Farmpedia - User contributions [en]

Chapters 8.32

2022-07-06T21:03:42Z

41.212.82.212:

<div>
<div class="title"><h3>8.32-Coffee Value Addition</h3><br><h3 class="ch-owner">Kate Smith, University of Guelph, Canada </h3></div>
<div class="hero-img-2">
[[File:4.jpg|300px]]
<p>Suggested citation for this chapter.</p>
<p>Smith,S. (2022) Coffee Value Addition,In Farmpedia, The Encyclopedia for Small Scale Farmers. Editor, M.N. Raizada, University of Guelph, Canada. http://www.farmpedia.org</p>
<h3 class="title-bg">Introduction</h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<P>In the agro-industry there are few commodities with such an enormous market demand as coffee; the annual coffee trade is worth more than 100 billion dollars globally (ITC, 2018) (Murthy & Madhava Naidu, 2012). Within this enormous industry, 80% of the coffee is grown by 25 million smallholder farmers (Fairtrade Canada, n.d.). The price of coffee averages $20.72/lb by the end of its production, with subsistence farmers earning $1.50, or 7%, of its value (Thurston, 2013). Due to this gross imbalance between the cost of producing the raw commodity and related compensation, smallholder farmers are unable to increase the scale of their production or complete more of the processing cycle due to a lack of income. There are many simple processes and strategies subsistence farmers can incorporate into their crop production that will, over time, enable them to produce a higher value product and earn a more equitable income for their labour. This paper will focus on how to add value to coffee beans at the beginning of the production cycle, thus maximizing profits for smallholder farmers.</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">Selective Harvesting </h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Few issues harm the potential value of a coffee crop more than black or broken beans. Completing at least two rounds of selective harvesting prior to a mass harvest can significantly increase the quality, and thereby value, of the beans (Sivetz & Michael, 1963). This method is more labour intensive than the traditional method, which may present a barrier to some farmers. However, it is low cost, requires no additional equipment, and is a simple way to increase profits.</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">Additional information</h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>http://www.casabrasilcoffees.com/learn/harvesting/methods-of-coffee-harvesting-selective-and-strip/</p>
<p>http://www.fao.org/docrep/006/AD219E/AD219E00.htm#TOC</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">Quality Processing</h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Regardless of the harvesting method chosen, value can still be added during the processing stage of the coffee production process. There are two main types of processing: wet and dry. Dry harvesting is the drying of the bean while still inside the coffee cherry, and using a husker to remove the fruit once dried (Daviron, Ponte, & TCARC, 2005). Wet processing involves removing the fruit from the bean while still fresh, and then drying the beans (Daviron, Ponte, & TCARC, 2005). In both, the fruit becomes a waste product that can be used as a source of supplementary income (See Maximizing Plant Usage section) (Galanakis, 2017). The wet method is considered superior and leads to less bean breakage, resulting in a higher grade association at selling time, and thus a greater profit (Dicum & Luttinger, 1999). In addition to removing the fruit prior to drying, a few additional steps can help minimize labour, accelerate the drying process, and recapture valuable water for reuse. Many coffee pulping machines can be operated either manually or electrically, allowing the farmer to choose the method that best suits their ability and budget.
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">Coffee pulping machinery vendor</h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>https://www.alibaba.com/trade/search?IndexArea=product_en&CatId=&fsb=y&SearchText=coffee+pulper+machine</p>
<p>Natural fermentation is the most common method of removing the mucilage from pulped beans. This simple, albeit long, process involves placing the beans in large troughs or tanks. Over time, yeast and bacteria grow on the beans until they are numerous enough to form pectic enzymes, which break down the mucilage (Galanakis, 2017). The beans are then washed to stop the process. The addition of a small amount of pectic enzyme, such as pectinase or polygalacturonase, can aid in accelerating this demucilation from an average of 36 to 8 hours (Sivetz & Michael, 1963). This increased speed also results in a reduction of growth of undesirable microorganisms, reduces the labour requirement, completes the process in a more practical timeframe for farmers, improves the taste, acidity, and value, and reduces the cost of troughs as the beans are able to be processed more quickly (Sivetz & Michael, 1963) (Peterson, 2013). The money saved on troughs allow for the purchase of pectic enzymes, which retail for between $40-70 USD, with approximately $0.10 enzymes/lb of beans required for demucilation (Alibaba, 2018) (Sivetz & Michael, 1963). This process is safe for humans as the enzymes target pectin. If this process is utilized, the beans will be ready by morning, allowing the entire day’s sunlight to be capitalized on, further increasing process efficiency (Sivetz & Michael, 1963).</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">Enzyme vendors</h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>https://www.alibaba.com/showroom/pectinase-enzyme.html</p>
<p>https://www.alibaba.com/showroom/polygalacturonase.html?fsb=y&IndexArea=product_en&CatId=&SearchText=polygalacturonase&isGalleryList=G</p>

<p>Immediately following the demucilation, drying the beans is essential to prevent bacteria and insect activity on the beans (Obra, 2013). Coffee cherries start with a 50-65% moisture content which needs to be reduced to 12% or less (Sivetz & Michael, 1963). Washed pulped coffee dries approximately three times faster than its whole fruit counterpart – a significant amount of time in a 5-18 day process (Sivetz & Michael, 1963). Instead of leaving the beans outdoors on large sheets or screen bottomed trays, the creation and use of solar stills can help optimize this procedure.</p>

<p>A solar still uses solar energy to heat a volume of water, resulting in evaporation of clean water that condenses on the angled lid of the still, and is directed into a water holding receptacle for reuse (All About Water Filters, 2018). In addition to producing up to 8kg/day of clean water, this method protects the beans from the elements, especially rain, leading to more uniform and accelerated drying, and is low cost (Sivetz & Michael, 1963) (Deeto, Thepa, Monyakul, & Songprakorp, 2018). Efficiency can be further optimized by adding a one inch layer of thermal insulation beneath the beans and spreading the beans out into a ½ inch layer (Sivetz & Michael, 1963). With this method, the labour intensive process of stirring the beans is unnecessary, and ill advised. The moisture removed from the beans needs to build up within the still in order for it to condense on the lid and ultimately drain out; if the still is opened to stir, the water and heat causing the beans to dry out will be lost and slow down the process. Additionally, speed can be optimized, and labour minimized, by not removing the beans overnight, but instead wrapping the stills with an insulating material to conserve heat, enabling an extension of the coffee dehydration process.</p>

<p>Solar stills can be purchased as a complete item, as individual components, or can be fashioned from pre-owned items by the farmer. Based on which option the farmer chooses, the costs range from $0-200 per still (International Engineering & Trading Co, 2018). In summary, solar stills require minimal maintenance, minimal labour, require only free solar energy, are safe to use, expedite the drying process, minimize bacterial growth, and produce water, a lucrative by-product, making them a valuable investment and addition to the production process.</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">Helpful Links</h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Premade still: https://www.alibaba.com/product-detail/Solar-Still_248757572.html</p>
<p>Building instructions: http://diy-alternative-energy.com/build-a-solar-water-distiller/</p>
<p>http://all-about-water-filters.com/ultimate-guide-to-solar-water-distillation/</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">Localized Roasting</h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>On average, raw beans garner $1.50/lb, while roasted can resell for $7.25/lb (Thurston, 2013). If a collection of smallholder farmers worked together to afford a coffee roaster, this would facilitate an increase in profit. Specialty coffee represents 17% of imports and 40% of revenue in the coffee market (Daviron, Ponte, & TCARC, 2005). Additionally, it reduces shipping, storage, production time, and transportation fees if roasted locally (Thurston, 2013). Although there are monetary inputs the roaster adds, the net profit is far greater.</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">Maximizing Plant Usage</h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>A large percentage of the coffee plant is wasted during the bean extraction process. This waste could serve as a subsidiary income source for subsistence farmers and an increased line of protection from poverty if the beans are of poor quality or there is a meager harvest yield. During the pulping process, most of the coffee cherry is discarded or used during the demucilaging process, which is unnecessary with the addition of enzymes (Dicum & Luttinger, 1999). These fruits are versatile foodstuffs which can be transformed into beverages, canned goods, dried fruit, flour, and coffee filler. Coffee cherry beverages such as qishr, a wine, have been enjoyed for centuries while newer blends like Cascara, a tea, are gaining in popularity due to their introduction into mainstream coffee chains such as Starbucks (Hardie, 2017). Chutneys and jams require minimal additional ingredients, have a long shelf life, and transport well. However they are labour intensive and the hot sugar could cause burns. A dried coffee cherry is easy to make as the solar stills or drying equipment is already owned. Space does, however, need to be available, as this may be significant. Coffee flour is a conventional flour alternative that is gaining global interest and there are companies in this business who cater to, and offer supports for, smallholder farmers creating this product (CF Global Holdings Inc, n.d.). Similarly, companies are beginning to invest in the production of dried and roasted ground cherries as a filler in Arabica coffee blends, similar to the current use of Robusta as a cheap coffee filler. This final option would require partnership with a company, however, this could be beneficial to the farmer as the partnership could offer supports that would otherwise be inaccessible to the farmers.</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">Helpful links</h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>https://anoregoncottage.com/cherry-chutney-recipe/2/</p>
<p>https://www.fabfood4all.co.uk/cherry-jam/</p>
<p>http://www.curiousnut.com/easy-cherry-jam/ </p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">Marketing the Products</h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p> “Take advantage of packaging as a strategic weapon and marketing tool for the entire business, especially within a highly competitive food industry” (Rundh, 2005). This applies to the coffee industry where there are many options available to consumers and proper marketing is essential to success, however, there are also many ways to set yourself apart. Considering the market is international, personal interaction will not be as effective as clever, attractive packaging, accreditations, and company associations or promotion (Pay, 2009). This step is essential if the coffee can be roasted locally, resulting in a complete and finished product sent to market. However, accreditations and distinctions, such as fair trade, certified organic, rainforest alliance, UTZ certified, and “produced by women” can still greatly increase the value of the product if the farmer is only able to grow and dry the beans (Fairtrade Canada, n.d.) (Cuellar, 2013).</p>
<p>Once some additional income has been generated, a smallholder farmer, or farmer cooperative, may have the ability to afford small scale packaging machinery. Such equipment can be purchased online for $600-1000 USD and is capable of producing small “pillow pouches” of product (Alibaba, 2018). This packaging style is airtight for long-term storage, can operate using personalized, pre-labeled bags, and is the most economic design on the market today (Viking Masek, 2018). Although such small packets may be difficult to sell commercially in developed countries, they are an ideal size for use in a hotel’s complimentary breakfast buffet and room amenity assortments, as road side or gift shop keepsakes, or for a local coffee shop to feature. For value to be maximized on specialty products with tourists as the target audience, packaging should, in addition to the aforementioned marketing features, display the region or farm of origin, and include a biography, name, photograph, or signature of the farmers who grew and packaged each pouch. These unique details add a valuable personal touch that cannot be achieved through mass production (Davis, 2018). Additionally, bright, rich colours are more likely to draw attention and are subconsciously suggestive of the bright, rich flavour of the coffee contained within, further increasing consumer attraction to the product (Shi, 2013).</p>
<p>With domestic tourism increasing, a local partnership with a hotel or café would provide economic stability and guarantee that the farmer’s crop will be purchased, decreased export and transport costs, provide a unique commodity for local hotels, and would be at the correct economy of scale for a small business start-up (Tawii, 2017)(Thurston, 2013).</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">Helpful Links</h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=W4WeYSqhwqQ</p>
<p>https://www.womenincoffee.org/</p>
<p>https://www.alibaba.com/</p>
<p>https://vikingmasek.com/</p>
<p>https://vikingmasek.com/packaging-machine-resources/packaging-machine-blog/4-factors-to-consider-when-selecting-coffee-packaging </p>
<p>http://www.coastallabels.co.za/</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">Conclusion</h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>As indicated in the above sections, there are many strategies, methods, and equipment that can significantly improve the production efficiency, quality and value of a coffee crop for smallholder farmers, NGOs, and related associations.</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">References </h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>1. Alibaba. (2018). Coffee Packaging and Labelling Machinery. Retrieved from Alibaba:
a. www.alibaba.com/product-detail/Automatic-coffee-powder-packing-machine-plastic_60319743142.html?spm=a2700.7724857.normalList.25.12f13deerLQtU5</p>

<p>2. Alibaba. (2018). Coffee Pulper Machine. Retrieved from Alibaba:
a. https://www.alibaba.com/trade/search?IndexArea=product_en&CatId=&fsb=y&SearchText=coffee+pulper+machine</p>

<p>3. Alibaba. (2018). Pectinase Enzyme. Retrieved from Alibaba: https://www.alibaba.com/showroom/pectinase-enzyme.html</p>

<p>4. Alibaba. (2018). Polygalacturonase. Retrieved from Alibaba: https://www.alibaba.com/showroom/polygalacturonase.html?fsb=y&IndexArea=product_en&CatId=&SearchText=polygalacturonase&isGalleryList=G </p>

<p>5. All About Water Filters. (2018). Ultimate Guide To Solar Water Distillers: How To Make A
a. Solar Still 101. Retrieved from All About Water Filters: http://all-about-water-filters.com/ultimate-guide-to-solar-water-distillation/</p>

<p>6. Build A Solar Water Distiller. (2014). Retrieved from DIY Alternative Energy: http://diy-alternative-energy.com/build-a-solar-water-distiller/
<p>7. CF Global Holdings Inc. (n.d.). CoffeeFlour. Retrieved from http://www.coffeeflour.com/</p>

<p>8. Cuellar, O. (2013). Women in Coffee in Colombia. In O. Cuellar, J. Morris, & S. Steiman (Eds.),
a. Coffee : a comprehensive guide to the bean, the beverage, and the industry. Rowman & Littlefield. eBook. Retrieved from EBSCO Host: http://web.b.ebscohost.com.subzero.lib.uoguelph.ca/ehost/detail/detail?nobk=y&vid=3&sid=46eceef0-5428-405f-920d-b2eb17078b54@pdc-v-sessmgr05&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZSZzY29wZT1zaXRl#AN=653475&db=nlebk</p>

<p>9. Daviron, B., Ponte, S., & TCARC. (2005). The coffee paradox : global markets, commodity
a. trade, and the elusive promise of development. Ede, Netherlands. Zed Books in association with the CTA. Retrieved from EBSCO Host: http://web.a.ebscohost.com.subzero.lib.uoguelph.ca/ehost/detail/detail?vid=0&sid=6d13ae99-5313-416f-8d44-16148de647c2%40sessionmgr4009&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZSZzY29wZT1zaXRl#AN=263753&db=nlebk </p>

<p>10. Davis, S. (2018). Why Brands Need Signature Stories. Retrieved from Forbes:
a. https://www.forbes.com/sites/scottdavis/2018/05/08/why-brands-need-signature-stories/#a8ef14a72221 </p>

