls: 50 cents/m^2 = approx. $5000/hectare</p>
https://materbi.com/en/solutions/agriculture/mulching-film/
<p>- Mater-Bi biodegradable mulching film
https://extension.umn.edu/planting-and-growing-guides/solarization-occultation</p>
<p> University of Minnesota article about solarization and important factors for its success</p>
<p>Demonstration of two Weed Control Methods Using Solarization with Plastic Mulch and Manual Weeding.
- Nigerian Organic Agriculture Network – video comparing solarization vs. Manual weed picking in garden yields</p>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">References</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>1. Chauhan, B. S. (2020). Grand challenges in weed management. Frontiers in Agronomy 1,3 Retrieved November 3, 2022, from https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fagro.2019.00003/full </p>
<p>2. Elmore, C. L., Stapleton, J. J., Bell, C. E., & Devay, J. E. (n.d.). Soil Solarization - A Non pesticidal method for controlling diseases, nematodes, and weeds. vric.ucdavis.edu. Retrieved November 7, 2022, from http://vric.ucdavis.edu/pdf/soil_solarization.pdf?iframeView=true </p>
<p>3. El-Dabaa, M., Abo-Elwafa, G., & Abd-El-Khair, H. (2021). Safe methods as alternative approaches to chemical herbicides for controlling parasitic weeds associated with nutritional crops: A Review. Egyptian Journal of Chemistry, 65(4), 53-65 .https://doi.org/10.21608/ejchem.2021.98930.4602</p>
<p>4. Lee, N., & Thierfelder, C. (2017). Weed control under conservation agriculture in dryland smallholder farming systems of Southern Africa. A Review. Agronomy for Sustainable Development, 37(5), 1-25. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13593-017-0453-7 </p>
<p>5. Merfield, C. N. (2019). Integrated Weed Management in Organic Farming. In Organic Farming (edits Chandran, S., Unni, M.R. and Thomas, S), Chapter 5, p117–180. Woodhead Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-813272-2.00005-7 </p>
<p>6. Patel, R. H., Shroff, J., Dutta, S., & Meisheri, T. G. (2005). Weed dynamics as influenced by soil solarization - a review. Agricultural Reviews 26(4), 295–300.</p>
<p>7. Russo, G., Candura, A., & Scarascia-Mugnozza, G. (2005). Soil Solarization with biodegradable plastic film: Two years of experimental tests. Acta Horticulturae, 691, 717–724. https://doi.org/10.17660/actahortic.2005.691.88 </p>
<p>8. Scopa, A., Candido, V., Dumontet, S., Pasquale, V., & Miccolis, V. (2009). Repeated solarization and long-term effects on soil microbiological parameters and agronomic traits. Crop Protection, 28(10), 818–824. </p>
<p>9. Stapleton, J. J., Wilen, C. A., & Molinar, R. H. (2018). Soil Solarization for Gardens and Landscapes. University of California Agriculture and Natural Resources. Retrieved December 1, 2022, from http://ipm.ucanr.edu/PMG/PESTNOTES/pn74145.html#:~:text=Solarizing%20Period&text=The%20cooler%20the%20soil%20temperatures,110%C2%BA%20to%20125%C2%B0F
</p>
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Template:Chapters 6.2

2023-01-02T11:36:32Z

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<div>
<div class="title"><h3>6.2 - Lost cost weeding tools for women</h3><br><h3 class="ch-owner">Natalie Fear, University of Guelph, Canada</h3></div>
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<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">Background Information</h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Women represent about 43% of the agricultural labour force in developing countries as well as globally (FAO, 2011). Today, women account for one third of the total agricultural input in most parts of Asia and Africa (Aggarwal et al., 2003). Furthermore, women carry a disproportionate work burden compared to men (Grassi et al., 2015). For example, in India women work 10 hours more per week compared to their male counterparts on agricultural tasks (Aggarwal et al., 2003). Time surveys show that predominant female activates include weeding and harvesting (FAO, 2011). These two tasks are likely the most time consuming and the most difficult in terms of physical labour compared to all other agricultural tasks. These tasks are very physically straining for women because of their limited access to labour saving technologies (Grassi et al., 2015). In particular, it is estimated that hand weeding consumes 400-600 work hours per hectare per growing season (Raut et al., 2013).</p>
<p>A low cost solution to this problem is to introduce improved weeding tools to women. These tools will allow the task of weeding to be less physically demanding and time consuming compared to the pre-existing indigenous tools that have been used for generations (Langill and Landon, 1998). For many tools available today, women were not involved in the design process even though they are the primary users and have special needs (e.g. low weight and height specific). These improved tools will be specific to the women’s desired designs, for increased productivity. The purpose of this chapter is to provide detailed options and information about how this intervention may reach women in developing countries and how they can then use this specialized product and practice to benefit their daily lives.</p>
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<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">Description of Practice and Product</h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>The obscure task of weeding is usually performed manually by bending over and pulling the weed and its roots above the ground (Raut et al., 2013). The posture used while weeding leads to induced back pain for the women involved (Raut et al., 2013). Improved weeding tools are helpful because they allow the women to remain in an upright body position and can be used to remove the weed without the women having to touch the weed or put difficult labour into pulling it out (IFAD, 1998). There are several types of tools that are available for different purposes and preferences. Please refer to Table 1 to assess the types of weeders available and what they are best used for.</p>
[[Image:Type of Weeder page-0001.jpg|thumb|centre|Table 1: Types of Weeders]]</p>

<p>The farmer may choose their type of weeding tool according to price, availability, preference and weed type. It is important to realize that the motorized weeder would be the most costly option and may not be of financial reach to all farmers. However the other tools, which are less expensive, will still be of great assistance to women farmers while weed picking. These weeding tools can be purchased from a local vendor or can be made by a local blacksmith. </p>
</div>
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<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">Weeding Tool Criteria</h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>There are specific criteria that make a weeding tool effective and efficient for women subsistence farmers. Firstly, it is important that the tools are of low cost. Most subsistence farmers live under the international poverty line, meaning that most farmers make less than $1.90 USD per day (The World Bank, 2015). To ensure that the tools are of low cost, a local blacksmith can be employed, crafting the tool with wood handles to reduce the cost of the tool. Secondly, it is important that vendors have versatile and appropriate tools available for sale to meet the challenges of different types of weeds (e.g. deep roots versus horizontally spreading; different soil types; different income levels). It is also important that there are different models available that cater to different women’s heights and tool weight preferences. It is best to employ participation of women both in the design and implementation process. Allowing women to fully participate in the tool crafting process will allow them to feel empowered and in control of the decisions being made on their farm, it provides women with a voice that is often always over-ruled by their husbands (Narayanan, 2003). Lastly, an important characteristic for a weeding tool to have is durability. Since subsistence farmers are very poor and the product will be used a lot, the product must be strong and of good quality to last for a long period of time.</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">Possible Benefits</h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p><i>Reduction of Time and Physical Labour</i>-A study conducted by Mitchell, 2016 concludes that farmers who use an improved weeding tool experience an average decrease of 6.5 hours of weeding time, which results in an 80% overall decrease in time spent weeding (Mitchell, 2016). The time that is saved by using these tools could be put towards household duties or other agricultural tasks. In addition to the reduction of time, the use of weeding tools will reduce the physical strain that manual weeding causes (IFAD, 1998).