<p>11. Deeto, S., Thepa, S., Monyakul, V., & Songprakorp, R. (2018, 1). The experimental new hybrid solar dryer and hot water storage system of thin layer coffee bean dehumidification. Renewable Energy, 115, 954-968. Retrieved from Science Direct: https://www-sciencedirect-com.subzero.lib.uoguelph.ca/science/article/pii/S0960148117308704</p>
<p>12. Dicum, G., & Luttinger, N. (1999). The coffee book : anatomy of an industry from the crop to the
a. last drop. The New Press. New York, USA. ISBN: 1565845080.</p>

<p>13. Erhart, A. (2016). The Importance Of Marketing (And 3 Reasons Some Businesses Avoid It). Retrieved from Youtube: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=W4WeYSqhwqQ&t=1s</p>
<p>14. Fairtrade Canada. (n.d.). Retrieved from Fairtrade Canada: http://fairtrade.ca/en-CA/Farmers-and-Workers/Coffee/About-Coffee </p>
<p>15. FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations). (1970). Coffee. Retrieved from Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations: http://www.fao.org/docrep/006/AD219E/AD219E00.htm#TOC </p>
<p>16. Galanakis, C. (2017). Handbook of coffee processing by-products : sustainable applications.
a. Academic Press Elsevier. San Diego, USA. ISBN: 9780128112908; ISBN: 0128112905.</p>

<p>17. Hardie, A.-M. (2017, 10). STiR: Now is the Time for Cascara. STiR Tea & Coffee, pp. 44-46.
a. Retrieved from STiR: https://stir-tea-coffee.com/features/now-is-the-time-for-cascara/ </p>

<p>18. International Engineering & Trading Co. (2018). Solar Still. Retrieved from Alibaba: https://www.alibaba.com/product-detail/Solar-Still_248757572.html</p>
<p>19. ITC. (2018). World coffee trade-World coffee exports. Retrieved from International Trade Centre Online: http://www.intracen.org/coffee-guide/world-coffee-trade/world-coffee-exports---basic-figures/</p>
<p>20. IWCA. (n.d.). Retrieved from The International Women's Coffee Alliance: https://www.womenincoffee.org/</p>
<p>21. Murthy, P., & Madhava Naidu, M. (2012, 9). Sustainable management of coffee industry by-products and value addition—A review. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 66, 45-58. Retrieved from Science Direct: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0921344912000894</p>
<p>22. Obra, J. (2013). Coffee Processing An Artisan's Perspective. In J. Obra, J. Morris, & S. Steiman
a. (Eds.), Coffee : a comprehensive guide to the bean, the beverage, and the industry. Rowman & Littlefield. eBook. Retrieved from EBSCO Host: http://web.a.ebscohost.com.subzero.lib.uoguelph.ca/ehost/detail/detail?vid=0&sid=9063d8f6-0f1f-4306-a303-1752245ef3f4%40sessionmgr4007&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZSZzY29wZT1zaXRl#AN=653475&db=nlebk</p>

<p>23. Pay, E. (2009). The Market for Organic and Fair-Trade Coffee. Food and Agricultural
a. Organization for the United Nations, Rome, Italy. Retrieved from Food and Agricultural Organization for the United Nations: http://www.fao.org/fileadmin/templates/organicexports/docs/Market_Organic_FT_Coffee.pdf </p>

<p>24. Peterson, P. (2013). Strategies for Improving Coffee Quality. In P. Peterson, J. Morris, & S.
a. Steiman (Eds.), Coffee : a comprehensive guide to the bean, the beverage, and the industry. Rowman & Littlefield. eBook. Retrieved from EBSCO Host: http://web.a.ebscohost.com.subzero.lib.uoguelph.ca/ehost/detail/detail?vid=0&sid=9063d8f6-0f1f-4306-a303-1752245ef3f4%40sessionmgr4007&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZSZzY29wZT1zaXRl#AN=653475&db=nlebk</p>

<p>25. Rundh, B., & Bo. (2005, 9 1). The multi‐faceted dimension of packaging. British Food Journal, 107(9), 670-684. Retrieved from Emerald Insight: https://www.emeraldinsight.com/doi/abs/10.1108/00070700510615053</p>
<p>26. Shi, T. (2013). The Use of Color in Marketing: Colors and their Physiological and Psychological Implications. Berkeley Scientific Journal, 17(1). Retrieved from https://escholarship.org/uc/item/67v2q6g3</p>
<p>27. Shuler, J. (2018). Methods of Coffee Harvesting. Retrieved from Casa Brazil Coffees: http://www.casabrasilcoffees.com/learn/harvesting/methods-of-coffee-harvesting-selective-and-strip/ </p>
<p>28. Sivetz, & Michael. (1963). Coffee Processing Technology, By Michael Sivetz and H. Elliott
a. Foote. The AVI Publishing Co. Westport, USA.</p>

<p>29. Tawii, C. (2017). World Travel Market: Key Trends in Tourism in Africa. Retrieved from
a. Euromonitor International: http://africa.wtm.com/__novadocuments/357396?v=636295828590630000 </p>

<p>30. Thurston, R. (2013). Where Does the Money Go in the Coffee Supply Chain? In R. Thurston, J.
a. Morris, & S. Steiman (Eds.), Coffee : a comprehensive guide to the bean, the beverage, and the industry. Rowman & Littlefield. eBook. Retrieved from EBSCO Host: http://web.a.ebscohost.com.subzero.lib.uoguelph.ca/ehost/detail/detail?vid=0&sid=9063d8f6-0f1f-4306-a303-1752245ef3f4%40sessionmgr4007&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZSZzY29wZT1zaXRl#AN=653475&db=nlebk</p>

Template:Chapter 8

2022-07-06T07:47:08Z

41.212.82.212:

<div class="cha Chapters_8">
<div class="title"><h1>Post harvest technologies and value addition</h1></div>
<div class="ch-1">

<div class="row">
<div class="column">
<div class="card card-2">
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title cha-title-2">Chapter 8.1</span>
<h2>Tree fruit harvesting tool</h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapters_8.1 In progress]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="column">
<div class="card card-2">
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title cha-title-2">Chapter 8.2</span>
<h2>Seed drying</h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapters_8.2 Read More]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="column">
<div class="card card-2">
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title cha-title-2">Chapter 8.3</span>
<h2>Neem to combat pests during grain storage and the field</h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapters_8.3 Read More]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="row">
<div class="column">
<div class="card card-2">
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title cha-title-2">Chapter 8.4</span>
<h2>Hermetic grain storage bags</h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapters_8.4 Read More]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="column">
<div class="card card-2">
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title cha-title-2">Chapter 8.5</span>
<h2>Improved grain storage delays grain sales until prices are high</h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapters_8.5 In progress]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="column">
<div class="card card-2">
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title cha-title-2">Chapter 8.6</span>
<h2>Anti-ripening bags for fruits</h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapters_8.6 In progress]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="row">
<div class="column">
<div class="card card-2">
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title cha-title-2">Chapter 8.7</span>
<h2>Simple clay pot cooler to prevent spoilage</h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapters_8.7 Read More]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="column">
<div class="card card-2">
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title cha-title-2">Chapter 8.8</span>
<h2>Manual maize kernel sheller</h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapters_8.8 In progress]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="column">
<div class="card card-2">
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title cha-title-2">Chapter 8.10a,b</span>
<h2>Electric/petrol and hand crank maize kernel sheller</h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapters_8.10a,b In progress]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="row">
<div class="column">
<div class="card card-2">
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title cha-title-2">Chapter 8.10c</span>
<h2>Electric/petrol peanut sheller</h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapters_8.10c In progress]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="column">
<div class="card card-2">
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title cha-title-2">Chapter 8.11</span>
<h2>Threshing grain on roads</h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapters_8.11 In progress]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="column">
<div class="card card-2">
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title cha-title-2">Chapter 8.12</span>
<h2>Millet grain thresher</h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapters_8.12 In progress]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="row">
<div class="column">
<div class="card card-2">
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title cha-title-2">Chapter 8.13</span>
<h2>Low cost flour mills</h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapters_8.13 In progress]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="column">
<div class="card card-2">
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title cha-title-2">Chapter 8.14</span>
<h2>Low cost machines to extract cooking oil from seeds</h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapters_8.14 In progress]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="column">
<div class="card card-2">
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title cha-title-2">Chapter 8.15</span>
<h2>High efficiency cook stoves and pot skirts</h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapters_8.15 Read More]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="row">
<div class="column">
<div class="card card-2">
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title cha-title-2">Chapter 8.16</span>
<h2>Pressure cooker to reduce cooking fuel</h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapters_8.16 Read More]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="column">
<div class="card card-2">
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title cha-title-2">Chapter 8.17/8.18</span>
<h2>Use of a friend in the city to obtain selling price, sell directly</h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapters_8.17/8.18 In progress]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="column">
<div class="card card-2">
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title cha-title-2">Chapter 8.19/8.20</span>
<h2>Garlic value addition</h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapters_8.19/8.20 Read More]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="row">
<div class="column">
<div class="card card-2">
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title cha-title-2">Chapter 8.21</span>
<h2>Seaweed Value Addition</h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapters_8.21 Read More]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="column">
<div class="card card-2">
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title cha-title-2">Chapter 8.22</span>
<h2>Maize (corn) value addition</h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapters_8.22 Read More]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="column">
<div class="card card-2">
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title cha-title-2">Chapter 8.23</span>
<h2>Sweet Potato Value Addition</h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapters_8.23 Read More]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="row">
<div class="column">
<div class="card card-2">
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title cha-title-2">Chapter 8.24</span>
<h2>Value Addition of Chickpea</h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapters_8.24 Read More]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="column">
<div class="card card-2">
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title cha-title-2">Chapter 8.25</span>
<h2>Value Addition of Cocoa </h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapters_8.25 Read More]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="column">
<div class="card card-2">
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title cha-title-2">Chapter 8.26</span>
<h2>Using Maize (Corn) Silk as a Source of Profits and Improved Human Health</h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapters_8.26 Read More]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="row">
<div class="column">
<div class="card card-2">
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title cha-title-2">Chapter 8.27</span>
<h2>Cassava Value Addition</h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapters_8.27 Read More]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="column">
<div class="card card-2">
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title cha-title-2">Chapter 8.28</span>
<h2>Cassava Value Addition</h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapters_8.28 Read More]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="column">
<div class="card card-2">
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title cha-title-2">Chapter 8.29</span>
<h2>Quinoa Value Addition</h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapters_8.29 Read More]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="row">
<div class="column">
<div class="card card-2">
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title cha-title-2">Chapter 8.30</span>
<h2>Lemon Lime Value Addition</h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapters_8.30 Read More]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="column">
<div class="card card-2">
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title cha-title-2">Chapter 8.31</span>
<h2>Almond Value Addition</h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapters_8.31 In progress]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="column">
<div class="card card-2">
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title cha-title-2">Chapter 8.32</span>
<h2>Coffee Value Addition</h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapters_8.32 In progress]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="row">
<div class="column">
<div class="card card-2">
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title cha-title-2">Chapter 8.33</span>
<h2>Tomato Value Addition</h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapters_8.33 In progress]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="column">
<div class="card card-2">
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title cha-title-2">Chapter 8.34</span>
<h2>Peanut value addition </h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapters_8.34 In progress]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="column">
<div class="card card-2">
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title cha-title-2">Chapter 8.35</span>
<h2>Wheat Value Addition </h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapters_8.35 In progress]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="row">
<div class="column">
<div class="card card-2">
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title cha-title-2">Chapter 8.36</span>
<h2>Potato (Irish) Value Addition</h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapters_8.36 In progress]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="column">
<div class="card card-2">
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title cha-title-2">Chapter 8.37</span>
<h2>Mango Value Addition for Indian Farmers</h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapters_8.37 In progress]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="column">
<div class="card card-2">
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title cha-title-2">Chapter 8.38</span>
<h2>Orange Value Addition </h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapters_8.38 In progress]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="row">
<div class="column">
<div class="card card-2">
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title cha-title-2">Chapter 8.39</span>
<h2>Sorghum Value Addition</h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapters_8.39 In progress]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="column">
<div class="card card-2">
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title cha-title-2">Chapter 8.40</span>
<h2>Apple Value Addition </h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapters_8.40 In progress]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="column">
<div class="card card-2">
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title cha-title-2">Chapter 8.41</span>
<h2>Value addition of grapes </h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapters_8.41 In progress]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="row">
<div class="column">
<div class="card card-2">
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title cha-title-2">Chapter 8.42</span>
<h2>Value Addition of Sesame Seeds</h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapters_8.42 In progress]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="column">
<div class="card card-2">
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title cha-title-2">Chapter 8.43</span>
<h2>Finger Millet Value Addition</h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapters_8.43 In progress]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="column">
<div class="card card-2">
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title cha-title-2">Chapter 8.44</span>
<h2>Value Addition of Pumpkin / Pepitas </h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapters_8.44 In progress]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="row">
<div class="column">
<div class="card card-2">
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title cha-title-2">Chapter 8.45</span>
<h2>Pigeon Pea Value Addition</h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapters_8.45 In progress]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="column">
<div class="card card-2">
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title cha-title-2">Chapter 8.46</span>
<h2>Value Addition of Berries </h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapters_8.46 In progress]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="column">
<div class="card card-2">
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title cha-title-2">Chapter 8.47</span>
<h2>Yam Value Addition </h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapters_8.47 In progress]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="row">
<div class="column">
<div class="card card-2">
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title cha-title-2">Chapter 8.48</span>
<h2>Banana Value Addition in Africa</h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapters_8.48 In progress]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="column">
<div class="card card-2">
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title cha-title-2">Chapter 8.49</span>
<h2>Amaranth Value Addition</h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapters_8.49 In progress]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="column">
<div class="card card-2">
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title cha-title-2">Chapter 8.50</span>
<h2>Barley Value Addition </h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapters_8.50 In progress]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="row">
<div class="column">
<div class="card card-2">
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title cha-title-2">Chapter 8.51</span>
<h2>Pineapple Value Addition</h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapters_8.51 In progress]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="column">
<div class="card card-2">
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title cha-title-2">Chapter 8.52</span>
<h2>Lentil value addition</h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapters_8.52 In progress]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="column">
<div class="card card-2">
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title cha-title-2">Chapter 8.53</span>
<h2>Mustard Crop Value Addition</h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapters_8.53 In progress]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="row">
<div class="column">
<div class="card card-2">
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title cha-title-2">Chapter 8.54</span>
<h2>Low-Cost Butter/Yoghurt/Cheese Churner</h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapters_8.54 In progress]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="column">
<div class="card card-2">
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title cha-title-2">Chapter 8.55</span>
<h2>Low-Cost Potato Peelers </h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapters_8.55 In progress]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="column">
<div class="card card-2">
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title cha-title-2">Chapter 8.56</span>
<h2>Implementation of Solar-Powered Lanterns for Selling Produce at Night Markets </h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapters_8.56 In progress]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="row">
<div class="column">
<div class="card card-2">
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title cha-title-2">Chapter 8.57</span>
<h2>Use of Snack food, Cigarette, and Alcohol Dealers to Sell Inputs to Farmers</h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapters_8.57 In progress]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