<p><i>Increase in Crop Production</i>-
The removal of weeds is extremely important for achieving high crop yields (Holm, 1969). Weeds can cause soil degradation, limit nutrients and space and furthermore negatively impact the growth of the desired crop (Kingley and Rudolph, 2009). It is very important to remove weeds early in the growing season because competition between weeds and crop seedlings at this stage forever reduces the yield of the crop (Frick and Johnson, 2012).</p>
<p>With the use of weeding tools, more weeds can be removed in a reduced time frame. Less weeds in the fields results in less nutrient and space competition and overall increased yields (Kingley & Rudolph, 2009). If farmers have access to mechanical weeders, the re-working of weeds back into the soil can also help build up organic matter, this mobilizes micronutrients in the soil to ensure the healthy growth of a plant (WASSAN, 2006).</p>

<p><i>Increase in Profits</i>-
With an increase in crop yields, subsistence farmers will have an increase in profit from the additional crops they will now able to harvest and sell. Also, with the time they will save using weeding tools, women may have more time to spend on other profit making activities, which will then result in additional profit for her family.</p>
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<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 style="background: #FBB03B;padding: 15px;font-weight: 600;color: #000;font-size: 22px;margin:unset;text-align:center;">Critical Analysis</h3>
<div style="background: #FFD8A4;padding: 15px;font-weight: 400;color: #212529;font-size: 16px;margin:unset;line-height: 1.5;">
<p><i>Cost Analysis</i>-
As mentioned in the Weeding Tool Criteria section above, it may be difficult for subsistence farmers to purchase the tools because of their low incomes. Farmers, who lack knowledge of the full extent of the tool’s benefits, may choose not to spend their money on a tool and fail to see it as a worthy purchase. To get an idea of how much a farmer would have to spend on a weeding tool, a study done by <i>the Food and Agriculture Organization</i> notes that a traditional weeding tool made by a local blacksmith would cost between 1.00-4.25 USD and an imported industrial weeder would cost $2.50-8.00USD (FAO, 1998). Furthermore, the motorized weeders would again be a higher price than those previously listed. Refer to Table 1 to see an estimated break down of prices.</p>
<p>In addition, the traditional weeding tools that are of a lower price range may not be as time efficient as the motorized tools. The motorized tools are expensive and may be outside the budget of a subsistence farmer. Moreover, the farmer may not be able to totally maximize efficiency with a low cost traditional weeder, but it would still bring benefits to them by cutting down time requirements and the amount of physical labour by a noticeable amount.
A major cost will be the size and/or weight of the tool, which will increase transportation, costs, especially to remote areas. A way to reduce costs is to not sell the handle and let farmers create their own from local wood.</P

<p><i>Potential Problems</i>-
The main problem of this intervention is the ability of the women to access the weeding tools. In many societies in developing countries, women have low socio-economic statuses and are not often able to make decisions without the approval of their husband (FAO, 1998). This therefore constrains their ability to invest in gender-specific technologies (FAO, 1998).</p>
<p>Another potential problem is the lack of information transmission from seller to buyer. In order for women to use these tools properly, they must be trained on how to use them. The vendor can transmit the information to the women or the SAK picture book could be attached to the product with picture examples of how to properly utilize the tool.</p>
</div>
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<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">Useful Resources</h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p><u>Images and Videos of Tools</u></p>
<p>Wheel Hoe: http://dir.indiamart.com/impcat/wheel-hoe-weeder.html</p>
<p>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MUwSmojsUxY</p>
<p>Motorized Weeder:<p>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HNe5h471td0</p>
<p>Cono-Weeder</p>
<p>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=q5HohX3TwHY</p>
<p>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vIqXa9y4XHY</p>
<p>Long Handled Weeder: http://tierragarden.com/ProductImages/DeWit/31-0806.jpg</p>
<p>http://www.selections.com/media/catalog/product/cache/1/image/485x/9df78eab33525d08d6e5fb8d27136e95/G/F/GFA375.jpg</p>
<p>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6ERMmRF9Fqo</p>
<p>Short Handled Weeder: https://gallandt.files.wordpress.com/2012/07/img_0771.jpg?w=300</p>
<p>http://cdn2.bigcommerce.com/n-pktq5q/1we6yb79/templates/__custom/images/prdct-img1.jpg?t=1454504760</p>
<p>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=blPXjavqPJ8</p>

<p>Long Handled Weed Puller: http://cdn.gadgetsandgizmos.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/05/fiskarsweedpuller-600x450.jpg
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cruAPsZJwFQ</p>

<p>Links to Potential Suppliers:
http://www.alibaba.com/Agriculture-Machinery-Equipment_pid100009395?spm=a2700.8190021.199001.27.NJnzZB</p>

<p>http://www.indiamart.com</p>

<p>http://dir.indiamart.com/industry/agro-poultry-dairy.html</p>

<p>Instructional Resources:
http://saknepal.org/resource/sample-images-of-agricultural-tools-machines-supplies/ (Austin Brush, University of Guelph)</p>

<p>Refer to the SAK picture book for picture illustrations of how to use different types of weeding tools:
A Picture Book of Best Practices for Subsistence Farmers: South Asian version</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">References</h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>1. Aggarwal, S., Khanna, K., & Malhan, S. (2003). Quality of Life of Farm Women. Delhi:
Abhijeet Publications</p>

<p>2. Agriculture Equipment (2016). In ismat Engineering Works. Retrieved from
http://www.kismatengineering.com/agriculture-equipment.html#agricultural-hoe</p>

<p>3. Farm Machinery (2016). In Alibaba. Retrieved from
https://www.alibaba.com/product-detail/China-export-15hp-power-tiller-weeder_1887396732.html</p>

<p>4. FAO (1998). The potential for improving production tools and implements used by
women (1998). Retrieved from http://www.fao.org/docrep/w8794e/w8794e01.htm#P372_59507</p>

<p>5. Triple-Claw Weeder (2016). In Fiskars. Retrieved from
http://www2.fiskars.com/Products/Gardening-and-Yard-Care/Weeders/Triple-claw-Weeder</p>

<p>6. Frick, B., & Johnson, E. (2012). Weeds - when are they a problem?. In Linking Organic
Knowledge . Retrieved from http://www.oacc.info/Extension/ext_weed_problem.asp</p>

<p>7. Garden Tools (2016). In Alibaba. Retrieved from
https://www.alibaba.com/product-detail/welded-bow-carbon-steel-garden-rake_60430829304.html</p>

<p>8. Grassi, F., Landberg, J., & Huyer, S. (2015). Running Out of Time: The Reduction of
women’s work burden in agricultural production. Retrieved from http://www.fao.org/3/a-i4741e.pdf</p>

<p>9. Holm, L. (1969). Weeds Problems in Developing Countries. Weed Science, 17(1), 113-
118. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org.subzero.lib.uoguelph.ca/stable/pdf/4041470.pdf</p>

<p>10. IFAD (1998). In Agricultural Implements Used by Women Farmers in Africa.
Retrieved November from ftp://ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/011/aj334e/aj334e.pdf</p>

<p>11. Kingely & Rudolph, V. (2009). Weeds : Retrieved from
http://web.b.ebscohost.com/ehost/ebookviewer/ebook/bmxlYmtfXzM1NDMzNV9fQU41?sid=9250de35-4ae7-47ae-a2a7-3e0a998abb21@sessionmgr120&vid=0&format=EB&rid=1</p>

<p>12. Langill, S., & Landon, S. (1998). Indigenous Knowledge. IDRC, Readings and Resources for
Comunity-Based Natural Resource Management Researchers, 4. Retreived from https://idl-bnc.idrc.ca/dspace/bitstream/10625/32031/6/114509.pdf</p>

<p>13. Manual and Mechanical Weeding (2016). In Rice Knowledge Bank. Retrieved from
http://www.knowledgebank.irri.org/step-by-step-production/growth/weed-management/manual-and-mechanical-weeding</p>

<p>14. Mitchell, A. (2016). Examination of Improved Weeding Technologies with
Smallholder Rice Farmers in Southern Benin, West Africa. Retrieved from http://sri.ciifad.cornell.edu/countries/benin/research/BeninMPSpaperAMMitchell.pdf</p>

<p>15. Narayanan, P. (2003). Empowerment through Participation: How Effective Is This
Approach. Economic and Political Weekly, 38(25), 2484-2486. Retreived from https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/4413702.pdf</p>

<p>16. Raut, V. D., Deshmukh, P. B. D., & Dekate, P. D. (2013). Review paper on “ Various aspects of Weeders for Economical Cultivation ” Preparation of Papers for International Journal of Modern Engineering and Bold ), 3, 3296–3299. Retrieved from http://www.ijmer.com/papers/Vol3_Issue5/EG3532963299.pdf</p>

<p>17. SOFA Team. & Doss, C. (2011). The role of women in agriculture. In FAO. Retrieved from
http://www.fao.org/docrep/013/am307e/am307e00.pdf</p>

<p>18. The World Bank. (2016). Global Poverty Line Updated. In The World Bank. Retrieved
from http://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/poverty/brief/global-poverty-line-faqe</p>

<p>19. WASSAN. (2006). WEEDERS A Reference Compendium, 28. Retrieved from
http://sri.ciifad.cornell.edu/countries/india/extmats/SRIWeederManual06.pdf</p>

<p>20. Wheel Hoe Weeder (2016). In India Mart. Retrieved, from
http://dir.indiamart.com/impcat/wheel-hoe-weeder.html</p>
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Template:Chapter 6.1