Template:Chapter 8

2022-07-06T07:46:14Z

41.212.82.212:

<div class="cha Chapters_8">
<div class="title"><h1>Post harvest technologies and value addition</h1></div>
<div class="ch-1">

<div class="row">
<div class="column">
<div class="card card-2">
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title cha-title-2">Chapter 8.1</span>
<h2>Tree fruit harvesting tool</h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapters_8.1 In progress]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="column">
<div class="card card-2">
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title cha-title-2">Chapter 8.2</span>
<h2>Seed drying</h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapters_8.2 Read More]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="column">
<div class="card card-2">
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title cha-title-2">Chapter 8.3</span>
<h2>Neem to combat pests during grain storage and the field</h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapters_8.3 Read More]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="row">
<div class="column">
<div class="card card-2">
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title cha-title-2">Chapter 8.4</span>
<h2>Hermetic grain storage bags</h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapters_8.4 Read More]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="column">
<div class="card card-2">
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title cha-title-2">Chapter 8.5</span>
<h2>Improved grain storage delays grain sales until prices are high</h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapters_8.5 In progress]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="column">
<div class="card card-2">
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title cha-title-2">Chapter 8.6</span>
<h2>Anti-ripening bags for fruits</h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapters_8.6 In progress]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="row">
<div class="column">
<div class="card card-2">
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title cha-title-2">Chapter 8.7</span>
<h2>Simple clay pot cooler to prevent spoilage</h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapters_8.7 Read More]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="column">
<div class="card card-2">
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title cha-title-2">Chapter 8.8</span>
<h2>Manual maize kernel sheller</h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapters_8.8 In progress]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="column">
<div class="card card-2">
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title cha-title-2">Chapter 8.10a,b</span>
<h2>Electric/petrol and hand crank maize kernel sheller</h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapters_8.10a,b In progress]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="row">
<div class="column">
<div class="card card-2">
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title cha-title-2">Chapter 8.10c</span>
<h2>Electric/petrol peanut sheller</h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapters_8.10c In progress]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="column">
<div class="card card-2">
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title cha-title-2">Chapter 8.11</span>
<h2>Threshing grain on roads</h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapters_8.11 In progress]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="column">
<div class="card card-2">
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title cha-title-2">Chapter 8.12</span>
<h2>Millet grain thresher</h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapters_8.12 In progress]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="row">
<div class="column">
<div class="card card-2">
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title cha-title-2">Chapter 8.13</span>
<h2>Low cost flour mills</h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapters_8.13 In progress]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="column">
<div class="card card-2">
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title cha-title-2">Chapter 8.14</span>
<h2>Low cost machines to extract cooking oil from seeds</h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapters_8.14 In progress]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="column">
<div class="card card-2">
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title cha-title-2">Chapter 8.15</span>
<h2>High efficiency cook stoves and pot skirts</h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapters_8.15 Read More]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="row">
<div class="column">
<div class="card card-2">
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title cha-title-2">Chapter 8.16</span>
<h2>Pressure cooker to reduce cooking fuel</h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapters_8.16 Read More]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="column">
<div class="card card-2">
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title cha-title-2">Chapter 8.17/8.18</span>
<h2>Use of a friend in the city to obtain selling price, sell directly</h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapters_8.17/8.18 In progress]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="column">
<div class="card card-2">
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title cha-title-2">Chapter 8.19/8.20</span>
<h2>Garlic value addition</h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapters_8.19/8.20 In progress]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="row">
<div class="column">
<div class="card card-2">
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title cha-title-2">Chapter 8.21</span>
<h2>Seaweed Value Addition</h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapters_8.21 Read More]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="column">
<div class="card card-2">
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title cha-title-2">Chapter 8.22</span>
<h2>Maize (corn) value addition</h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapters_8.22 Read More]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="column">
<div class="card card-2">
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title cha-title-2">Chapter 8.23</span>
<h2>Sweet Potato Value Addition</h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapters_8.23 Read More]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="row">
<div class="column">
<div class="card card-2">
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title cha-title-2">Chapter 8.24</span>
<h2>Value Addition of Chickpea</h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapters_8.24 Read More]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="column">
<div class="card card-2">
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title cha-title-2">Chapter 8.25</span>
<h2>Value Addition of Cocoa </h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapters_8.25 Read More]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="column">
<div class="card card-2">
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title cha-title-2">Chapter 8.26</span>
<h2>Using Maize (Corn) Silk as a Source of Profits and Improved Human Health</h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapters_8.26 Read More]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="row">
<div class="column">
<div class="card card-2">
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title cha-title-2">Chapter 8.27</span>
<h2>Cassava Value Addition</h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapters_8.27 Read More]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="column">
<div class="card card-2">
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title cha-title-2">Chapter 8.28</span>
<h2>Cassava Value Addition</h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapters_8.28 Read More]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="column">
<div class="card card-2">
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title cha-title-2">Chapter 8.29</span>
<h2>Quinoa Value Addition</h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapters_8.29 Read More]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="row">
<div class="column">
<div class="card card-2">
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title cha-title-2">Chapter 8.30</span>
<h2>Lemon Lime Value Addition</h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapters_8.30 Read More]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="column">
<div class="card card-2">
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title cha-title-2">Chapter 8.31</span>
<h2>Almond Value Addition</h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapters_8.31 In progress]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="column">
<div class="card card-2">
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title cha-title-2">Chapter 8.32</span>
<h2>Coffee Value Addition</h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapters_8.32 In progress]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="row">
<div class="column">
<div class="card card-2">
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title cha-title-2">Chapter 8.33</span>
<h2>Tomato Value Addition</h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapters_8.33 In progress]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="column">
<div class="card card-2">
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title cha-title-2">Chapter 8.34</span>
<h2>Peanut value addition </h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapters_8.34 In progress]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="column">
<div class="card card-2">
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title cha-title-2">Chapter 8.35</span>
<h2>Wheat Value Addition </h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapters_8.35 In progress]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="row">
<div class="column">
<div class="card card-2">
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title cha-title-2">Chapter 8.36</span>
<h2>Potato (Irish) Value Addition</h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapters_8.36 In progress]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="column">
<div class="card card-2">
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title cha-title-2">Chapter 8.37</span>
<h2>Mango Value Addition for Indian Farmers</h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapters_8.37 In progress]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="column">
<div class="card card-2">
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title cha-title-2">Chapter 8.38</span>
<h2>Orange Value Addition </h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapters_8.38 In progress]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="row">
<div class="column">
<div class="card card-2">
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title cha-title-2">Chapter 8.39</span>
<h2>Sorghum Value Addition</h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapters_8.39 In progress]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="column">
<div class="card card-2">
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title cha-title-2">Chapter 8.40</span>
<h2>Apple Value Addition </h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapters_8.40 In progress]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="column">
<div class="card card-2">
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title cha-title-2">Chapter 8.41</span>
<h2>Value addition of grapes </h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapters_8.41 In progress]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="row">
<div class="column">
<div class="card card-2">
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title cha-title-2">Chapter 8.42</span>
<h2>Value Addition of Sesame Seeds</h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapters_8.42 In progress]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="column">
<div class="card card-2">
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title cha-title-2">Chapter 8.43</span>
<h2>Finger Millet Value Addition</h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapters_8.43 In progress]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="column">
<div class="card card-2">
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title cha-title-2">Chapter 8.44</span>
<h2>Value Addition of Pumpkin / Pepitas </h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapters_8.44 In progress]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="row">
<div class="column">
<div class="card card-2">
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title cha-title-2">Chapter 8.45</span>
<h2>Pigeon Pea Value Addition</h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapters_8.45 In progress]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="column">
<div class="card card-2">
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title cha-title-2">Chapter 8.46</span>
<h2>Value Addition of Berries </h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapters_8.46 In progress]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="column">
<div class="card card-2">
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title cha-title-2">Chapter 8.47</span>
<h2>Yam Value Addition </h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapters_8.47 In progress]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="row">
<div class="column">
<div class="card card-2">
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title cha-title-2">Chapter 8.48</span>
<h2>Banana Value Addition in Africa</h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapters_8.48 In progress]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="column">
<div class="card card-2">
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title cha-title-2">Chapter 8.49</span>
<h2>Amaranth Value Addition</h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapters_8.49 In progress]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="column">
<div class="card card-2">
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title cha-title-2">Chapter 8.50</span>
<h2>Barley Value Addition </h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapters_8.50 In progress]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="row">
<div class="column">
<div class="card card-2">
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title cha-title-2">Chapter 8.51</span>
<h2>Pineapple Value Addition</h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapters_8.51 In progress]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="column">
<div class="card card-2">
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title cha-title-2">Chapter 8.52</span>
<h2>Lentil value addition</h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapters_8.52 In progress]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="column">
<div class="card card-2">
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title cha-title-2">Chapter 8.53</span>
<h2>Mustard Crop Value Addition</h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapters_8.53 In progress]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="row">
<div class="column">
<div class="card card-2">
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title cha-title-2">Chapter 8.54</span>
<h2>Low-Cost Butter/Yoghurt/Cheese Churner</h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapters_8.54 In progress]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="column">
<div class="card card-2">
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title cha-title-2">Chapter 8.55</span>
<h2>Low-Cost Potato Peelers </h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapters_8.55 In progress]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="column">
<div class="card card-2">
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title cha-title-2">Chapter 8.56</span>
<h2>Implementation of Solar-Powered Lanterns for Selling Produce at Night Markets </h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapters_8.56 In progress]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="row">
<div class="column">
<div class="card card-2">
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title cha-title-2">Chapter 8.57</span>
<h2>Use of Snack food, Cigarette, and Alcohol Dealers to Sell Inputs to Farmers</h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapters_8.57 In progress]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

Chapters 5.35

2022-07-02T07:43:17Z

41.212.82.212:

<div>
<div class="title"><h3>5.35 -A Sustainable Innovation to Preserve Cowpea Crops </h3><br><h3 class="ch-owner">Jacob Koole , University of Guelph, Canada </h3></div>
<div class="hero-img-2">
[[File:4.jpg|300px]]
<p>Suggested citation for this chapter.</p>
<p> Koole,J. (2022) A Sustainable Innovation to Preserve Cowpea Crops, In Farmpedia, The Encyclopedia for Small Scale Farmers. Editor, M.N. Raizada, University of Guelph, Canada. http://www.farmpedia.org</p>
<h3 class="title-bg">Origin of the Cowpea</h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) is an antique legume that originated in western Africa roughly around 3000 B.C.E (Smith, 2005). Though widely produced in Ethiopia, cowpea is grown worldwide in countries such as Brazil, the United States, and the majority of Asia (Gómez, 2004). Cowpea demonstrates remarkable drought tolerance because of its tendency to form a deep taproot that can comfortably grow in dry soils (Gómez, 2004). The deep taproot creates potential to mitigate drought tolerance associated with various climates. The cowpea plant itself spreads, covering much of the ground (Gómez, 2004), resulting in weed suppression. The plant varies by variety but typically has climbing vines and sporadic leaves (Gómez, 2004). An interesting element about the cowpea is the self pollinating flowers that sprout in clusters during blooming season (Gómez, 2004). These flowers can be a variety of colours such as purple, white, dirty yellow, blue or pink. This plant is beneficial not only to people and animals that consume it but to pollinating insects as well (Gómez, 2004).</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">Cowpea Sub-Species and Seedbanks </h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>As mentioned earlier, there are many landraces and varieties of cowpea. These seeds differ as a result of habitat, growth, disease resistance, colour, and the size of seed (Gómez, 2004). Cowpeas are adaptable to local environments and needs, resulting in many diverse seeds sold in the marketplace. Subspecies such as the black eyed peas, catjang, and yardlong beans are all high quality legumes that contribute nutritional benefits to different regions of the world (Gómez, 2004). These particular seeds can be accessed by local seed banks at affordable prices for large and small scale farmers where available. Three major international CGIAR institutes breed cowpea and possess seed banks. The World Vegetable Center (AVRDC), International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), and International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT) all breed cowpea and posses seed banks. All organizations provide helpful information for farmers to either acquire cowpea and distribute. Methods of preparation, harvesting, and marketing are all contributions these organizations share with farmers. Seeds of cowpea can be requested online using the links at the bottom of this chapter.</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">Cowpea Cultivation </h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Grown worldwide, the cowpea is adaptable to different growing conditions including semi-arid regions and dry savannas (USDA, 2012) and can grow in as little as 300 mm of rainfall (Gómez, 2004). The growing season is typically between 100 to 120 days depending on irrigation/rainfall (Gómez, 2004). It is best to plant the seed 1 to 2 inches below the soil in early summer at 50 lbs per acre, or minimally 30 lbs per acre (USDA, 2012). Soils in the Western Africa regions are low in nitrogen and phosphorus, so it is critical that fertilizer/manure management is followed to obtain high yielding crops (Bationo, 2003). The most effective way to prepare the soil is to plow after the first rain; the deep taproot needs loose soil (Ishikawa, 2013). The best fertilizer to incorporate into the soil is either ripened organic manure or chemical fertilizer, both of which must be spread evenly through the soil (Ishikawa, 2013). Cowpea is heavily reliant on phosphate, and a healthy crop typically requires a pH range of 3.95-7.6 (Bationo, 2003). Symbiotic bacteria living inside cowpea root nodules produce fixed nitrogen, reducing its nitrogen fertilizer requirement though other nutrients are required (USDA, 2012). Though inoculation with nitrogen-fixing rhizobia bacteria has been shown to be effective, the cowpea can nodulate in an array of soils (USDA, 2012). In nutrient-deficient soils, cowpea requires starter nitrogen to develop the nodules before nitrogen fixation can begin (Ishikawa, 2013). Farmers must find a way to incorporate nitrogen into the dry soil in order for the cowpea to grow. A fairly inexpensive solution to this challenge is the use of compost if one owns livestock (Ishikawa, 2013). Covering the collected compost with black vinyl will preserve the nutrients stored inside (Ishikawa, 2013). Synthetic manure can also be purchased but can be more costly. Cowpea can be interseeded with sorghum and wheat, providing nitrogen benefits to those crops (USDA, 2012). After roughly 8 weeks the deep taproot is formed and flowering follows (USDA, 2012).</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">Harvesting and Storage</h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Harvesting generally takes place 16 to 17 days after bloom (Gómez, 2004). Farmers know when it is time to harvest when the seed pods have matured and flowers are blooming (USDA, 2012). The three main ways to harvest is by hand, mechanized, and direct harvesting (Gómez, 2004). The most efficient method when harvesting by hand is threshing (Gómez, 2004). Threshing is separating the seeds from the plant by beating it on the ground, many rural farmers use this method (Ishikawa, 2013). A mechanized threshing machine exists where this complex machine is designed to cut the plant out of the ground using horizontal blades to be threshed later (Gómez, 2004).</p>