2023-01-02T11:25:46Z

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<div>
<div class="title"><h3>6.1 - Kneepads to assist with weeding </h3><br><h3 class="ch-owner">Rebecca Webster , University of Guelph, Canada</h3></div>
<div class="hero-img-2">
[[File:4.jpg|300px]]
<p>Suggested citation for this chapter.</p>
<p>Webster,R(2022) Kneepads to assist with weeding . In Farmpedia, The Encyclopedia for Small Scale Farmers. Editor, M.N. Raizada, University of Guelph, Canada. http://www.farmpedia.org</p>
</div>
<div class="ch-navber" style="display: flex; justify-content: space-between;">
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<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Introduction </h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>It is important that a product is easy to use, inexpensive, durable, and makes everyday life for a subsistence farmer easier. There are countries that have well over 50% of their workforce in agriculture such as, Zambia with 85%, Tanzania with 80%, Nigeria with 70% and Nepal with 69%; that is to just name a few (CIA.) On farms, smallholder women farmers do a lot of the work that requires them to be kneeling for long periods of time both in the home and on the farm (Suthar and Kaushik, 2013).</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Background </h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Kneepads are a useful invention because the average woman farmer has so many uses for them. A woman spends a lot of her time in farming doing tasks like, sowing crops, weeding, harvesting, removing dead weeds from fields, and collecting and spreading manure (Varma, 1992). Not only do they spend all this time taking care of crops and animals but they also have household chores and must take care of their children (Suthar and Kaushik, 2013). Women usually do most of these tasks and the men typically look after animals and go to the towns to do business (Varma, 1992).</p>
<p>Knee, thigh, and lower back pain could possibly be improved with the use of this simple product. The kneepads protect the knees from the hard ground whether it’s in the field or in the home; this in turn helps the legs and back. The user does not have to keep squatting or bending over and putting strain on their back, because they can just kneel and stay kneeling longer. The constant standing would also cause the legs to become very tired and when women are doing this work day after day (Suthar and Kaushik, 2013), they need to be able to do it without pain.</p>
<p>In a study about agricultural worker discomfort, it was found that women usually had a higher percentage of body pain doing agriculture activities, especially when weeding. In another study (Suthar and Kaushik, 2013) that looked at only the women’s side of agriculture, sixty women were surveyed and they were asked about different levels of pain that ranged from very light to very severe in their body parts. The survey specifies the various body parts that pain could arise in. In total, 56.7% of women reported pain in their thighs, which could be cut down immensely by kneepads. They would not have to squat or stand as much, therefore it would reduce the stress put on the thighs. About 81% of women said they had lower back pain, which can be from bending and twisting. The kneepads would help with this problem because the user could kneel instead of stand and bend and rotate their body instead of twisting at the waist (Suthar and Kaushik, 2013).</p>
<P>The same study (Suthar and Kaushik, 2013) examined how many hours these women spend on farming, household chores and animal care, in both peak and off-season. Some numbers that stood out in this study were, during peak season over 60% of these women spend 7-8 hours on agriculture, 3-4 hours on household chores and 2-3 hours on animal care. Women who spend this amount of time doing hard labour need products such as kneepads to make some of their tasks more bearable (Suthar and Kaushik, 2013). Similar studies show parallel outcomes (Vyas, 2012).</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Benefits</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>There are both long-term and short-term effects of the long and hard hours of work that woman put into the farming. In the short-term, extended kneeling and squatting cause general pain in joints and muscles (Suthar and Kaushik, 2013), which they usually work through or have small breaks. When injuries or pain are not given the proper attention that they need that is when long-term problems will arise. Some issues that may occur are, arthritis (inflammation in the joints), meniscus injury (small disc in the knee), and Chondromalacia Patellae (deterioration in part of the knee) (Suthar and Kaushik, 2013). These injuries can make it extremely difficult, if not impossible for someone to keep working. Kneepads have the potential to reduce such chronic injuries, thus improving the productivity and health status of smallholder women farmers. Many women squat during their work on farms, which would mean knee pads would not prove as useful, however if they could change their habit of squatting then they could avoid a lot of pain and injury. They would have to be educated about the benefits of kneeling instead of squatting. In their study, Suthar and Kaushik (2013 show that a lot of women report pain from squatting, in the legs and in the back. The change of kneeing instead of squatting could eradicate some of this pain, by taking the pressure off of the legs and back. </p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Problems With This Product </h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Although kneepads are potentially very beneficial, there are some issues that could occur. There may be problems with adopting this product: women might be embarrassed to wear them because of the colour or because they are too bulky or attract unwanted glances or comments because this product may be new to a culture. In this situation, farmers may prefer non-attached foam pads that sit on the ground that similarly cost $2 USD. Many women squat rather than kneel in which case the product is not useful. As stated earlier, some women will not want to change traditional habits, like squatting. While marketing this item there would have to be a strong emphasis on teaching women a better, more efficient way of farming. If worn for extended periods of time the kneepads may cause chaffing, they could be too tight or they might pinch the skin. Most kneepads are inexpensive, however that means they may not be durable. Finally, a major challenge will be the availability, accessibility and marketing of the product as it is so new.</P>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Useful Links To Get Started</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Thttps://wholesaler.alibaba.com/product-detail/Professional-kneepads-EVA-foam-paddling-knee_60287518981.html?spm=a2700.7782932.1998701000.47.q8MyRm </p>

<p>https://wholesaler.alibaba.com/product-detail/Color-customize-Polyseter-cap-garden-knee_60072158174.html?spm=a2700.7782932.1998701000.122.q8MyRm</p>
<p><b>Photos of kneepads </b></p>
<p>https://www.google.ca/search?q=cheap+knee+pads+for+gardening&biw=1280&bih=597&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiqya_or73QAhWhy4MKHUf6CNsQ_AUIBygC#tbm=isch&q=knee+pads+for+gardening&imgrc=qDV_PCZiBm72BM%3A </p>
<p>https://www.google.ca/search?q=cheap+knee+pads+for+gardening&biw=1280&bih=597&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiqya_or73QAhWhy4MKHUf6CNsQ_AUIBygC#tbm=isch&q=knee+pads+for+gardening&imgrc=1DabbSY3penNhM%3A</p>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">References</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>1. Contact CIA. (n.d.). Retrieved November 23, 2016, from https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2048.html</p>

<p>2. Nag, P. K., & Nag, A. (2004). Drudgery, accidents and injuries in Indian agriculture. Industrial Health, 42(2), 149-162.</p>

<p>3. Suthar, N., & Kaushik, V. (2013). Musculoskeletal problems among agricultural female workers. Stud Home Com Sci, 7(3), 145-149.</p>

<p>4. Tibaijuka, A. (1994). The cost of differential gender roles in african agriculture: a case study of smallholder banana-coffee farms in the Kagera region, Tanzania. Journal of Agricultural Economics, 45(1), 69-81.</p>

<p>5. Varma, S. K. (1992). Role of Women in Agriculture. New Dimensions in Agricultural Geography: Socio-economic dimensions of agriculture, 3, 81.</p>

<p>6. Vyas, R. (2012). Mitigation of musculoskeletal problems and body discomfort of agricultural workers through educational intervention. Work, 41(Supplement 1), 2398-2404.</p>

</div>
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Template:Chapter 3.2b

2023-01-02T10:39:19Z

62.8.66.139:

<div>
<div class="title"><h3>3.2b - Climbing chayote squash on terrace walls</h3><br><h3 class="ch-owner">Nicholas Dischiavi, University of Guelph, Canada</h3></div>
<div class="hero-img-2">
[[File:4.jpg|300px]]
<p>Suggested citation for this chapter.</p>
<p>Dischiavi,N(2022) Climbing chayote squash on terrace walls. In Farmpedia, The Encyclopedia for Small Scale Farmers. Editor, M.N. Raizada, University of Guelph, Canada. http://www.farmpedia.org</p>
</div>
<div class="ch-navber" style="display: flex; justify-content: space-between;">
<div class="center-side" style="max-width: 100%;margin-right: 3%;">
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Background on Terrace Farming </h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Terrace farming is not an ideal method of production for many smallholder farmers due to high labour and limited horizontal growing area (Chapagain and Raizada, 2017). However, growing crops vertically along terrace walls represents an opportunity for subsistence farmers to increase their production per hectare, as well as profits (Chapagain et al., 2019). </p>
<p>In mountainous regions, terrace farming has been utilized for thousands of years due to its ability to prevent soil erosion, conserve water and increase productivity, especially with limited land space (Deng et al., 2021). The first evidence of terrace farming was in Southeast Asia some 5000 years ago, with the practice subsequently extending to the Mediterranean's northern and southern borders, with extensive evidence of terrace agriculture by the Incas in the New World (Price & Nixon, 2005). Terrace farming is most commonly designed as follows: a vertical wall is built along the mountain/hillside, and on top of the terrace is a horizontal plot of land which is where field crops can be grown (Chapagain et al., 2019). To allow for the growth of such crops (e.g. grains, horticultural crops, and fodder), steep slopes (typically of the hillside) are split into narrow, graded steps (Chapagain et al., 2019). In addition, the ledge at the base of the vertical wall can be left as a walkway or can be utilized to grow climbing and/or hanging plants (Chapagain et al., 2019), which is the topic of this chapter. </p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Background to Chayote Squash</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Chayote (or Sechium edule), a member of the Cucurbitaceae family, is believed to have originated in Central America (Pu et al., 2021). To this day, it remains unknown where exactly chayote was first domesticated, but it is still common amongst Central American countries such as Guatemala, Costa Rica, and Mexico (Vieria et al., 2019). Past research incorrectly deemed Guatemala as the birthplace of chayote, yet current research supports the theory it was cultivated by the Mayans in Southern Mexico (Pu et al., 2021). Due to the location in which chayote originated, it grows best in semi-tropical climates but can also be adapted to grow in tropical climates (Pu et al., 2021). However, European explorers spread chayote across the globe, planting it in the Caribbean, South America, and parts of Europe, and as time went on, farmers adapted to grow chayote in Asian and African countries (Pu et al., 2021). Conveniently, chayote can be consumed in full as all parts of the plant are edible, including its tuberous roots (Pu et al., 2021). These roots are prepared after one year of growth and contain significant amounts of starch and dietary fibre (Pu et al., 2021).</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Growth and Production of Chayote</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Like other Cucurbitaceae, chayote grows on a perennial vine (Vieria et al., 2019). These vines grow in a very aggressive nature up to 6-9 m in a given season and produce 50-100 squash per plant (Vieria et al., 2019). Further, what is particularly nice about chayote is that seeds can be found inside the fruit and replanted for future yields. Chayote can take many different shapes, with variation in colour, size, and texture. As a warm-season fruit, chayote should be planted about one month after the last sign of frost if relevant (Vieria et al., 2019). To grow fully, chayote requires 4 to 5 months in direct sunlight yet it can also grow in partial sunlight, however, this would, in turn, reduce the yield (Pu et al., 2021). For best results, chayote should be planted in soil with a pH between 6-6.8 (Pu et al., 2021). </p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Cost Benefit-Analysis of Growing at the Base of Terrace Walls </h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>In a study by Chapagain et al. (2019), climbing chayote squash was planted at the base of terrace walls over two cropping seasons to test its potential growth and overall value. Taking place in Nepal, the researchers attempted to grow climbing pumpkins, yams, as well as chayote in two separate locations (Chapagain et al., 2019). Chayote was by far the most profitable of the three, as the fruit weight totalled approximately 166 kg each, while tubers totalled about 16 kg (Chapagain et al., 2019).</p>
<p>Although chayote is relatively affordable to grow, there are expenses that reduce their potential earnings (Chapagain et al., 2019). Using the study by Chapagain et al. (2019), researchers were able to do a trial of potential earning outcomes in USD. In the Dhading block of Nepal, transportation to market alone cost $11.40 per plant on average (cost between 2015-16 on average). Next, the cost of labour was about $3.45 while seeds and planting materials were around $0.35 (Chapagain et al., 2019). Altogether including miscellaneous costs, the expenses of growing and selling chayote were about $16.55 in the Dhading block, while the net return was approximately $32.95 per plant (Chapagain et al., 2019). Not only could the fruit be sold, however, and (in the Dhading region) the chayote tuber was valued at $0.40/kg (Chapagain et al., 2019). The cost of maintaining the terrace itself must be considered as well, which includes labour, and materials.</P>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Sustainability of Terrace Farming </h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>A major challenge is that terraces require constant maintenance, or else they deteriorate which requires considerable labour and cost to restore (Deng et al., 2019), as noted above. Over time, terraces can interrupt water circulation, including promoting run-off and soil loss, if not well-maintained (Deng et al., 2021). In order to operate as intended, a terrace must be used in unison with soil conservation practices, especially in wet climates (Durán Zuazo et al., 2019). The emergence of significant environmental issues brought on by poorly designed or poorly managed terraces could cause soil loss up to five times as much as a well-managed terrace. The terrace must be protected by vegetation, or plant covers must be implemented to preserve the terrace (Durán Zuazo et al., 2019). In this vein, the chayote vertical canopy may protect the terrace walls, but studies are needed to make such a conclusion. Failure to maintain the terrace could lead to the deterioration of soil and pose issues in the future for farmers hoping to re-use that land. </p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Limitations </h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Unfortunately, chayote squash is not the most profitable commodity for remote farmers. Although it has the potential for great economic return for farmers, transportation of the fruit in remote areas cut profits tremendously, as noted above (Chapagain et al., 2019). Chapagain et al. (2019) found in their trial that almost 70% of the overall cost of growing chayote was allocated towards transportation from the hillside to markets due to the substantial mass of both the squash itself as well as the tubers. This shows the importance of remote farmers developing market channels and/or working relationships with potential consumers. Alternatively, some type of post-harvest processing or preservation without refrigeration could be beneficial, to add value to this crop and reduce the immediate transportation costs (e.g. pickling, etc.).</p>
<p>The issue of storage is a common problem for chayote farmers, especially those harvesting excess fruit (Cadena-Iñiguez, 2006). As chayote fruit is soft and high in moisture content, the seed can germinate prematurely inside the fruit (vivipory), about a week after storage under non-ideal environmental conditions (Cadena-Iñiguez, 2006). Cold storage or wax coating were found to prevent this premature sprouting (Cadena-Iñiguez, 2006).</p>
<p>The design of the terrace can pose challenges to farmers as well. It is recommended farmers select an angled terrace wall in order to minimize the possible effect of monsoon rainfall on the terrace, and the potential for soil erosion (Pu et al., 2021). This is not common knowledge to all farmers and runs the risk of damaging their soil and/or terrace. In a financial sense, it is also important to consider the cost of materials used for the construction of the terrace, and the possibility of damaging the soil when building it (Deng et al., 2021). Un-informed farmers could possibly create a non-sustainable terrace that could lead to the potential ruin of crops and loss of their investment.</p>
<p>Although farmers in Nepal have already begun to grow climbing and hanging crops on terrace walls, experts have yet to analyze the true potential economic gains from these yields, so this form of farming requires testing in other environments (Chapagain et al., 2019). The cost of building a new terrace is especially concerning, and hence should only be undertaken on farms with pre-existing terraces. The Nepal Terrace Farmers and Sustainable Agriculture Kits initiative (SAKNepal) offer valuable resources (Government of Canada, 2021).</p>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Conclusion</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>When evaluating the economic success of subsistence farmers growing chayote squash on terrace walls, it is evident that the potential for profit is high as long as there are pre-existing terrace walls available, and post-harvest and transportation solutions available to take advantage of the high yield of this cropping system.</p>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Links to Useful Resources</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=S43fq_ROP9A&ab_channel=SAKGlobal</p>

<p>Short YouTube film displaying the practice of terrace farming in Nepal</p>

<p>https://idl-bnc-idrc.dspacedirect.org/bitstream/handle/10625/57210/IDL-57210.pdf
Article on a terrace farming initiative in Nepal</p>

<p>https://www.idrc.ca/en/research-in-action/sustainable-agriculture-kits-terrace-farmers-nepal
Article on sustainable agriculture kits</p>

<p>https://www.accessagriculture.org/slm02-fanya-juu-terraces
Example of terrace farming</p>

<p>https://www.proquest.com/docview/2673379795/FBBC998CABD44842PQ/12?accountid=11233
Article on the health benefits of chayote</p>

<p>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=W7db3_Y7t2Q&ab_channel=LearnOrganicGardeningatGrowingYourGreens
YouTube video showing how to grow chayote vines vertically</p>

<p>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qtE-ZK6pL0Y&ab_channel=MarieCountryLife
YouTube video sharing recipes for cooking chayote</p>

<p>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IjjhKZ4F6W8&ab_channel=No-TillGrowers
YouTube video showing the function of a terrace farm on a hillside

<p><b>Picture based training lessons for farmers</b></p>
<p>http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/4.2b_south_asian_eng.pdf
South Asia </p>

<p>sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/4.2_b_east_southeast_asia_englishversion-2.pdf
East/Southeast Asia </p>

<p>http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/4.2bsubsaharan_africa_carribean_engversion.pdf
Sub-Saharan Africa/Carribean </p>