<p>Direct harvesting, which is common in wealthy nations, and uses combines and other heavy agricultural machinery (Gómez, 2004), is not available for cowpea smallholder farmers as machines are very expensive. Cowpeas are fragile, so harvesting must be done cautiously as a broken seed can result in stunted growth and loss in market value (Gómez, 2004). In order to successfully maintain seed viability, the grain must be dried to around 12% moisture or less (Gómez, 2004). Producers will modify their storage methods to meet certain market specifications.</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">Cowpea Nutrition</h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>The cowpea is of significant importance to the millions of people in West and Central Africa (Gómez, 2004). This crop is heavily relied on by people for food, feeding livestock, and income. This legume is high in protein. making it very sustainable for humans and animals (Gómez, 2004). Cowpea grain can be dried up and stored away giving consistent nutrition for families along with feeder for livestock (Gómez, 2004). The high protein content comes from the fact that cowpea is a nitrogen fixing legume. The crop’s decomposing roots/shoots, also rich in organic nitrogen, benefits soil fertility and helps future crops subsequently planted in rotation (Gómez, 2004). Raw cowpea seeds provide high nutritional value essential for a healthy diet. Many popular recipes use cowpea as a key ingredient to the dish. Collard and black eyed pea soup, Nigerian red beans, and balti lobia are all diverse meals that are enjoyed internationally (Baker Creek Heirloom Seeds, 2019). Exact in depth nutrition facts are provided at the end of the chapter as well as recipe tutorials.</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">Post Harvest Cowpea Pest Challenges and Solutions</h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>and diseases can diminish an entire yield of cowpea even after harvest (Gómez, 2004). In Africa, cowpea crop yields are far below yield potential (yield which occurs at optimal research farms) despite millions of dollars invested in insecticide research (Gómez, 2004). However insecticides can be harmful to the environment and potential users (Gómez, 2004). Despite the side effects, insecticides still improve crop yields. Large scale farmers use insecticides to maximize production to their crops (Gómez, 2004). However, insecticides are costly for a poor farmer (Gómez, 2004). Africa suffers the worst cowpea field losses because of the lack of insecticide resources and lack of funds for farmers to purchase them (Gómez, 2004).
In an attempt to reduce pests during grain storage of cowpea, farmers have been provided access to hermetic grain storage bags. These bags create a low oxygen environment in which fungal pathogens and insect pests die (Silva, 2018). The Purdue Improved Cowpea Storage (PICS) has proven to be a reliable source for eliminating pests over the duration of multiple seasons (Purdue University, 2019). At a low cost of $3 USD, this can be an effective investment for small and large scale farmers (Ndegwa, 2016). This innovation however was not a complete success. The bags did not completely isolate the crops from all pesticides and insects (Silva, 2018). The collection of moisture in the bag caused the growth of fungi which was damaging to the grain (Silva, 2018). Some bags would slowly deteriorate as well (Baribusta, 2014). Though there's some concerns, the bags offer significant pest and disease reduction at an affordable price for smallholder farmers.</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">Additional Cowpea Information</h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Three Major CGIAR Institutes that breed cowpea and have seedbanks to request seed:
https://www.iita.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/Cowpea_field_guide_for_Burkina_Faso.pdf
https://avrdc.org
https://www.icrisat.org</p>

<p>Nutritional Facts per 100 g and Recipe Tutorials
https://www.nutritionvalue.org/Cowpeas%2C_raw%2C_mature_seeds%2C_catjang_nutritional_value.html
https://www.nutritionvalue.org/Cowpeas%2C_raw%2C_young_pods_with_seeds_nutritional_value.html
https://turkishstylecooking.com/cowpea-dish-recipe.html
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9gFf4vIH4tg
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0z4G71c0HEc</p>

<p>IITA step by step field guide (from Burkina Faso):
https://www.iita.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/Cowpea_field_guide_for_Burkina_Faso.pdf</p>

<p>Cultivation and Storage Methods
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=f8lHkEW0pQY
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eQd9TE5EnhQ</p>

<p>Harvesting Methods
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_PGQAkZDIXk
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eIyMPe4Vsug</p>

<p>Purdue University Improved Crop Storage Bags
https://www.purdue.edu/postharvest/purdue-improved-crop-storage-pics/</p>

<p>Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
http://www.fao.org/home/en/</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">References </h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>1. Gómez, Carlos. “COWPEA - Food and Agriculture Organization.” Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Accessed November 11, 2019. http://www.fao.org/3/a-au994e.pdf.</p>
<p>2. ICRISAT. (2019, November 19). Retrieved November 20, 2019, from https://www.icrisat.org/.</p>
<p>3. Ishikawa, H. (2013). Cowpea field guide for Burkina Faso. Retrieved November 27, 2019, from https://www.iita.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/Cowpea_field_guide_for_Burkina_Faso.pdf.</p>
<p>4. Ndegwa, D., Michael, D., Groote, D., Gitonga, D., Zachary, D., Bruce, D., & Anani, D. (1970, January 1). Effectiveness and Economics of Hermetic Bags for Maize Storage: Results of a Randomized Controlled Trial in Kenya. Retrieved from https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/212524/.</p>
<p>5. Purdue University. (2019). Purdue Improved Crop Storage (PICS). Retrieved November 21, 2019, from https://www.purdue.edu/postharvest/purdue-improved-crop-storage-pics/.</p>
<p>6. Sheahan , C. M. Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata). U.S. Department of Agriculture: USAGov. Retrieved June 2012, from https://www.usa.gov/federal-agencies/u-s-department-of-agriculture.</p>
<p>7. Silva, M. G. C. (n.d.). Hermetic storage as an alternative for controlling Callosobruchus maculatus (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) and preserving the quality of cowpeas. Science Direct, 78, 27–31. Retrieved from https://www-sciencedirect-com.subzero.lib.uoguelph.ca/science/article/pii/S0022474X18300900</p>
<p>8. World Vegetable Center. (2019, November 13). Retrieved from https://avrdc.org/.</p>

Template:Chapter 7

2022-06-28T02:52:37Z

41.212.82.212:

<div class="cha Chapter_7">
<div class="title"><h1>Crop pest and disease control</h1></div>
<div class="ch-1">

<div class="row">
<div class="column">
<div class="card card-2">
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title cha-title-2">Chapter 7.1</span>
<h2>Crop rotation with a legume (bean) reduces pests/diseases**</h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapters_7.1 In progress]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="column">
<div class="card card-2">
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title cha-title-2">Chapter 7.2</span>
<h2>Evaluating the use of respirators for small scale farmers to protect them from pesticide sprays</h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapters_7.2 Read More]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="column">
<div class="card card-2">
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title cha-title-2">Chapter 7.3</span>
<h2>Backpack Sprayers for Smallholder Farmers</h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapters_7.3 Read More]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="row">
<div class="column">
<div class="card card-2">
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title cha-title-2">Chapter 7.4</span>
<h2>Water floatation to remove sick seeds before sowing</h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapters_7.4 Read More]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="column">
<div class="card card-2">
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title cha-title-2">Chapter 7.5</span>
<h2>Heat treatment of vegetable seeds</h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapters_7.5 Read More]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="column">
<div class="card card-2">
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title cha-title-2">Chapter 7.6</span>
<h2>a,b,c Vinegar, bleach, saltwater treatment of seeds</h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapters_7.6 Read More]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

</div>

<div class="row">
<div class="column">
<div class="card card-2">
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title cha-title-2">Chapter 7.7</span>
<h2>Pesticide seed application</h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapters_7.7 Read More]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="column">
<div class="card card-2">
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title cha-title-2">Chapter 7.8</span>
<h2>a,b Manure tea field spraying and seed application</h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapters_7.8 Read More]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="column">
<div class="card card-2">
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title cha-title-2">Chapter 7.10</span>
<h2>Push-pull intercropping to reduce flying insects</h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapter_7.10 Read More]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="row">
<div class="column">
<div class="card card-2">
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title cha-title-2">Chapter 7.11</span>
<h2>Replenishing food of wild animals to prevent crop damage</h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapters_7.11 Read More]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

Template:Chapter 7

2022-06-28T02:51:23Z

41.212.82.212:

<div class="cha Chapter_7">
<div class="title"><h1>Crop pest and disease control</h1></div>
<div class="ch-1">

<div class="row">
<div class="column">
<div class="card card-2">
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title cha-title-2">Chapter 7.1</span>
<h2>Crop rotation with a legume (bean) reduces pests/diseases**</h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapters_7.1 In progress]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="column">
<div class="card card-2">
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title cha-title-2">Chapter 7.2</span>
<h2>Evaluating the use of respirators for small scale farmers to protect them from pesticide sprays</h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapters_7.2 Read More]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="column">
<div class="card card-2">
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title cha-title-2">Chapter 7.3</span>
<h2>Backpack Sprayers for Smallholder Farmers/h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapters_7.3 Read More]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="row">
<div class="column">
<div class="card card-2">
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title cha-title-2">Chapter 7.4</span>
<h2>Water floatation to remove sick seeds before sowing</h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapters_7.4 Read More]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="column">
<div class="card card-2">
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title cha-title-2">Chapter 7.5</span>
<h2>Heat treatment of vegetable seeds</h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapters_7.5 Read More]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="column">
<div class="card card-2">
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title cha-title-2">Chapter 7.6</span>
<h2>a,b,c Vinegar, bleach, saltwater treatment of seeds</h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapters_7.6 Read More]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

</div>

<div class="row">
<div class="column">
<div class="card card-2">
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title cha-title-2">Chapter 7.7</span>
<h2>Pesticide seed application</h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapters_7.7 Read More]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="column">
<div class="card card-2">
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title cha-title-2">Chapter 7.8</span>
<h2>a,b Manure tea field spraying and seed application</h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapters_7.8 Read More]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="column">
<div class="card card-2">
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title cha-title-2">Chapter 7.10</span>
<h2>Push-pull intercropping to reduce flying insects</h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapter_7.10 Read More]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="row">
<div class="column">
<div class="card card-2">
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title cha-title-2">Chapter 7.11</span>
<h2>Replenishing food of wild animals to prevent crop damage</h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapters_7.11 Read More]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

Template:Chapter 7

2022-06-27T16:04:31Z

41.212.82.212:

<div class="cha Chapter_7">
<div class="title"><h1>Crop pest and disease control</h1></div>
<div class="ch-1">

<div class="row">
<div class="column">
<div class="card card-2">
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title cha-title-2">Chapter 7.1</span>
<h2>Crop rotation with a legume (bean) reduces pests/diseases**</h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapters_7.1 In progress]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="column">
<div class="card card-2">
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title cha-title-2">Chapter 7.2</span>
<h2>Evaluating the use of respirators for small scale farmers to protect them from pesticide sprays</h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapters_7.2 Read More]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="column">
<div class="card card-2">
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title cha-title-2">Chapter 7.3</span>
<h2>Magnifying glass/sheet to remove sick seeds before sowing</h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapters_7.3 In progress]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="row">
<div class="column">
<div class="card card-2">
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title cha-title-2">Chapter 7.4</span>
<h2>Water floatation to remove sick seeds before sowing</h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapters_7.4 Read More]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="column">
<div class="card card-2">
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title cha-title-2">Chapter 7.5</span>
<h2>Heat treatment of vegetable seeds</h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapters_7.5 Read More]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="column">
<div class="card card-2">
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title cha-title-2">Chapter 7.6</span>
<h2>a,b,c Vinegar, bleach, saltwater treatment of seeds</h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapters_7.6 Read More]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

</div>

<div class="row">
<div class="column">
<div class="card card-2">
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title cha-title-2">Chapter 7.7</span>
<h2>Pesticide seed application</h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapters_7.7 Read More]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="column">
<div class="card card-2">
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title cha-title-2">Chapter 7.8</span>
<h2>a,b Manure tea field spraying and seed application</h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapters_7.8 Read More]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="column">
<div class="card card-2">
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title cha-title-2">Chapter 7.10</span>
<h2>Push-pull intercropping to reduce flying insects</h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapter_7.10 Read More]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="row">
<div class="column">
<div class="card card-2">
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title cha-title-2">Chapter 7.11</span>
<h2>Replenishing food of wild animals to prevent crop damage</h2>
<div class="btn-grp btn-grp-2">
<div class="btn btn-2 ch-btn">[http://farmpedia.org/index.php/Chapters_7.11 Read More]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

Template:Chapter 1.1

2022-06-24T16:32:04Z

41.212.82.212:

<div>
<div class="title"><h3>1.1 - Gloves to help subsistence farmers</h3><br><h3 class="ch-owner">Mitchell van Schepen, University of Guelph, Canada</h3></div>
<div class="hero-img-2">
[[File:4.jpg|300px]]
<p>Suggested citation for this chapter.</p>
<p>Van Schepen,M. (2022) Gloves to help subsistence farmers. In Farmpedia, The Encyclopedia for Small Scale Farmers. Editor, M.N. Raizada, University of Guelph, Canada. http://www.farmpedia.org</p>
</div>
<div class="ch-navber" style="display: flex; justify-content: space-between;">
<div class="center-side" style="max-width: 100%;margin-right: 3%;">
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Background</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>The world’s 1 billion women and girls participating in subsistence farming pull weeds by hand to improve their crops and also collect firewood for cooking, resulting in their hands becoming rough and sore (Figure 1). This can be caused by wood splinters being lodged into their skin (Schaffner, 2013). Pulling weeds for hours on end can peel away layers of skin (Food and Agriculture Organization, 2016). The hands of those farmers can also become dirty and smelly from planting seeds in the soil or spreading manure by hand. To avoid the common aforementioned problems as well as hand injuries, such as cuts and scrapes, they could wear gloves on their hands, see the second picture, (Schaffner, 2013). Gloves are very common in the modern world and can be used for construction, farming, and medical practices. Gloves provide a durable layer between the skin on your hands and whatever you are working with (Espasandín-Arias & Goossens, 2014). There are a few different materials used to make gloves, along with different sizes and grips. With over one billion women and girls working on farms around the world, this grueling work can be made safer and more efficient when wearing gloves.</p>

<p>Rubber and cloth are the two main kinds of gloves produced (Melco, 2016). They both have their own benefits and drawbacks respectively. A benefit from rubber gloves is their ability to resist water from coming in contact with a farmer's skin, see part two, (Espasandín-Arias & Goossens, 2014). While cloth gloves can be beneficial because they can draw moisture away from their hands and can be easily washed to be cleaned. Because rubber gloves are usually meant to be disposed of after single use they tend to be cheaper to make and thus cheaper to buy. Yet some rubber gloves can be made thicker to reuse and are slightly more durable (Melco, 2016). Cloth gloves are designed to be washed after being used and last a long time under normal working conditions.</p>