<p>http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/4.2blatin_america_eng_version.pdf
Latin America</p>

<p>http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/3.7n._africa_middleeast_eng_version.pdf
North Africa/Middle East</p>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">References</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>1. Cadena-Iñiguez, J., Arévalo-Galarza, L., Ruiz-Posadas, L. M., Aguirre-Medina, J. F., Soto-Hernández, M., Luna-Cavazos, M., & Zavaleta-Mancera, H. A. (2006). Quality Evaluation and influence of 1-MCP on sechium edule (Jacq.) Sw. fruit during postharvest. Postharvest Biology and Technology, 40(2), 170–176. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.postharvbio.2005.12.013</p>

<p>2. Chapagain, T., Ghimire, B., Pudasaini, R., Gurung, K., Choi, K., Rai, L., Magar, S., Bishnu, B. K., & Raizada, M. N. (2019). The underutilized terrace wall can be intensified to improve farmer livelihoods. Agronomy for Sustainable Development, 39(3), 29. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13593-019-0574-2 </p>

<p>3. Deng, C., Zhang, G., Liu, Y., Nie, X., Li, Z., Liu, J., & Zhu, D. (2021). Advantages and disadvantages of terracing: A comprehensive review. International Soil and Water Conservation Research, 9(3), 344–359. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iswcr.2021.03.002</p>

<p>4. Durán Zuazo, V. H., Rodríguez Pleguezuelo, C. R., Rodríguez, B. C., Ruiz, B. G., Gordillo, S. G., Sacristán, P. C., Tavira, S. C., & García-Tejero, I. F. (2019). Terraced subtropical farming: Sustainable Strategies for Soil Conservation. Soil Health Restoration and Management, 6(4)( 231–278. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-8570-4_7
</p>
<p>5. Government of Canada. (2021, March 9). Sustainable agriculture kits for terrace farmers in Nepal. International Development Research Centre (IDRC), Ottawa. Retrieved September 29, 2022, from https://www.idrc.ca/en/research-inaction/sustainable-agriculture-kits-terrace-farmers-nepal</p>

<p>6. Price, S. Nixon, L. (2005). Ancient Greek agricultural terraces: Evidence from texts and archaeological survey. American Journal of Archaeology, 109, 665-694
https://www.jstor.org/stable/40025693</p>

<p>7. Pu, Y.-T., Luo, Q., Wen, L.-H., Li, Y.-R., Meng, P.-H., Wang, X.-J., & Tan, G.-F. (2021). Origin, Evolution, Breeding, and Omics of Chayote, an Important Cucurbitaceae Vegetable Crop. Frontiers in Plant Science, 12, 739091. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2021.739091</p>

<p>8. Vieira, E. F., Pinho, O., Ferriera, I. M., Delerue-Matos, C. (2019) Chayote (Sechium edule): A Review of Nutritional Composition, Bioactivities and Potential Applications. Food Chemistry, 275, 557–568., https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2018.09.146.</p>
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Template:Chapter 3.2a

2023-01-02T10:19:14Z

62.8.66.139:

<div>
<div class="title"><h3>3.2a - Climbing beans on terrace walls</h3><br><h3 class="ch-owner">Noah Dion, University of Guelph, Canada</h3></div>
<div class="hero-img-2">
[[File:4.jpg|300px]]
<p>Suggested citation for this chapter.</p>
<p>Dion,N(2022) Climbing beans on terrace walls. In Farmpedia, The Encyclopedia for Small Scale Farmers. Editor, M.N. Raizada, University of Guelph, Canada. http://www.farmpedia.org</p>
</div>
<div class="ch-navber" style="display: flex; justify-content: space-between;">
<div class="center-side" style="max-width: 100%;margin-right: 3%;">
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Introduction to the Farming Practice </h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Terrace farming is a practice that has been exercised over the past 5000-6000 years, primarily in hilly, rural regions where there is not an abundance of flat farmland to be cultivated. These terraces are utilized mostly by farmers in South Asia (e.g. China, India, Nepal, etc.), East Africa (e.g. Ethiopia, Tanzania, etc.) and South American regions (Chapagain et al., 2019). The terrace wall gives the farmer the ability to use poor farmland in mountainous regions by building risers up the hilly parts of the land, like a staircase. The terrace is made up of three main components: the flat land in between each riser (step-up) that is cultivated mainly with field crops, the slim narrow path on the edge allowing farmers to navigate their way through the land and tend to the crops, and the riser which is usually a bare wall either constructed with a sturdy material or dug out and man-made. In Nepal, for example, a terrace wall's dimensions are: 4-5 m in height and 50-100 m in length, with the flat land in between each step being roughly 3-4 m in width (Chapagain et al., 2019). This means that more than half the potential surface area is unused – in particular, the vertical surface. Growing crops, in particular climbing beans, at the base of the terrace wall offers an opportunity to improve local nutrition, the environment and alleviate poverty.</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Climbing Bean Candidates for Cultivation on Terrace Walls </h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>The legume family is the 3rd largest family out of all flowering plants, hosting approximately 20,000 different species (Doyle, 1994). Some examples of these legumes (more specifically climbing beans) are the cowpea, common bean, winged bean, etc. There are many different types of climbing beans that are candidates for successful growth on terrace walls. These could be planted at the base of the walls. The jack bean (also known as Canavalia ensiformis) is a great example of a legume that would thrive in this environment. Native to the West Indies and Central America, these beans hold potential to grow on the terrace walls because they are tolerant to waterlogging as well as drought tolerant (Haq, 2011). They can survive on as little as 650 mm of rainfall per year (Clark and Raizada, 2017). The winged bean (also known as Psophocarpus) is another potential candidate for climbing the terrace walls. This crop shows potential based on its agronomic and nutritional traits and is usually grown by subsistence farmers. Their seeds contain a significant amount of protein (37.3%) (Cerny et al., 1971). Unfortunately this bean is very underutilized and lacks adequate research.</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Benefits of Growing Climbing Beans on Terrace Walls</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Implementing climbing beans into terrace farming will increase overall legume yields which can lower poverty and malnutrition rates in the hilly regions. Beans add nitrogen to the soil to assist other crops, as well as protein to food and fodder for human and livestock diets, respectively (Rondon et al., 2007). There are many benefits that make farming on terrace walls appealing. Terrace risers are designed to prevent erosion from rainwater. They do this through their ability to slow the amount and velocity of the rainwater by collecting rainfall accumulating on the slope of the risers, which in turn slows the erosion process (Wheaton and Monke, n.d.). In addition, more efficient farming can be practiced through the wall's ability to collect and hold more water. In Nepal, the agricultural land holding on average is about 0.68-0.77 ha for hilly/mountainous regions (Clark and Raizada, 2017) so incorporating terrace walls into crop production will benefit the subsistence farmers in these regions greatly. </p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Potential Hardships </h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>There are many challenges to consider when implementing this method of farming as it can be a very tedious and laborious (Clark and Raizada, 2017). The height and trajectory of the cultivated land on the terrace walls can make farming the climbing beans very physically challenging, especially for smallholder women farmers that are unfortunately not always as physically capable as a stronger male farmer in certain circumstances. The direction the wall is facing is very important when relating to overall sun exposure. Climbing crops may shade the crops that are growing on the horizontal land in between the terrace risers which would tamper with the growing process. Also, when the sun is no longer shedding light on the face of the wall, the climbing legumes will have a lack of sunlight. Climbing beans may not be compatible with other terrace crops or crop production methods (e.g. flooded rice paddies) (Clark and Raizada, 2017).</P>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Socio-Economic Challenges</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>There are also socio-economic hardships to consider since the hilly regions that the terrace farmers populate are typically suffering from poverty. In these regions, there can be a lack of human capital since many men migrate to the city or other countries for employment (Chapagain and Raizada, 2017). In Nepal, over 30% of the population live on $14 USD per month, where 75% of the population in the hilly regions live below the poverty line (Chapagain and Raizada, 2017). Therefore, constructing and maintaining terrace farms is not a very feasible option for the economically struggling countries in these mountainous regions, and hence this practice would be limited to farmers that already have terraces. </p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Practical Links to Get Started </h1>
<div class="cont-bg">

<p>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cFPbuinYXA0
Video on the construction and irrigation of terraced farmland</p>

<p>https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/184952v1.full
Article listing many different examples of climbing legumes </p>

<p>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LpaPU-STAsY
Video discussing soil conservation </p>

<p><b>Picture Based Training Lessons for Farmers</b></p>
<p>http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/4._terrace_agriculture.pdf</p>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">References</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>1. Pratap, A. and Kumar, J. (2011). Underutilized Food Legumes: Potential for Multipurpose Uses. In A. Pratap and J. Kumar (Eds.), Biology and Breeding of Food Legumes. Cambridge: CAB International. https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/184952v1.full</p>
<p>2. Cerny, K., Maud, K., Pospisil, F., Svabensky, O., and Zajic, B. (1971) Nutritive value of the winged bean (Psophocarpus palustris Desv.). British Journal of Nutrition. 26, 293–299. https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/184952v1.full</p>
<p>3. Chapagain, T., Ghimire, B., Pudasaini, R., Gurung, K., Choi, K., Rai, L., Magar, S., Bishnu, B. K., & Raizada, M. N. (2019). The underutilized terrace wall can be intensified to improve farmer livelihoods - agronomy for sustainable development. Agronomy for Sustainable Development 39, 29. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s13593-019-0574-2</p>
<p>4. Chapagain, T., & Raizada, M. N. (2017). Agronomic challenges and opportunities for Smallholder Terrace Agriculture in developing countries. Frontiers in Plant Science 8, 331. https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpls.2017.00331/full</p>
<p>5. Clark, J. C., & Raizada, M. N. (2017). Climbing legumes: an underutilized resource with significant potential to intensify farming on terrace walls (FTW) for smallholder farmers. bioRxiv. https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/184952v1.full</p>
<p>6. Doyle, J. J. (1994). Phylogeny of the legume family: approach to understanding the origins of nodulation. nnnual review of ecology and systematics, Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 25, 325–349. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2097315</p>
<p>7. Rondon, M.A., Lehmann, J., Ramírez, J. et al. (2007). Biological nitrogen fixation by common beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) increases with bio-char additions. Biol Fertil Soils 43, 699–708. (https://doi.org/10.1007/s00374-006-0152-z</p>
<p>8. Wheaton , R. Z., & Monke, E. J. (n.d.). Terracing as a `best management practice' for controlling erosion and protecting water quality. Purdue University, Cooperative Extension Service. https://www.extension.purdue.edu/extmedia/ae/ae-114.html#:~:text=The%20major%20benefit%2C%20of%20course,than%20would%20otherwise%20be%20possible.</p>
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Template:Chapters 8.14

2022-12-31T09:50:24Z

62.8.66.139:

<div class="title"><h3>8.14 - Low cost machines to extract cooking oil from seeds</h3><br><h3 class="ch-owner">Navjot Singh, University of Guelph, Canada</h3></div>
<div class="hero-img-2">
[[File:4.jpg|300px]]
<p>Suggested citation for this chapter.</p>
<p>Singh,N (2022) title of chapter. In Farmpedia, The Encyclopedia for Small Scale Farmers. Editor, M.N. Raizada, University of Guelph, Canada. http://www.farmpedia.org</p>
<h3 class="title-bg">Introduction</h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Cooking oil is an important food ingredient as it reduces the time required to cook, because of its high heat capacity. Women and girls have to walk long distances to collect firewood, so many traditional foods rely on frying which makes cooking much faster and hence uses less fuelwood. It also reduces the time required by women to spend in front of the cooking fire, breathing in dangerous smoke. Moreover, cooking oil adds flavor, texture and nutrition to food. It is also a valuable source of energy and essential fatty acids. Smallholder farmers can use cooking oil to improve the quality of their products and to make them more nutritious; not only does it add flavor to food, but it also helps to preserve it. Farmers can also sell cooking oil to local markets. Smallholder farmers can also use it to produce biodiesel, which can be used to power vehicles and machinery. It can be used for cooking, lighting, and powering farm equipment. It is also used in the production of soap, detergent, and other products. Overall, cooking oil is an important product for smallholder farmers because it is a source of income and helps to improve the quality of life (Fold, 1999).</p>
<p>However, cooking oil extraction is laborious for most small scale farmers (Poku, 2002; Fold, 1999). As a result, farmers typically sell raw oilseeds and do not capture the value from a final oil product. Instead, farmers are forced to buy cooking oil which is expensive.</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">Different Methods Of Oil Extraction </i></h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>•Mechanical extraction is the most traditional method of oil extraction used by smallholders; it involves pounding oilseeds with a mortar and pestle (Poku, 2002).</p>
<p>•Oilseed pressing is a method of oil pressing that uses a screw to compress and extract oil from seeds and nuts. The material to be pressed is fed into the press, where it is crushed and compressed. The oil is then extracted from the crushed material. This type of extraction is popular among small scale farmers because the presses which use this method are generally inexpensive, as they require a low number of parts. Furthermore, it is simple and requires only one person to operate it by rotating on the handle of the screw mechanism.</p>
<p>•Expeller pressing is a method of oil pressing that uses two heavy plates to compress and extract oil from seeds and nuts. The seed is placed between two heavy metal plates in a machine. When the machine is switched on, the plates normally revolve, pushing the seed harder and harder to extract oil from it. The oil is then extracted from the crushed material. The machinery required is inexpensive and does not require any chemicals to operate it (De Alzaa et al., 2020).</p>
<p>•Cold pressing is a method of oil pressing that uses a cold press to extract oil from seeds and nuts. The material to be pressed is fed into the press, where it is crushed and compressed. The oil is then extracted from the crushed material. This method is the same as expeller pressing but the temperature must be 40˚C or lower for the oil to be considered cold pressed. Cold pressed oil is regarded as offering more nutritional and health advantages. These oils are often high in vitamin E and monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids (De Alzaa et al., 2020).</p>
<p>•Hot pressing is a method of oil pressing that uses a hot press to extract oil from seeds and nuts. The material to be pressed is fed into the press, where it is heated and crushed. The oil is then extracted from the crushed material. </p>
<p>Given the current challenges faced by small scale farmers to extract cooking oil, low cost and low labor alternative technologies are needed. This chapter will focus on hot/cold presses because they are easy to operate, are very portable and cost efficient.</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">Manual Stainless Steel Oil Pressing Machine </h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
[[Image:Manual machine 1.jpg|thumb|centre|Figure 1. Example of a low cost, manual stainless steel oil pressing machine (https://www.aliexpress.com/item/1005004299149040.html).]]</p>
<p>This machine is attached to a table, and one person is required to operate it by turning the crank while feeding the seeds from the top.
This machine only weighs 3 kg and is 39 x 9 x30 cm in size (Figure 1). The light weight and small size of this machine makes it very easy to transport on a motorbike or a bicycle.</p>
<p>This hot/cold press runs mechanically and requires physical labor; the mechanical nature means that it has a very low environmental impact but is very labor intensive. It does require only one person to operate it, allowing individual households to be self-sufficient. In very low-income regions, local entrepreneurs could start a fee-for-service business, to rent the machine to farmers for a period of time so they can extract oil themselves. An advantage of this approach is that the entrepreneur is then responsible for any repairs.</p>
<p>The physical operation of the press allows it to be very viable in regions with scarce or no electricity or other energy sources such as petrol.
<p><i><b>Raw Material:</i></b></p> This device is suitable for more than 25 percent of oil crops such as flax seed, coconut, walnut, sesame seed, sunflower, peanut/groundnut, pecan nut, mustard/canola/rapeseed and palm seeds. </p>
<p><i><b>Method of operation:</i></b></p> https://m.youtube.com/watch?v=gQa5ml_6iiQ (Fyre 2020)</p>
<p><i><b>Average cost:</i></b></p> As of 2022, this machine costs on average US $125 (shorturl.at/dSW17) including worldwide shipping. An alternative machine costs US $72 (shorturl.at/cdglT), plus shipping costs.</p>
<p><i><b>Production:</i></b></p> This machine has a dry cake residual oil rate of around 20% because it is hand operated. The dry residual cake is the oil that remains in the cake, so the lower the residual oil rate, the better the machine's performance. Some more oil can be extracted by grinding the residue again in order to increase the seed/oil ratio (Ali Express 2022).</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">Automatic Cold Press Machine</h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
[[Image:Automatic machine.jpg|thumb|centre|Figure 2. Example of a low cost cold-press machine machine (Source: Savaliya Industries, 2022).]]</p>
<p>This machine needs to be plugged in to a 110 V or 220 V power supply, and one person needs to feed seeds to it from its top and then just wait for the machine to extract the oil.</p>
<p>The machine shown in Figure 2 weighs around 10 kg and is 42x16x30 cm in size. Its size allows it to be easily transported on a motorbike but due to its heavy weight transporting it on a bicycle may be more challenging.</p>
<p>The low price, light weight and high oil production rate of the machine make it suitable for a small farmer cooperative. The smallholder farmers can visit the cooperative in order to get their seeds processed and take oil and dry cake residue home (Jofay 2016). The dry cake can be used as a fertilizer for plants by soaking it in water (Xanh 2013). It can also be used as an animal feed (Poku, 2002).</p>
<p>Since this machine needs electricity in order to operate, it is not suitable for regions with scarce electricity. Petrol-based generators can be used in those regions if readily available.</p>
<p><i><b>Raw Material:</i></b></p> This press works with all the seeds that can be cold pressed such as tung tree seeds, peanuts (groundnuts), sunflower seeds, sesame seeds, tea seeds, rapeseed/mustard, flax seeds, etc. (Savaliya Industries, 2022).</p>
<p><i><b>Method of operation:</i></b></p> https://m.youtube.com/watch?v=FK5GHCpOsGQ (Joyfay 2016) </p>
<p><i><b>Average cost:</i></b></p> The price of this machine ranges from $220 to $280 USD depending on the source, yield and guarantee options.
The oil extractor made by SAVALIYA costs $280 plus shipping as of 2022, and is sold by AliExpress (Savaliya Industries, 2022)
Another press made by MPSVADH electrical life store costs US $220 including shipping costs and is sold by AliExpress (shorturl.at/inW02). This is a cheap alternative to the oil extractor made by SAVALIYA with a little extra energy usage required. </p>
<p><i><b>Production:</i></b></p> This machine is very efficient in terms of oil production and has a dry cake residual oil rate of 5%. Around 3-5 kg of seeds are processed every hour. It is recommended to stop the press for about 30 minutes after every 4 hours of continuous use (Savaliya Industries, 2022).</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">Critical Analysis </h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>To conclude, it depends on the farmer regarding how fast they need their seeds processed. An automatic press can process around 5 kg of seeds every hour, which is significantly more than a hand operated press would yield.</p>
<p>Cheap oil extractors are usually manual ones, meaning that they require physical labor to operate. They are also often less energy-efficient than their more expensive counterparts. On the other hand, they tend to be more affordable and easier to maintain.</p>
<p>Expensive oil extractors are usually automated. This means that they require less labor to operate, and are often more energy-efficient. However, they tend to be more expensive to purchase and maintain. Moreover, expensive oil extractors tend to have a lot of parts that increase the risk of failure (Fold, 1999). Some machines come with a limited warranty that cover the first 2-5 years of operation, but after that, the farmer will need to pay for all the repairs which could be expensive (Sims and Kienzle, 2015) and logistically challenging for smallholders (Fold, 1999).</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">Additional Practical Resources To Get Started</h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>BEST Service for Any Problems about Oil Press Machines (bestoilpressmachines.com)</p>
<p>- Small-Scale Oilseed Presses - YouTube</p>
<p>- Automatic Oil Press for Home Use - YouTube</p>
<p>- Hand Operated Oil Press - YouTube</p>
<p>- Pedal powered Piteba Nut and Seed Oil Expeller Oil press - YouTube</p>