<p>Along with the different materials gloves are made of, there are also different arm lengths. Some gloves are cut off just in front or around the wrist. While others can be up to and over the elbow and everywhere in between (Melco, 2016). The benefits of the shorter gloves is comfort, no bunching around wrist or elbow, and they can be quickly put on or removed. The benefits of the long gloves are more protection, the entire forearm will be covered. All the while there is less of a chance of getting debris in their gloves because the opening is farther away from what you are working with. Farmers can also work in deeper water or mud with the long rubber gloves without getting your hands wet.</p>

<p>When working with smooth items such as hoes and some fruits and vegetables they can be slippery (Food and Agriculture Organization, 2016). A way to help farmer's hold on to the tools is to get gloves with grips (Melco, 2016). Both rubber and cloth gloves can have grips. Rubber gloves will have ridges in the molds to form grips and granular materials can be added to the outside before drying (Melco, 2016). Another option is to make the rubber gloves out of a non-slip rubber (Melco, 2016). Because cloth alone does not provide grip, cloth gloves must be dipped in liquid rubber to be able to grip smooth objects. The rubber used for grips on cloth gloves can either be non-slip smooth rubber or be rigid (Melco, 2016). </p>

<p>When working with smooth items such as hoes and some fruits and vegetables they can be slippery (Food and Agriculture Organization, 2016). A way to help farmer's hold on to the tools is to get gloves with grips (Melco, 2016). Both rubber and cloth gloves can have grips. Rubber gloves will have ridges in the molds to form grips and granular materials can be added to the outside before drying (Melco, 2016). Another option is to make the rubber gloves out of a non-slip rubber (Melco, 2016). Because cloth alone does not provide grip, cloth gloves must be dipped in liquid rubber to be able to grip smooth objects. The rubber used for grips on cloth gloves can either be non-slip smooth rubber or be rigid (Melco, 2016). </p>
</div>
</div>

<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Physical Protection</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Protection is the main benefit from using gloves. Repetitive motions, such as when pounding grain, can cause irritation to the skin. When collecting firewood the sticks and logs can scratch or cut the skin (Food and Agriculture Organization, 2016). Weeds can be rough and by scratching their hands many times they can become cut and sore (Espasandín-Arias & Goossens, 2014). By lifting and pulling heavy items the top layer of your skin will separate from the next, causing a blister, by wearing gloves they now will prevent blistering because the glove will act as the top layer of skin and prevent the actual skin from separating (Schaffner, 2013). Manure has a lot of bacteria in it which are harmful if they are swallow, so keeping them away from the hands used to eat with is very beneficial (Furlong, et al., 2015). If farmers are working with firewood or in construction the cloth gloves will work better because they are more durable (Food and Agriculture Organization, 2016). The disposable rubber gloves would be the worst to use in this scenario because they are so thin, stick to jobs were the main goals are to keep hands dry and dirt free when using disposable rubber gloves.</p>
</div>
</div>

<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 style="background: #FBB03B;padding: 15px;font-weight: 600;color: #000;font-size: 22px;margin:unset;text-align:center;">Defense Against Moisture and Chemicals</h1>
<div style="background: #FFD8A4;padding: 15px;font-weight: 400;color: #212529;font-size: 16px;margin:unset;line-height: 1.5;">
<p>Moisture blocking is a way gloves can prevent your skin from drying out and from getting too wet and dehydrating farmer's hands. By keeping the moisture from the hands inside the gloves they will prevent the skin from cracking and becoming infected (Schaffner, 2013). As well when working in wet conditions your hands can shrivel and become dehydrated if they are constantly in contact with water.</p>
<p>Pesticides can be absorbed by your skin and become harmful to the body, gloves provide an extra barrier to block them from entering in a farmer's body (Furlong, et al., 2015). Fertilizers such as nitrogen can also be caustic, and these are usually spread through broadcasting by hand. Mud can get under your nails and into cracked or cut skin and can infect a farmer's hands. Gloves will keep the mud out and keep hands clean. Both liquid pesticides and dry fertilizers can irritate skin if they come into contact with it (Kim, et al., 2013). Wearing the proper gloves, rubber ones in this case, can save their hands from becoming itchy (Keeble et al., 1996). Human skin can also absorb the pesticides which are harmful to your body, wearing gloves would prevent the pesticides from ever touching your skin.</p>
</div>
</div>

<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Wearable</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Comfortable gloves help farmer's work longer because their hands will not hurt from completing your task. Sizing is very important when finding comfortable gloves (Melco, 2016). Make sure gloves are the proper length and width, as not to restrict movement. There will be less pain from pulling weeds and they will be able to pull more weeds because they would not have to wait a long for the pain to subside between pulling each weed, because there will be no pain if wearing gloves (Food and Agriculture Organization, 2016). If farmer's find they are working hard and their hands start to sweat the gloves should be removed , dry your hands, and put on a new pair. Cloth gloves are more breathable then rubber ones, using them is another way to prevent hands from getting sweaty. The cloth gloves can also be softer and easier to clean, but are more restricting to movement due to their durability and tougher material. Since children will also be farming, smaller glove sizes can be found. Gloves are designed to fit a farmer's hand snugly, so children should not wear adult sized gloves when working. </p>
</div>
</div>

<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Constraints To Adoption</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Gloves are very useful to farmers, but there can still be some drawbacks. Possible culturable taboos might vary from location to location. Gloves might seem feminine and not easily adopted by men in the community. Gloves act as a second, tougher skin, but they are not a farmer's skin and can slide around while working. This may feel odd and uncomfortable but farmers can get used to the new feeling over time. Gloves can come in many colours and thicknesses, which may make a farmer's hands look funny or larger. Human skin is very stretchy and flexible, while glove materials tend to be tougher than skin and will reduce movement, but not enough to hinder work. Rubber gloves can stretch well, but make hands sweat, while cloth gloves are breathable but reduce dexterity.</p>
<p>Farmers can find gloves to use and get started from local vendors (European Commission For The Control Of Foot-And-Mouth Disease, 2016). Once you have completed your work for the day you can clean them are reuse them, or dispose of them if they were ripped or torn (Kim, et al., 2013). You can get gloves made of rubber and like materials as well as ones made of durable cloths. The thin rubber gloves tend to be made for a single use only. A trick that the European Commission For The Control Foot-And-Mouth Disease mentions that you can wear two pairs of rubber gloves at the same time for extra protection (European Commission For The Control Of Foot-And-Mouth Disease, 2016).</p>
</div>
</div>

<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Helpful Links To Get Started </h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Here are websites to find more information about how to obtain gloves:</p>
<p>[https://www.alibaba.com/ Alibaba]</p>
<p>[https://www.indiamart.com/ Indiamart]</p>
<p>[https://www.adenna.com Adenna</p>
<p>[https://www.farmcity.co.za/ Farmcity]</p>
<p>[https://www.crazystore.co.za/ Crazystore]</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">References</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>1.Espasandín-Arias, M., & Goossens, A. (2014). Natural rubber gloves might not protect against skin penetration of methylisothiazolinone. Contact Dermatitis, 70(4), 249-251. doi:10.1111/cod.12221</p>
<p>2.European Commission For The Control Of Foot-And-Mouth Disease. Suggested FMD PPE guidelines - Food and Agriculture, (2016)
Food and Agriculture Organization. Rural women in household production: Increasing contributions and persisting drudgery. (2016).
</p>
<p>3.Furlong, M., Tanner, C. M., Goldman, S. M., Bhudhikanok, G. S., Blair, A., Chade, A., . . . Kamel, F. (2015). Protective glove use and hygiene habits modify the associations of specific pesticides with Parkinson's disease. Environment International, 75, 144-150. doi:10.1016/j.envint.2014.11.002</p>
<p>4.Keeble, V. B., Correll, L., & Ehrich, M. (1996). Effect of Laundering on Ability of Glove Fabrics to Decrease the Penetration of Organophosphate Insecticides Through in vitro Epidermal Systems. J. Appl. Toxicol. Journal of Applied Toxicology, 16(5), 401-406. doi:10.1002/(sici)1099-1263(199609)16:53.3.co;2-6</p>
<p>5, J., Kim, J., Cha, E., Ko, Y., Kim, D., & Lee, W. (2013). Work-Related Risk Factors by Severity for Acute Pesticide Poisoning Among Male Farmers in South Korea. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 10(3), 1100-1112. doi:10.3390/ijerph10031100</p>
<p>6.Melco, M. (2016). Gardening Gloves. Retrieved from [http://garden.lovetoknow.com/wiki/Gardening_Gloves Garden Lovetoknow]</p>
<p>7.Schaffner, A. D. (2013). Minimizing Surgical Skin Incision Scars with a Latex Surgical Glove. Aesthetic Plastic Surgery, 37(2), 463-463. doi:10.1007/s00266-013-0071-y</p>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

Template:Chapters 8.1

2022-06-21T12:47:40Z

41.212.82.212:

<div>
<div class="title"><h3>8.1- Tree fruit harvesting too</h3><br><h3 class="ch-owner">Mitchell van Schepen, University of Guelph, Canada</h3></div>
<div class="hero-img-2">
[[File:4.jpg|300px]]
<p>Suggested citation for this chapter.</p>
<p>Author name (2022) title of chapter. In Farmpedia, The Encyclopedia for Small Scale Farmers. Editor, M.N. Raizada, University of Guelph, Canada. http://www.farmpedia.org</p>
</div>
<div class="ch-navber" style="display: flex; justify-content: space-between;">
<div class="center-side" style="max-width: 100%;margin-right: 3%;">
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Background1</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>The world’s 1 billion women and girls participating in subsistence farming pull weeds by hand to improve their crops and also collect firewood for cooking, resulting in their hands becoming rough and sore (Figure 1). This can be caused by wood splinters being lodged into their skin (Schaffner, 2013). Pulling weeds for hours on end can peel away layers of skin (Food and Agriculture Organization, 2016). The hands of those farmers can also become dirty and smelly from planting seeds in the soil or spreading manure by hand. To avoid the common aforementioned problems as well as hand injuries, such as cuts and scrapes, they could wear gloves on their hands, see the second picture, (Schaffner, 2013). Gloves are very common in the modern world and can be used for construction, farming, and medical practices. Gloves provide a durable layer between the skin on your hands and whatever you are working with (Espasandín-Arias & Goossens, 2014). There are a few different materials used to make gloves, along with different sizes and grips. With over one billion women and girls working on farms around the world, this grueling work can be made safer and more efficient when wearing gloves.</p>

<p>Rubber and cloth are the two main kinds of gloves produced (Melco, 2016). They both have their own benefits and drawbacks respectively. A benefit from rubber gloves is their ability to resist water from coming in contact with a farmer's skin, see part two, (Espasandín-Arias & Goossens, 2014). While cloth gloves can be beneficial because they can draw moisture away from their hands and can be easily washed to be cleaned. Because rubber gloves are usually meant to be disposed of after single use they tend to be cheaper to make and thus cheaper to buy. Yet some rubber gloves can be made thicker to reuse and are slightly more durable (Melco, 2016). Cloth gloves are designed to be washed after being used and last a long time under normal working conditions.</p>

<p>Along with the different materials gloves are made of, there are also different arm lengths. Some gloves are cut off just in front or around the wrist. While others can be up to and over the elbow and everywhere in between (Melco, 2016). The benefits of the shorter gloves is comfort, no bunching around wrist or elbow, and they can be quickly put on or removed. The benefits of the long gloves are more protection, the entire forearm will be covered. All the while there is less of a chance of getting debris in their gloves because the opening is farther away from what you are working with. Farmers can also work in deeper water or mud with the long rubber gloves without getting your hands wet.</p>

<p>When working with smooth items such as hoes and some fruits and vegetables they can be slippery (Food and Agriculture Organization, 2016). A way to help farmer's hold on to the tools is to get gloves with grips (Melco, 2016). Both rubber and cloth gloves can have grips. Rubber gloves will have ridges in the molds to form grips and granular materials can be added to the outside before drying (Melco, 2016). Another option is to make the rubber gloves out of a non-slip rubber (Melco, 2016). Because cloth alone does not provide grip, cloth gloves must be dipped in liquid rubber to be able to grip smooth objects. The rubber used for grips on cloth gloves can either be non-slip smooth rubber or be rigid (Melco, 2016). </p>

<p>When working with smooth items such as hoes and some fruits and vegetables they can be slippery (Food and Agriculture Organization, 2016). A way to help farmer's hold on to the tools is to get gloves with grips (Melco, 2016). Both rubber and cloth gloves can have grips. Rubber gloves will have ridges in the molds to form grips and granular materials can be added to the outside before drying (Melco, 2016). Another option is to make the rubber gloves out of a non-slip rubber (Melco, 2016). Because cloth alone does not provide grip, cloth gloves must be dipped in liquid rubber to be able to grip smooth objects. The rubber used for grips on cloth gloves can either be non-slip smooth rubber or be rigid (Melco, 2016). </p>
</div>
</div>

<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Physical Protection</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Protection is the main benefit from using gloves. Repetitive motions, such as when pounding grain, can cause irritation to the skin. When collecting firewood the sticks and logs can scratch or cut the skin (Food and Agriculture Organization, 2016). Weeds can be rough and by scratching their hands many times they can become cut and sore (Espasandín-Arias & Goossens, 2014). By lifting and pulling heavy items the top layer of your skin will separate from the next, causing a blister, by wearing gloves they now will prevent blistering because the glove will act as the top layer of skin and prevent the actual skin from separating (Schaffner, 2013). Manure has a lot of bacteria in it which are harmful if they are swallow, so keeping them away from the hands used to eat with is very beneficial (Furlong, et al., 2015). If farmers are working with firewood or in construction the cloth gloves will work better because they are more durable (Food and Agriculture Organization, 2016). The disposable rubber gloves would be the worst to use in this scenario because they are so thin, stick to jobs were the main goals are to keep hands dry and dirt free when using disposable rubber gloves.</p>
</div>
</div>

<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 style="background: #FBB03B;padding: 15px;font-weight: 600;color: #000;font-size: 22px;margin:unset;text-align:center;">Defense Against Moisture and Chemicals</h1>
<div style="background: #FFD8A4;padding: 15px;font-weight: 400;color: #212529;font-size: 16px;margin:unset;line-height: 1.5;">
<p>Moisture blocking is a way gloves can prevent your skin from drying out and from getting too wet and dehydrating farmer's hands. By keeping the moisture from the hands inside the gloves they will prevent the skin from cracking and becoming infected (Schaffner, 2013). As well when working in wet conditions your hands can shrivel and become dehydrated if they are constantly in contact with water.</p>
<p>Pesticides can be absorbed by your skin and become harmful to the body, gloves provide an extra barrier to block them from entering in a farmer's body (Furlong, et al., 2015). Fertilizers such as nitrogen can also be caustic, and these are usually spread through broadcasting by hand. Mud can get under your nails and into cracked or cut skin and can infect a farmer's hands. Gloves will keep the mud out and keep hands clean. Both liquid pesticides and dry fertilizers can irritate skin if they come into contact with it (Kim, et al., 2013). Wearing the proper gloves, rubber ones in this case, can save their hands from becoming itchy (Keeble et al., 1996). Human skin can also absorb the pesticides which are harmful to your body, wearing gloves would prevent the pesticides from ever touching your skin.</p>
</div>
</div>

<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Wearable</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Comfortable gloves help farmer's work longer because their hands will not hurt from completing your task. Sizing is very important when finding comfortable gloves (Melco, 2016). Make sure gloves are the proper length and width, as not to restrict movement. There will be less pain from pulling weeds and they will be able to pull more weeds because they would not have to wait a long for the pain to subside between pulling each weed, because there will be no pain if wearing gloves (Food and Agriculture Organization, 2016). If farmer's find they are working hard and their hands start to sweat the gloves should be removed , dry your hands, and put on a new pair. Cloth gloves are more breathable then rubber ones, using them is another way to prevent hands from getting sweaty. The cloth gloves can also be softer and easier to clean, but are more restricting to movement due to their durability and tougher material. Since children will also be farming, smaller glove sizes can be found. Gloves are designed to fit a farmer's hand snugly, so children should not wear adult sized gloves when working. </p>
</div>
</div>

<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Constraints To Adoption</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Gloves are very useful to farmers, but there can still be some drawbacks. Possible culturable taboos might vary from location to location. Gloves might seem feminine and not easily adopted by men in the community. Gloves act as a second, tougher skin, but they are not a farmer's skin and can slide around while working. This may feel odd and uncomfortable but farmers can get used to the new feeling over time. Gloves can come in many colours and thicknesses, which may make a farmer's hands look funny or larger. Human skin is very stretchy and flexible, while glove materials tend to be tougher than skin and will reduce movement, but not enough to hinder work. Rubber gloves can stretch well, but make hands sweat, while cloth gloves are breathable but reduce dexterity.</p>
<p>Farmers can find gloves to use and get started from local vendors (European Commission For The Control Of Foot-And-Mouth Disease, 2016). Once you have completed your work for the day you can clean them are reuse them, or dispose of them if they were ripped or torn (Kim, et al., 2013). You can get gloves made of rubber and like materials as well as ones made of durable cloths. The thin rubber gloves tend to be made for a single use only. A trick that the European Commission For The Control Foot-And-Mouth Disease mentions that you can wear two pairs of rubber gloves at the same time for extra protection (European Commission For The Control Of Foot-And-Mouth Disease, 2016).</p>
</div>
</div>

<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Helpful Links To Get Started </h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Here are websites to find more information about how to obtain gloves:</p>
<p>[https://www.alibaba.com/ Alibaba]</p>
<p>[https://www.indiamart.com/ Indiamart]</p>
<p>[http://www.store.nzfarmsource.co.nz/ Store Nzfarmsource]</p>
<p>[https://www.adenna.com Adenna]</p>
<p>[https://www.farmcity.co.za/ Farmcity]</p>
<p>[https://www.crazystore.co.za/ Crazystore]</p>
</div>
</div>

<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Usefull Images</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<div class="row" style="display:flex; justify-content: space-between;padding:35px 25px;">
<div class="column" style="max-width: 35%;">
<div class="card">
<div class="fakeimg fakeimg-use">[[File:Imageaa.png]]</div>
<div class="fakeimg-name"><p>Figure 1</p></div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="column" style="max-width: 21%;">
<div class="card">
<div class="fakeimg fakeimg-use">[[File:2.jpg]]</div>
<div class="fakeimg-name"><p>Figure 2</p></div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="column" style="max-width: 28%;">
<div class="card">
<div class="fakeimg fakeimg-use">[[File:3.jpg]]</div>
<div class="fakeimg-name"><p>Figure 3</p></div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="row" style="display:flex; justify-content: space-between;padding:35px 25px;">
<div class="column" style="max-width: 28%;">
<div class="card">
<div class="fakeimg fakeimg-use">[[File:4.jpg]]</div>
<div class="fakeimg-name"><p>Figure 4</p></div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="column" style="max-width: 28%;">
<div class="card">
<div class="fakeimg fakeimg-use">[[File:5.jpg]]</div>
<div class="fakeimg-name"><p>Figure 5</p></div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="column" style="max-width: 28%;">
<div class="card">
<div class="fakeimg fakeimg-use">[[File:6.jpg]]</div>
<div class="fakeimg-name"><p>Figure 6</p></div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">References</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Espasandín-Arias, M., & Goossens, A. (2014). Natural rubber gloves might not protect against skin penetration of methylisothiazolinone. Contact Dermatitis, 70(4), 249-251. doi:10.1111/cod.12221</p>
<p>European Commission For The Control Of Foot-And-Mouth Disease. Suggested FMD PPE guidelines - Food and Agriculture, (2016)
Food and Agriculture Organization. Rural women in household production: Increasing contributions and persisting drudgery. (2016).
</p>
<p>Furlong, M., Tanner, C. M., Goldman, S. M., Bhudhikanok, G. S., Blair, A., Chade, A., . . . Kamel, F. (2015). Protective glove use and hygiene habits modify the associations of specific pesticides with Parkinson's disease. Environment International, 75, 144-150. doi:10.1016/j.envint.2014.11.002</p>
<p>Keeble, V. B., Correll, L., & Ehrich, M. (1996). Effect of Laundering on Ability of Glove Fabrics to Decrease the Penetration of Organophosphate Insecticides Through in vitro Epidermal Systems. J. Appl. Toxicol. Journal of Applied Toxicology, 16(5), 401-406. doi:10.1002/(sici)1099-1263(199609)16:53.3.co;2-6</p>
<p>Kim, J., Kim, J., Cha, E., Ko, Y., Kim, D., & Lee, W. (2013). Work-Related Risk Factors by Severity for Acute Pesticide Poisoning Among Male Farmers in South Korea. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 10(3), 1100-1112. doi:10.3390/ijerph10031100</p>
<p>Melco, M. (2016). Gardening Gloves. Retrieved from [http://garden.lovetoknow.com/wiki/Gardening_Gloves Garden Lovetoknow]</p>
<p>Schaffner, A. D. (2013). Minimizing Surgical Skin Incision Scars with a Latex Surgical Glove. Aesthetic Plastic Surgery, 37(2), 463-463. doi:10.1007/s00266-013-0071-y</p>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

Template:Chapters 7.8

2022-06-20T21:07:52Z

41.212.82.212:

<div>
<div class="title"><h3>7.8 - Manure tea field spraying and seed application</h3><br><h3 class="ch-owner">Nick Moroz, University of Guelph, Canada</h3></div>
<div class="hero-img-2">
[[File:4.jpg|300px]]
<p>Suggested citation for this chapter.</p>
<p>Author name (2022) title of chapter. In Farmpedia, The Encyclopedia for Small Scale Farmers. Editor, M.N. Raizada, University of Guelph, Canada. http://www.farmpedia.org</p>
</div>
<div class="ch-navber" style="display: flex; justify-content: space-between;">
<div class="center-side" style="max-width: 100%;margin-right: 3%;">
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Introduction to seed treatment as a preventative measure</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Options for reducing seed-borne pathogens in organic agriculture are limited to physical heat treatments and certain organic treatments, as synthetic pesticide protections cannot be used (Van der Wolf, Birnbaum, & Van der Zouwen, 2008). Saltwater and vinegar seed treatments represent organic options, while bleach is an synthetic compound that sterilizes seeds and can subsequently be washed off. Disinfecting seeds prior to sprouting helps prevents the possibility of plant disease epidemics by killing disease-causing organisms living within or on the surface of the seed (Munkvold, 2009). Preventative measures can decrease the probability of contamination in a field and reduce the use of pesticides to control plant epidemics that could have, with hindsight, been controlled through seed treatment.</p>

<p>Seed disinfection can kill seed-borne pathogens, or external pathogens living on the seed surface, while also protecting the seed, depending on the type of seed treatment (Munkvold, 2009; RPD, 1992). In addition to killing plant-pathogens, seed treatments can protect seedlings from common soil-inhabiting fungi that cause seed-rots (Munkvold, 2009; RPD, 1992). Finally, an effective seed treatment can reduce the need for multiple field applications of fungicides or bactericides later in the growing season (Mancini & Romanazzi, 2014). Aggravated use of pesticides is damaging to the local environment, economically costly, and posits a health hazard to farmers using these applications without respirators or advanced safety equipment. Subsistence farmers interested in minimizing pesticide use and improving crop health can use the preventative disinfection measures as outlined in this chapter. Within this encyclopedia, chapters on “Pesticide Seed Applications” provide more information on effective seed treatment technologies.</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Solutions for Seed Disinfection: Bleach, Vinegar, & Saltwater </h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p><b>Bleach</b></p>
<p>Sodium Hypochlorite, or commercial liquid laundry bleach, is a common choice for surface sterilization and it is readily available in many places. It can be diluted to proper concentrations needed for seed disinfestation from its original concentration of 5.25%-5.45% sodium hypochlorite (RPD, 1992). Seeds can be sterilized by immersion in a solution of 1 part bleach (~5.25% sodium hypochlorite) and 3 parts of water, for about two minutes (RPD, 1992), or 0.5% - 1.0% sodium hypochlorite for 10 minutes. This procedure works best when seeds are shaken periodically in the solution and then rinsed with water at least twice (Sauer & Burroughs, 1986). The time period and concentration may have to be adjusted for certain varieties, as optimal sterilization conditions that still allow for good seed germination can be different between seeds (Sweet & Bolton, 1979).</p>
<p>Bleach can be used for protection against fungus, and other clearing solutions have been used against viruses. Bleach soaks can also free seeds from root rot fungus and Fusarium wilt (RPD, 1992). Using a fine mesh or stringing bag, continuously agitate seeds for 40 minutes using 1 pint of liquid household bleach to 8 pints of water, and for each pound of seed treated, use 1 gallon (~3.78 Liters) of solution (RPD, 1992). Finally, use of the alkaline cleaning solid trisodium phosphate in solution can eliminate or reduce transmission of tobacco mosaic virus in pepper and tomato seeds (RPD, 1992).</p>
<p>After treating multiple different species’ seeds with multiple different chemical seed treatments, Sweet and Bolton (1979) came to the conclusion that a 0.5% solution of calcium hypochlorite may be the most effective seed-sterilization agent when applied for 10 minutes. Calcium hypochlorite is known as chlorine powder or bleaching powder and is used in many water-treating activities and as a bleaching agent. Sweet and Bolton (1979) found that this solution was the least detrimental to the emerging seedlings while being easily prepared, safely handled, and convenient to store. Following application of bleach, seeds should be thoroughly rinsed with water, with three subsequent washes with water shown to be most effective (Sweet & Bolton, 1979).>/p>
<p>Sweet and Bolton (1979) also studied seed germination levels following each treatment and found that greater concentrations than 0.5% solution calcium hypochlorite and longer contact times reduced seed germination and did not improve the decontamination levels (Sweet & Bolton, 1979). They concluded that if seeds cannot be decontaminated with hypochlorite, than efforts could be shifted to find more effective seeds rather than a better sterilizer (Sweet & Bolton, 1979).</p>
<p><b>Vinegar</b></p>
<p>Since the development of synthetic pesticides, pesticide seed treatments have been used almost exclusively to control seed-borne pathogens (Borgen & Nielsen, 2001). Now, many alternative seed-disinfectants are being sought for heightened cost-effectiveness, accessibility, and to reduce the use of pesticides. One scientific study showed that some key organic acids, such as acetic acid (vinegar), at concentrations of 2.5% or higher reduce seed-associated bacteria (Van der Wolf et al., 2008). The researchers also showed that only organic acid to reduce seed germination at this concentration was propionic acid (Van der Wolf et al., 2008). In another study, researchers conducted trails in fields, disinfecting seeds with acetic acid, and found the treatments reduced common bunt (Tilletia tritici) in winter wheat by 91.5-96.2% without negatively effecting the seed germination (Borgen & Nielsen, 2001).</p>
<p>Vinegar is commonly considered to be useful as a sanitizing agent for household cleaning and home gardening due to its acidic nature, with potential for use by farmers who can access vinegar from fermented products. White distilled vinegar is considered as an eco-friendly organic fungicide and herbicide (Mancini, 2012). Thus, vinegar can be carefully applied to seeds in order to sterilize them. One method known for sterilization of seeds or beans is the immersion of dried seeds for 10 to 15 minutes into a bowl consisting of 1 tablespoon of apple cider vinegar to 1 quart of drinkable water (Mancini, 2012). Following immersion, a thorough rinsing of seeds for 5 minutes and subsequent drying prevents permanent seed damage from prolonged vinegar acidity (Mancini, 2012). Placing dry seeds in a netting bag with a tie and label simplifies this process (Mancini, 2012). Use of 1 tablespoon of white distilled vinegar in this process will have the same affect as the apple cider vinegar (Stouffer, 1999).</p>
<p>Sanitizing combinations of white distilled (or apple cider) vinegar with hydrogen peroxide, followed by subsequent washing with water, has also been shown to be an affective method for cleaning fruits and vegetables (Stouffer, 1999). It is considered to be ten times as effective as either solution alone (Stouffer, 1999). Use of clean sprayers filled separately with vinegar and hydrogen peroxide (never mixed) simplifies the cleaning process (Stouffer, 1999). Fruits and vegetables were sprayed first with vinegar, then immediately sprayed with hydrogen peroxide, shortly followed by a water rinse (Stouffer, 1999). The order of the vinegar or hydrogen peroxide application did not matter and neither is toxic in the small amounts remaining on washed products (Stouffer, 1999). Such methods could be applied to seed sterilization as affective bacterial killing agents on the seed surface. Finally, a recipe for preventing cross contamination of gardening tools is soaking tools in a half and half solution of white vinegar (50% vinegar and 50% water), which acts as a fungicide to kill any plant contaminants on these tools over a short time period (Martina, 2015).</p>
<p><b>Saltwater</b></p>
<p>Soaking in salt water is an effective disinfectant for seeds and is beneficial in the control of seed-borne fungi. One of the first seed-borne fungus discovered was Tilletia caries, which causes a covered smut of wheat, as described by Jethro Tull in 1733 (Kolotelo et al., 2001). Tull found that farmers whose wheat seed had been salvaged from the ocean was free of this smut, and this lead to the conclusion that salt water disinfected the wheat seed through its brining action (Kolotelo et al., 2001). </p>
<p>In high concentrations, salt water can act as an effective antimicrobial (Matsko, 2016). This is due to the cytolysis (cell reputing) of many bacterial cells that occurs due to the highly concentrated salt water. This is characteristic of hypertonic (high solute) solutions, and bacteria that are unable to live in such conditions. A sufficient method to create a salt-water disinfectant consists of the following steps. Add a teaspoon of salt into a clean cup of warm water and mix until all the salt is dissolved in the water (Matsko, 2016). Regular cooking salt will be effective (Matsko, 2016).</p>
<p><b>No one method may be perfectly effective as a disinfectant for any given seed variety</b></p>
<p>The most effective preventative measures to control seed-borne diseases are to only plant health seeds in the first place, preventing contamination, and to choose disease-resistant varieties (Borgen, 2004). However, in many situations it is often critical to reduce the degree of pathogen inoculum on seeds in order to prevent the infection of other plants and the spread of disease in fields (Kolotelo et al., 2001). There is a large micro-flora associated with seeds, but their effects on seeds are largely unknown (Kolotelo et al., 2001). Thus, it is safest to disinfect seeds as a reasonable preventative measure.</p>
<p>Attempts to attain seeds that are completely free from active bacteria and fungi usually results in failure because seed disinfectants are either too strong and damage the seed or are too weak to fully treat the seed (Wilson, 1915). Additionally, microbes located within the seeds are not released until germination (Sweet & Bolton, 1979). A more severe treatment will kill bacteria within the seed, but also cause more damage to the embryo (Sweet & Bolton, 1979). Some disinfectants are more effective than others, such as the three simple solutions outlined above. However, it should be recognized that no single surface disinfectant is perfect under every condition and each should be critically considered (Wilson, 1915; Sweet & Bolton, 1979). </p>
</div>
</div>