<p><b>Picture based training lessons for farmers:</b></p>

<p>http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/9.14__south_asian_eng.pdf
+ 4 other Ethnic versions available</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">References </h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>1.Fold, N. (1999) Small-scale processing of cooking oil in rural Zimbabwe and Burkina Faso. Danish Journal of Geography 1, 55-60
http://img.kb.dk/tidsskriftdk/pdf/gto/gto_si01-PDF/gto_si01_72555.pdf</p>

<p>2. Christensen, T. (2022) What is expeller pressed oil. Delighted Cooking website, Accessed Dec 3, 2022.
https://www.delightedcooking.com/what-is-expeller-pressed-oil.htm</p>

<p>3. De Alzaa F, Guillaume C and Ravetti L (2020) Evaluation of Chemical and Physical Changes in Different Commercial Oils During Heating. Acta Scientific Nutritional Health 2.6, 2-11. https://www.actascientific.com/ASNH/pdf/ASNH-02-0083.pdf</p>

<p>4. Sims, B. and Kienzle, J. (2015). Mechanization of Conservation Agriculture for Smallholders: Issues and Options for Sustainable Intensification. Environments, 2 (2) 139-166. https://www.mdpi.com/2076-3298/2/2/139</p>

<p>5. Fyre, B. (2020). How to Use Manual Oil Press Machine. YouTube. https://m.youtube.com/watch?v=gQa5ml_6iiQ</p>

<p>6. Joyfay International (2016). Automatic Oil Press.YouTube. https://m.youtube.com/watch?v=FK5GHCpOsGQ.</p>
<p>7. Hang Xanh Company Limited (2013) The best way to use kinds of oil cakes as fertilizer http://hxcorp.com.vn/news/778-the-best-way-to-use-kinds-of-oil-cakes-as-fertilizer.html</p>
<p>8. Poku, K. (2002) Small-Scale Palm Oil Processing in Africa, FAO, Rome. https://www.fao.org/3/y4355e/y4355e00.htm#Contents</p>

<p>9. Savaliya Industries (2022) Fully Automatic Cold Press Oil Maker Machine. https://www.si-pl.com/products/si-801-fully-automatic-cold-press-oil-maker-machine?variant=41506628239516.</p>

<p>10. Ali Express (2022) Manual Oil Pressing Machine. https://www.aliexpress.com/item/1005004299149040.html?</p>

Template:Chapters 8.14

2022-12-31T09:47:06Z

62.8.66.139:

<div class="title"><h3>8.14 - Low cost machines to extract cooking oil from seeds</h3><br><h3 class="ch-owner">Navjot Singh, University of Guelph, Canada</h3></div>
<div class="hero-img-2">
[[File:4.jpg|300px]]
<p>Suggested citation for this chapter.</p>
<p>Singh,N (2022) title of chapter. In Farmpedia, The Encyclopedia for Small Scale Farmers. Editor, M.N. Raizada, University of Guelph, Canada. http://www.farmpedia.org</p>
<h3 class="title-bg">Introduction</h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Cooking oil is an important food ingredient as it reduces the time required to cook, because of its high heat capacity. Women and girls have to walk long distances to collect firewood, so many traditional foods rely on frying which makes cooking much faster and hence uses less fuelwood. It also reduces the time required by women to spend in front of the cooking fire, breathing in dangerous smoke. Moreover, cooking oil adds flavor, texture and nutrition to food. It is also a valuable source of energy and essential fatty acids. Smallholder farmers can use cooking oil to improve the quality of their products and to make them more nutritious; not only does it add flavor to food, but it also helps to preserve it. Farmers can also sell cooking oil to local markets. Smallholder farmers can also use it to produce biodiesel, which can be used to power vehicles and machinery. It can be used for cooking, lighting, and powering farm equipment. It is also used in the production of soap, detergent, and other products. Overall, cooking oil is an important product for smallholder farmers because it is a source of income and helps to improve the quality of life (Fold, 1999).</p>
<p>However, cooking oil extraction is laborious for most small scale farmers (Poku, 2002; Fold, 1999). As a result, farmers typically sell raw oilseeds and do not capture the value from a final oil product. Instead, farmers are forced to buy cooking oil which is expensive.</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">Different methods of oil extraction </i></h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>•Mechanical extraction is the most traditional method of oil extraction used by smallholders; it involves pounding oilseeds with a mortar and pestle (Poku, 2002).</p>
<p>•Oilseed pressing is a method of oil pressing that uses a screw to compress and extract oil from seeds and nuts. The material to be pressed is fed into the press, where it is crushed and compressed. The oil is then extracted from the crushed material. This type of extraction is popular among small scale farmers because the presses which use this method are generally inexpensive, as they require a low number of parts. Furthermore, it is simple and requires only one person to operate it by rotating on the handle of the screw mechanism.</p>
<p>•Expeller pressing is a method of oil pressing that uses two heavy plates to compress and extract oil from seeds and nuts. The seed is placed between two heavy metal plates in a machine. When the machine is switched on, the plates normally revolve, pushing the seed harder and harder to extract oil from it. The oil is then extracted from the crushed material. The machinery required is inexpensive and does not require any chemicals to operate it (De Alzaa et al., 2020).</p>
<p>•Cold pressing is a method of oil pressing that uses a cold press to extract oil from seeds and nuts. The material to be pressed is fed into the press, where it is crushed and compressed. The oil is then extracted from the crushed material. This method is the same as expeller pressing but the temperature must be 40˚C or lower for the oil to be considered cold pressed. Cold pressed oil is regarded as offering more nutritional and health advantages. These oils are often high in vitamin E and monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids (De Alzaa et al., 2020).</p>
<p>•Hot pressing is a method of oil pressing that uses a hot press to extract oil from seeds and nuts. The material to be pressed is fed into the press, where it is heated and crushed. The oil is then extracted from the crushed material. </p>
<p>Given the current challenges faced by small scale farmers to extract cooking oil, low cost and low labor alternative technologies are needed. This chapter will focus on hot/cold presses because they are easy to operate, are very portable and cost efficient.</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">Manual Stainless Steel Oil Pressing Machine </h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
[[Image:Manual machine 1.jpg|thumb|centre|Figure 1. Example of a low cost, manual stainless steel oil pressing machine (https://www.aliexpress.com/item/1005004299149040.html).]]</p>
<p>This machine is attached to a table, and one person is required to operate it by turning the crank while feeding the seeds from the top.
This machine only weighs 3 kg and is 39 x 9 x30 cm in size (Figure 1). The light weight and small size of this machine makes it very easy to transport on a motorbike or a bicycle.</p>
<p>This hot/cold press runs mechanically and requires physical labor; the mechanical nature means that it has a very low environmental impact but is very labor intensive. It does require only one person to operate it, allowing individual households to be self-sufficient. In very low-income regions, local entrepreneurs could start a fee-for-service business, to rent the machine to farmers for a period of time so they can extract oil themselves. An advantage of this approach is that the entrepreneur is then responsible for any repairs.</p>
<p>The physical operation of the press allows it to be very viable in regions with scarce or no electricity or other energy sources such as petrol.
<p><i><b>Raw Material:</i></b></p> This device is suitable for more than 25 percent of oil crops such as flax seed, coconut, walnut, sesame seed, sunflower, peanut/groundnut, pecan nut, mustard/canola/rapeseed and palm seeds. </p>
<p><i><b>Method of operation:</i></b></p> https://m.youtube.com/watch?v=gQa5ml_6iiQ (Fyre 2020)</p>
<p><i><b>Average cost:</i></b></p> As of 2022, this machine costs on average US $125 (shorturl.at/dSW17) including worldwide shipping. An alternative machine costs US $72 (shorturl.at/cdglT), plus shipping costs.</p>
<p><i><b>Production:</i></b></p> This machine has a dry cake residual oil rate of around 20% because it is hand operated. The dry residual cake is the oil that remains in the cake, so the lower the residual oil rate, the better the machine's performance. Some more oil can be extracted by grinding the residue again in order to increase the seed/oil ratio (Ali Express 2022).</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">Automatic Cold Press Machine</h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
[[Image:Automatic machine.jpg|thumb|centre|Figure 2. Example of a low cost cold-press machine machine (Source: Savaliya Industries, 2022).]]</p>
<p>This machine needs to be plugged in to a 110 V or 220 V power supply, and one person needs to feed seeds to it from its top and then just wait for the machine to extract the oil.</p>
<p>The machine shown in Figure 2 weighs around 10 kg and is 42x16x30 cm in size. Its size allows it to be easily transported on a motorbike but due to its heavy weight transporting it on a bicycle may be more challenging.</p>
<p>The low price, light weight and high oil production rate of the machine make it suitable for a small farmer cooperative. The smallholder farmers can visit the cooperative in order to get their seeds processed and take oil and dry cake residue home (Jofay 2016). The dry cake can be used as a fertilizer for plants by soaking it in water (Xanh 2013). It can also be used as an animal feed (Poku, 2002).</p>
<p>Since this machine needs electricity in order to operate, it is not suitable for regions with scarce electricity. Petrol-based generators can be used in those regions if readily available.</p>
<p><i><b>Raw Material:</i></b></p> This press works with all the seeds that can be cold pressed such as tung tree seeds, peanuts (groundnuts), sunflower seeds, sesame seeds, tea seeds, rapeseed/mustard, flax seeds, etc. (Savaliya Industries, 2022).</p>
<p><i><b>Method of operation:</i></b></p> https://m.youtube.com/watch?v=FK5GHCpOsGQ (Joyfay 2016) </p>
<p><i><b>Average cost:</i></b></p> The price of this machine ranges from $220 to $280 USD depending on the source, yield and guarantee options.
The oil extractor made by SAVALIYA costs $280 plus shipping as of 2022, and is sold by AliExpress (Savaliya Industries, 2022)
Another press made by MPSVADH electrical life store costs US $220 including shipping costs and is sold by AliExpress (shorturl.at/inW02). This is a cheap alternative to the oil extractor made by SAVALIYA with a little extra energy usage required. </p>
<p><i><b>Production:</i></b></p> This machine is very efficient in terms of oil production and has a dry cake residual oil rate of 5%. Around 3-5 kg of seeds are processed every hour. It is recommended to stop the press for about 30 minutes after every 4 hours of continuous use (Savaliya Industries, 2022).</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">Critical Analysis </h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>To conclude, it depends on the farmer regarding how fast they need their seeds processed. An automatic press can process around 5 kg of seeds every hour, which is significantly more than a hand operated press would yield.</p>
<p>Cheap oil extractors are usually manual ones, meaning that they require physical labor to operate. They are also often less energy-efficient than their more expensive counterparts. On the other hand, they tend to be more affordable and easier to maintain.</p>
<p>Expensive oil extractors are usually automated. This means that they require less labor to operate, and are often more energy-efficient. However, they tend to be more expensive to purchase and maintain. Moreover, expensive oil extractors tend to have a lot of parts that increase the risk of failure (Fold, 1999). Some machines come with a limited warranty that cover the first 2-5 years of operation, but after that, the farmer will need to pay for all the repairs which could be expensive (Sims and Kienzle, 2015) and logistically challenging for smallholders (Fold, 1999).</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">Additional practical resources to get started</h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>BEST Service for Any Problems about Oil Press Machines (bestoilpressmachines.com)</p>
<p>- Small-Scale Oilseed Presses - YouTube</p>
<p>- Automatic Oil Press for Home Use - YouTube</p>
<p>- Hand Operated Oil Press - YouTube</p>
<p>- Pedal powered Piteba Nut and Seed Oil Expeller Oil press - YouTube</p>

<p><b>Picture based training lessons for farmers:</b></p>

<p>http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/9.14__south_asian_eng.pdf
+ 4 other Ethnic versions available</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">References </h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>1.Fold, N. (1999) Small-scale processing of cooking oil in rural Zimbabwe and Burkina Faso. Danish Journal of Geography 1, 55-60
http://img.kb.dk/tidsskriftdk/pdf/gto/gto_si01-PDF/gto_si01_72555.pdf</p>

<p>2. Christensen, T. (2022) What is expeller pressed oil. Delighted Cooking website, Accessed Dec 3, 2022.
https://www.delightedcooking.com/what-is-expeller-pressed-oil.htm</p>

<p>3. De Alzaa F, Guillaume C and Ravetti L (2020) Evaluation of Chemical and Physical Changes in Different Commercial Oils During Heating. Acta Scientific Nutritional Health 2.6, 2-11. https://www.actascientific.com/ASNH/pdf/ASNH-02-0083.pdf</p>

<p>4. Sims, B. and Kienzle, J. (2015). Mechanization of Conservation Agriculture for Smallholders: Issues and Options for Sustainable Intensification. Environments, 2 (2) 139-166. https://www.mdpi.com/2076-3298/2/2/139</p>

<p>5. Fyre, B. (2020). How to Use Manual Oil Press Machine. YouTube. https://m.youtube.com/watch?v=gQa5ml_6iiQ</p>

<p>6. Joyfay International (2016). Automatic Oil Press.YouTube. https://m.youtube.com/watch?v=FK5GHCpOsGQ.</p>
<p>7. Hang Xanh Company Limited (2013) The best way to use kinds of oil cakes as fertilizer http://hxcorp.com.vn/news/778-the-best-way-to-use-kinds-of-oil-cakes-as-fertilizer.html</p>
<p>8. Poku, K. (2002) Small-Scale Palm Oil Processing in Africa, FAO, Rome. https://www.fao.org/3/y4355e/y4355e00.htm#Contents</p>

<p>9. Savaliya Industries (2022) Fully Automatic Cold Press Oil Maker Machine. https://www.si-pl.com/products/si-801-fully-automatic-cold-press-oil-maker-machine?variant=41506628239516.</p>

<p>10. Ali Express (2022) Manual Oil Pressing Machine. https://www.aliexpress.com/item/1005004299149040.html?</p>