<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 style="background: #FBB03B;padding: 15px;font-weight: 600;color: #000;font-size: 22px;margin:unset;text-align:center;">Resources Moving Forward<h1>
<div style="background: #FFD8A4;padding: 15px;font-weight: 400;color: #212529;font-size: 16px;margin:unset;line-height: 1.5;">
<p>Seed handling guidebook. Although this resource was meant for tree seeds, its outlines and applications are useful for all species’ seed treatments. Retrieved from: https://www.for.gov.bc.ca/hti/publications/misc/seed_handling_guidebook_hi.pdf</p>

<p>Natural crop protection applications for fighting pest and pathogens in the tropics:
http://www.naturalcropprotection.margraf-verlag.de/overin.htm</p>

<p>Website full of organic treatments for seeds for the control of pests and pathogens in the tropics: http://www.oisat.org/control_methods/other_methods/seed_treatment.html</p>

<p>Research book on pesticide seed treatments: Gullino, M. L., & Munkvold, G. (Eds.). (2014). Global Perspectives on the Health of Seeds and Plant Propagation Material (Vol. 6). Springer.</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">References</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>1. Borgen, A., & Nielsen, B. (2001). Effect of seed treatment with acetic acid in control of seed borne diseases. In Proceedings of the BCPC Symposium No. 76:“Seed Treatment: Challenges & Opportunities” (Vol. 76). Farnham.</p>

<p>2. Borgen, A. (2004). Strategies for regulation of seed borne diseases in organic farming. Seed Testing International-ISTA News Bulletin, 127, 19-21.</p>

<p>3. Kolotelo, D., Steenis, E. V., Peterson, M., Bennett, R., Trotter, D., & Dennis, J. (2001). Seed handling guidebook. British Columbia Ministry of Forests, Tree Seed Centre.</p>

<p>4. Mancini, N. (2012). Controlling and Sterilizing Seeds. Organic gardening simplified. Retrieved from: http://www.organicgardeningsimplified.com/images/seeds/seeds.pdf</p>

<p>5. Mancini, V., & Romanazzi, G. (2014). Seed treatments to control seedborne fungal pathogens of vegetable crops. Pest management science, 70(6), 860-868.</p>
<p>6. Martina. (2015). Vinegar to keep your Garden Growing. Natural Clean. Retrieved from: http://naturally-clean.ca/vinegar-to-keep-your-garden-growing/</p>

<p>7. Matsko, C. M., Expert Reviewed. (2016). How to make a quick disinfectant for minor cuts and abrasions. Wikihow. Retrieved from: http://www.wikihow.com/Make-a-Quick-Disinfectant-for-Minor-Cuts-and-Abrasions</p>

<p>8. Munkvold, G. P. (2009). Seed pathology progress in academia and industry. Annual review of phytopathology, 47, 285-311.
<p>9. Sauer, D. B., & Burroughs, R. (1986). Disinfection of seed surfaces with sodium hypochlorite. Phytopathology, 76(7), 745-749.</p>

<p>10. Stouffer, J. (1999). Vinegar and Hydrogen Peroxide as Disinfectants. Tau Topics. Retrieved from: http://www.michaelandjudystouffer.com/judy/articles/vinegar.htm</p>

<p>11. Sweet, H. C., & Bolton, W. E. (1979). The surface decontamination of seeds to produce axenic seedlings. American journal of botany, 692-698.</p>

<p>12. Report on Plant Disease (RPD) No. 915. (1992). Vegetable Seed Treatment. Department of Crop Sciences, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.
<p>13. Van der Wolf, J. M., Birnbaum, Y., Van der Zouwen, P. S., & Groot, S. P. C. (2008). Disinfection of vegetable seed by treatment with essential oils, organic acids and plant extracts. Seed science and technology, 36(1), 76-88.</p>

<p>14.Wilson, J. K. (1915). Calcium hypochlorite as a seed sterilizer. American journal of Botany, 2(8), 420-427.</p>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

Template:Chapters 7.7

2022-06-20T16:37:20Z

41.212.82.212:

<div>
<div class="title"><h3>7.7 - Pesticide seed application</h3><br><h3 class="ch-owner">Nick Moroz, University of Guelph, Canada</h3></div>
<div class="hero-img-2">
[[File:4.jpg|300px]]
<p>Suggested citation for this chapter.</p>
<p>Author name (2022) title of chapter. In Farmpedia, The Encyclopedia for Small Scale Farmers. Editor, M.N. Raizada, University of Guelph, Canada. http://www.farmpedia.org</p>
</div>
<div class="ch-navber" style="display: flex; justify-content: space-between;">
<div class="center-side" style="max-width: 100%;margin-right: 3%;">
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Introduction to Pesticide Seed Treatment and Alternative Seed Treatments</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Seed treatment – the application of insecticides, fungicides and/or other growth-promoting materials to seeds – is a rapidly expanding field for pre-harvest pathogen control, working effectively to kill and reduce pests and pathogens living directly on or within seeds as well as in the soils surrounding a treated seed (Mancini & Romanazzi, 2014; Taylor & Harman, 1990). Fungi and insect pathogens, including seed-borne pathogens, can infect a variety of seeds while also harboring disease and potentially transferring infection to the next seasons’ crops (Munkvold, 2009, p.295). There are a variety of seeds vulnerable to many pathogens, including cereals and vegetable seeds, requiring sterilization and protection (Mathre, Johnston, & Grey, 2006; Mancini & Romanazzi, 2014). Pesticide seed treatments have been shown to prevent plant disease epidemics caused by seed-borne infections, while also reducing the amount of pesticides needed to manage disease (Mancini & Romanazzi, 2014). An effective seed treatment requires a relatively small amount of pesticides to treat a seed, and new systemic pesticides will eliminate the need for multiple foliar or field applications of pesticides later in the growing season (Mancini & Romanazzi, 2014; Taylor & Harman, 1990). Seed-borne pathogens are killed before they get into the field, saving money and resources.</p>

<p>Applications of fungicides are almost always effective (Mancini & Romanazzi, 2014). However, they can also have poor effects on their non-target environment as well as contribute to greater pathogen resistance (Mancini & Romanazzi, 2014). Furthermore, aggravated use of pesticides can pose a serious hazard to farmers applying these substances without advanced safety equipment. Although pesticide seed treatment was found to be a substantial solution to reduce overall pesticide use, alterative disease-reducing treatments to pesticide use have also been sought to completely eliminate synthetic pesticide use (Mancini & Romanazzi, 2014).</p>

<p>Although the main goal of this critical review is to point to the effectiveness of pesticide seed treatment, it also directs the reader to consider effective alternative treatments, including physical treatments and bio-pesticides and bio-control agents. These alternatives can be used with pesticide seed treatments or if pesticide seed treatments are not an option. Chapters on “Compost Teas” and “Surface Sterilization of Seeds” within this encyclopedia also provide more information on less-effective but beneficial technologies. Overall, modern pesticide seed treatments are a safe and affordable pest and pathogen preventative measures, leading to increased seedling survival, disease-free plants and higher yields (Taylor & Harman, 1990).</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">What is Pesticide Seed Treatment?</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Pesticide seed treatments are specifically the application of a small amount of chemical agents to seeds in order to provide protection to seeds, at the time of planting and thereafter, against a broad range of pests and pathogens, while also helping with the establishment of healthy crops (Taylor & Harman, 1990). Plant pathogens can reduce the quantity and quality of seeds harvested for future planting seasons, and can also preserved in seed lots if they are seed-borne pathogens, leading to infection and disease in future crops (Mancini & Romanazzi, 2014). Thus, management of plant diseases is important as it directly impacts current yields, disease prevalence, and the quality of seeds that will be used for future yields (Mancini & Romanazzi, 2014).</p>

<p>Synthetic pesticides (fungicides, insecticides, etc.) for foliar use (i.e. pesticide leaf-spray) have some major drawbacks, as they are expensive and are typically not effective against viruses. Often foliar and soil spraying-pesticides are applied manually and in excess in regions with poor knowledge of sustainable pesticide management, posing a threat to human health and the environment. However, pesticide seed applications use less pesticide and can effectively reduce plant disease while also being much more affordable.</p>

<p>pesticide seed application can greatly enhance crop disease-resistance while reducing the harmful effects of aggravated pesticide use on humans and the environment. Fungicides represent a variety of modern pesticide chemicals used to treat seeds. Modern fungicides used today for seed treatment are generally low in toxicity to plant and animal life and are applied in such low doses they have a minimized impact on the environment (Mathre, Johnston, & Grey, 2006). Doses of these modern fungicides can be as low as 1 gram of active ingredient per hectare (0.4 grams/acre), resulting in a cost per hectare that is usually less than $5 per hectare and often lower than $2.50 per hectare, making seed treatment one of the least expensive growing applications on farms (Mathre, Johnston, & Grey, 2006).</p>

<p>The seed and crop protection industries have rapidly expanded both insecticide and fungicide seed applications since the 1990s, while also aiming to reduce the harmful impacts of active ingredients (Munkvold, 2009; Elbert, Haas, Springer, Thielert, & Nauen, 2008). This has led to systemic seed treatments that fight disease during germination, emergence, and plant growth (Munkvold, 2009). While breeding crops for pathogen resistance is key, crop protection products, such as seed treatments, are also needed to address unanticipated agronomic challenges (Munkvold, 2009). Finally, modern seed treatments can be, and is often, more than a single coating of fungicide or insecticide, and can contain several layers of active ingredients, wetting agents, colorants, and bird/wildlife repellents (DeLiberto & Werner, 2016; Munkvold, 2009).</p>

</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Insecticides Seed Treatment for Fighting Pests and Pathogens</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>This section outlines various insecticide seed treatments, the diseases they control, the chemicals used, and their systemic/non-systemic effects on preventing insect-related plant disease. Table 1.0 outlines various seed-applied insecticide chemicals that have become widespread in the past two decades, most notably the neonicotinoid chemicals. Insecticide seed treatments only became widespread with the introduction of neonicotinoid active ingredients, starting with imidacloprid in 1991 (Munkvold, 2009; Elbert et al., 2008). Prior to this some insecticides were approved but use was often limited and sometimes dangerous (Munkvold, 2009). Imidacloprid was first used as a seed treatment for maize in 1995 and was replaced by thiamethoxam in 1997 and clothianidin in 2003 (Munkvold, 2009). Since 2000, approximately 90% of the maize planted in the USA has been seed treated with either thiamethoxam or clothianidin (Munkvold, 2009). The increased use of pesticides seed treatment in crops like maize is prevalent, and this trend is occurring for many other crops, such as in sugarbeet in the United Kingdom (Munkvold, 2009). Sugarbeet insecticide seed treatment applications went from 0% in 1993 to 75% in 2002 in the area sown to sugarbeet, corresponding to a 95% drop in overall insecticide use in sugarbeets in the United Kingdom (Munkvold, 2009). This drop occurred because soil-applied insecticides were readily replaced by insecticide seed treatments (Munkvold, 2009). Now the same seed-applied insecticides (thiamethoxam or clothianidin) are also used on canola, soybean, and cottonseeds throughout North America (Munkvold, 2009).</p>
[[File:Capture_98.JPG]]
<p>Adapted from: Munkvold, 2009 and aPaulsrud et al., 2001; aPaulsrud et al., 2001; bYao et al., 2006; cHainzl & Casida, 1996; dGunning et al., 1996; eNauen et al., 2003</p>
<p>Insecticides seed treatments can be broad spectrum, meaning they are toxic to a variety of insects, or narrow spectrum, meaning they specifically target only a one or a few insect species. Seed-applied insecticides are used to control soil-borne insects, but these compound also have the systemic ability to control above ground leaf (foliar) and stem-feeding insects (Munkvold, 2009). The modern active ingredients mentioned in table 1.0 can provide broad-spectrum, long-lasting control of pests and diseases (Munkvold, 2009; Elbert et al., 2008). Pesticide seed treatments opened the door to more seed applications, going further than simple seed-dressings to include film coating, pelleting or multilayer coating (Elbert et al., 2008). Neonicotinoids are used for seed treatment in cotton, corn, cereals, sugar beet, oilseed rape and other crops to control against a broad range of plant disease from different orders (Coleoptera, Lepidoptera, Diptera, etc.) (Elbert et al., 2008).</p>

</div>
</div>

<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Fungicides Seed Treatment for Fighting Pests and Pathogens</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>As in the previous section, this section outlines various fungicide seed treatments, the diseases controled, the chemicals employed, and the various modes of action of these treatments that prevent fungal-related plant disease. Table 2.0 outlines various seed-applied fungicidal chemicals that have also become widespread in the past two decades, as well as some older chemicals, such as Carboxin, which was introduced in the late1960s. Historically, fungicides were developed using dangerous sulfur, copper and mercury compounds, but the toxicity of these compounds resulted in the banning of these substances for health and environmental reasons (Mancini & Romanazzi, 2014). The use of mercury fungicides continued up until the 1970s, when concerns of their toxicity in humans and animals let to their expiration (Mathre, Johnston, & Grey, 2006). Now fungicide seed treatments protect seedlings from common soil-inhabiting fungi that often cause seed rots and damping-off diseases (Paulsrud et al., 2001). </p>
[[File:Capture_101.JPG]]
[[File:Capture 102.JPG]]
<P>Because is environmental and health concerns, there was a need to find strong replacements that were effective and affordable, and Carboxin was the first modern systemic fungicide to act as a replacement (Mathre, Johnston, & Grey, 2006). Carboxin was found to prevent loose smut in wheat and barley and to prevent common bunt in wheat (Mathre, Johnston, & Grey, 2006). This is impressive as loose smut pathogen can survive from one season to the next by living inside the seed embryo, so the fungicide had to penetrate into the developing seed and eliminate the pathogen (Mathre, Johnston, & Grey, 2006). Carboxin was effective in this regard (Mathre, Johnston, & Grey, 2006). Now fungicides can control various plant diseases, helping farmers produce grains (Mathre, Johnston, & Grey, 2006). Table 3.0 outlines the modes of action of many of the chemicals listed in table 2.0. Readers are directed to Mathre, Johnston, and Grey’s (2006) review, which outlines many applications of fungicidal seed treatments for fighting a variety of diseases that impact wheat and barley in a useful and concise summary.</P>
[[File:Capture_103.JPG]]
<p>Like insecticides, fungicide seed treatments can be broad spectrum or narrow spectrum and there are various types of fungicides, including contact fungicides and systemic fungicides, in which the latter can destroy pathogens living within seed tissue (Mancini & Romanazzi, 2014). Successful seed treatment depends on the pathogen’s location within the seed (Mancini & Romanazzi, 2014). Contact fungicides do not stop internal infections and are only effective in preventing fungal spores from growing on the seed surface (Mancini & Romanazzi, 2014). Cytotropic fungicides do penetrate the outer seed layers where some fungal infections can persist (Mancini & Romanazzi, 2014). Finally, other systemic fungicides can penetrate deep into the seed, protecting against early infection from airborne and soil-borne diseases, although these fungicides are more effective later in seed development (Mancini & Romanazzi, 2014). As such, based on the fungicide’s purpose and the disease threats, farmers can select the appropriate fungicide for a particular seed treatment.</p>
</div>
</div>

<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Protection of Seeds and Seedlings</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Without seed treatment, it may be difficult to control for seed-borne or early season pests and diseases (Mancini & Romanazzi, 2014). Alternative treatments would have to be sought, and this could lead to the need for foliar pesticide spraying that is both harmful and expensive. Environmental stresses, including heavy rains, crusted soils, deep planting, cool soil, and very dry soils, led to ideal settings for even weak pathogens to contribute to plant population losses in young plants infected since germination and mal-equipped to survived extended such environmental stressors (Paulsrud et al., 2001).</p>

<p>Non-systemic fungicides or insecticides form a chemical barrier over the surface of the germinating seed preventing pests and pathogens from entering from systemic fungicides or insecticides protect the foliar parts from insects, diseases, and root rot (Paulsrud et al., 2001). Even a delay in infection can reduce plant losses due to stressors while early infection leads to more damage (Paulsrud et al., 2001). Some seed treatments last 10-14 days beyond planting, while other active ingredients can protect seedlings much longer if applied at the highest specified rate and given favorable environmental conditions (Paulsrud et al., 2001). Typically pesticide breakdown is most rapid in warm and moist conditions (Paulsrud et al., 2001). Finally, seed treatments can assist in plant-stand formation when seeds are planted in unfavorable soils or slow to germinate (Paulsrud et al., 2001; Mancini & Romanazzi, 2014).</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Specific Types of Seed Treatments</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Seed coating includes any process that for the addition of materials to seeds, but pesticide seed treatment itself has many forms, and seed coating can refer to seeds that have been dressed with dry powder, coated, or pelleted (Taylor & Harman, 1990). Seed dressing is when a dry formulation or a wet liquid formulation of this powder is applied to seeds and this method can be applied at the farm level (Taylor & Harman, 1990). However, these materials do not adhere well to the seed surface and active ingredients may be lost, therefore seed dressings are best applied in the form of a slurry (Taylor & Harman, 1990; Sharma, Singh, Sharma, Kumar, & Sharma, 2015). Seed coating is a formulation used with a special binders that enhance adherence of the active ingredient to the seed, increasing the seed size and shape (Taylor & Harman, 1990). Adhesives used for seed coating include methyl cellulose, dextran, gum Arabic, and vegetable oils (Taylor & Harman, 1990). Finally, seed pelleting an advanced seed treatment, changing the seed size and weight with the addition of multiple inert fillers/adhesives that also work to enhance seed growth and protection (Taylor & Harman, 1990). Seed coating and pelleting usually require treatment application machinery and, therefore, can be more expensive (Taylor & Harman, 1990; Paulsrud et al., 2001). Seed coating and pelleting has been reviewed (Taylor & Harman, 1990) and are not discussed further in this chapter.</p>

<p>In order for the safe application of insecticide/fungicide seed treatments, or combinations of active ingredients to seed treatments, ensure the composition of the seed treatment is thoroughly understood. The quality of the final seed treatment will depend on the treatment mixture, processing conditions, the application rate of the formulation, and the equipment available (Paulsrud et al., 2001). Seed treatments can be applied to true seeds (corn, wheat, soybean, all which have a seed coat and embryo conformation) or to vegetative propagation materials (including bulbs, corms, or tubers), such as potato seed pieces (Paulsrud et al., 2001). All pesticide seed treatment active ingredients and additives are applied to the seed stage.</p>

</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Advantages and Disadvantages of Pesticide Seed Treatment</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Seed treatments have many important benefits, as outlined in the above sections, but they also pose some risks that should be considered. As many of the advantages of seed treatment are mentioned above, this section will outline some of the risks and disadvantages to seed treatment to offer a critical approach.</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Advantages</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Seed treatments are very effective are preventing seed-borne pathogens, such as smut or bunt, by protecting seeds and attacking these pathogens when they are weak during their seed-borne phase (Paulsrud et al., 2001). Seedlings are generally more vulnerable to disease then mature plants, so the timing of seed treatment is optimal (Paulsrud et al., 2001). It should be noted that seed treatments, in protecting against pathogens and insects, can also ensure uniform stand establishment of crops, as is done for maize in many parts of the USA (Paulsrud et al., 2001). Seed treatments can also suppress root rots in some crops (Paulsrud et al., 2001). Finally, as mentioned in previous sections, new systemic seed treatments provide an alternative to traditional broadcast pesticide sprays for early-season foliar diseases (Paulsrud et al., 2001). </p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Disadvantages </h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>The risks of pesticide seed treatments revolve around human, environment, and food supply exposure to pesticides. Accidental exposure to workers who produce and apply seed treatment poses a constant risk of seed treatments (Paulsrud et al., 2001). Contamination of food supplies via accidental mixing of treated seed with finished foods is also a risk (Paulsrud et al., 2001). Treated seeds are intended for planting and can be harmful if ingested. Accidental poisoning is also a concern for livestock, as treated seed can look like food to animals, and some seed treatments may require grazing restrictions (Paulsrud et al., 2001). </p>

<p>The treated seed itself has a limited active ingredient capacity and duration of protection (Paulsrud et al., 2001). The treatment is limited to how much active ingredient will stick to the seed, which is why seed-coatings can help (Paulsrud et al., 2001). Still, there is a short duration of protection because of the small amount of ingredient applied, the dilution of the chemical as the plant grows, and its natural breakdown (Paulsrud et al., 2001). At high-doses, a few treatments can partially cause plant-toxicity, or phytotoxicity, damaging tender seed tissue and possibly leading to lower germination and stunting, although generally treatment phytotoxicity is low (Paulsrud et al., 2001).</p>

<p>On a macro-level, an increase of chemical inputs in seed treatments can have the negative effects of increased pathogen resistance as well as the spreading of active ingredients to non-target organisms in the environment (Mancini & Romanazzi, 2014). Furthermore, pesticide seed treatments have been shown to significantly impact the plant rhizosphere’s (root system) fungal and bacterial communities, although the consequences of these effects must be further studied and taken in context (Nettles et al., 2016). Finally, workers can be exposed to the active ingredients of pesticides when applying seed treatments.</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Seed Treatment as Part of Integrated Pest Management </h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Combining the use of synthetic pesticides and organic or ecological approaches is called Integrated Pest Management (IPM). The goal is IPM is to maximize crop productivity while minimizing the damages caused by pests and pathogens, while also using the practical resources available and minimizing environmental damages. IPM also aims to reduce pesticide residues from entering the food supply chain and environment, encouraging natural methods for pest control (Paulsrud et al., 2001; Elbert et al., 2008). Seed treatment is thus an integral part of IPM (Paulsrud et al., 2001). Pesticide seed treatment can control pests while reducing pesticide use per hectare, operator expose to pesticides, and can fit well into IPM programs (Elbert et al., 2008). Seed treatment can then be used in combination with biological mechanism to further control pests with IPM.</p>

<p>To implement IPM, identify the pests of interest and consider integrated synthetic and biological options needed to effectively manage the pest. This encyclopedia can direct the reader to other biological methods in this chapter outlined below as well as chapters on “Compost Teas” and “Surface Sterilization of Seeds” and that can be blended with the pesticide seed treatments discusses above for IPM. IPM calls for an integration of pesticide seed treatments with alternative methods for pest and pathogen control.</p.
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Supplemental Seed Treatment Additives </h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Seed treatment products often contain a variety of additives to supplement the active ingredient, such as seed treatments with enhanced adhesive coatings in the pelleted form (Elbert et al., 2008; Paulsrud et al., 2001). If important additives are not in the initial seed treatment then they can be added to any pretreatment mixing tank before seed coating (Paulsrud et al., 2001). Be aware of the potential for redundant additives already supplied in the initial formulation in order to conserve resources (Paulsrud et al., 2001). Colorants are also a useful additive, often used to distinguish treated seeds from food grain for animals and to ensure uniformity in treatment coverage on seeds (Paulsrud et al., 2001). A specific colourant, Anthraquinone, has been shown to selectively repel birds from eating seeds treated with it, resulting from a learned avoidance of seeds treated with Anthraquinone by Avian species (DeLiberto & Werner, 2016). Anthraquinone is a common dye and a safe chemical repellent, deterring many wild birds, as well as mammals, from consuming treated seeds (DeLiberto & Werner, 2016).</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Summary</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>In general, insecticide and fungicide seed treatments can eradicate or reduce seed-borne pathogens and are more reliable than the proposed alternative treatments, such as physical treatment, or biological controls (Mancini & Romanazzi, 2014). Despite this, alternative treatments are still often effective and sometime as effective as chemical treatments, especially physical treatments (Mancini & Romanazzi, 2014). Chemical seed treatments with insecticides and fungicides, along with alternative seed treatments, can improve crop stand quality and increase crop yields through protection and disinfection from seed-borne, and later airborne and soil-borne, pathogens (Mancini & Romanazzi, 2014).</p>

</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 style="background: #FBB03B;padding: 15px;font-weight: 600;color: #000;font-size: 22px;margin:unset;text-align:center;">Resources Moving Forward</h1>
<div style="background: #FFD8A4;padding: 15px;font-weight: 400;color: #212529;font-size: 16px;margin:unset;line-height: 1.5;">

<p>FAO on integrated pest management: http://www.fao.org/agriculture/crops/core-themes/theme/pests/ipm/en/</p>
<p>FAO on chemical controls for seed storage: http://www.fao.org/docrep/t1838e/T1838E1g.htm#Chemical%20control%20techniques</p>
<p>Website on Pesticide Environmental Stewardship: https://pesticidestewardship.org/pollinator-protection/seed-treatment-concerns/</p>

<p>Excellent research book of many aspects of seed treatments: Gullino, M. L., & Munkvold, G. (Eds.). (2014). Global Perspectives on the Health of Seeds and Plant Propagation Material (Vol. 6). Springer.</p>
<p>Excellent outline of many pests and pathogens that seed treatments can prevent, as well as the many active ingredients in seed treatments that prevent infections: Paulsrud, B. E., Martin, D., Babadoost, M., Malvick, D., Weinzierl, R., Lindholm, D. C., ... & Maynard, R. (2001). Oregon pesticide applicator training manual. Seed treatment. University of Illinois Board of Trustees, Urbana.</p>

<p>Queensland Government Website on Integrated Pest Management: http://ipmguidelinesforgrains.com.au/ipm-information/chemical-control/seed-dressings-treatments/</p>
<p>OMAFRA: http://www.omafra.gov.on.ca/english/crops/insects/ipm.html</p>
<p>USDA: http://www.ipmcenters.org</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">References</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>1. Bartlett, D. W., Clough, J. M., Godwin, J. R., Hall, A. A., Hamer, M., & Parr‐Dobrzanski, B. (2002). The strobilurin fungicides. Pest management science, 58(7), 649-662.</p>

<p>2. Davidse, L. C., Looijen, D., Turkensteen, L. J., & Van der Wal, D. (1981). Occurrence of metalaxyl-resistant ttrains of Phytophthora infestans in Dutch potato fields. European Journal of Plant Pathology, 87(2), 65-68.</p>

<p>3. DeLiberto, S. T., & Werner, S. J. (2016). Review of anthraquinone applications for pest management and agricultural crop protection. Pest management science, 72(10), 1813-1825.</p>

<p>4. Elbert, A., Haas, M., Springer, B., Thielert, W., & Nauen, R. (2008). Applied aspects of neonicotinoid uses in crop protection. Pest management science, 64(11), 1099-1105.</p>

<p>5. Gunning, R. V., Moores, G. D., & Devonshire, A. L. (1996). Insensitive Acetylcholinesterase and Resistance to Thiodicarb in AustralianHelicoverpa armigeraHübner (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae). Pesticide Biochemistry and Physiology, 55(1), 21-28.</p>

<p>6. Hainzl, D., & Casida, J. E. (1996). Fipronil insecticide: novel photochemical desulfinylation with retention of neurotoxicity. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 93(23), 12764-12767.</p>

<p>7. Huston, D. H., Roberts, T. R., & Jewess, P. J. (1999). Metabolic Pathways of Agrochemicals part 2. Instecticides and Fungicides. Royal Society of Chemistry.</p>

<p>8. Mancini, V., & Romanazzi, G. (2014). Seed treatments to control seedborne fungal pathogens of vegetable crops. Pest management science, 70(6), 860-868.</p>

<p>9. Mathre, D. E., R. H. Johnston, and W. E. Grey. 2001. Small Grain Cereal Seed Treatment. The Plant Health Instructor. DOI: 10.1094/PHI-I-2001-1008-01.Updated, 2006.</p>

<p>10. Morton, V., & Staub, T. (2008). A short history of fungicides. APSnet Features.</p>

<p>11. Munkvold, G. P. (2009). Seed pathology progress in academia and industry. Annual review of phytopathology, 47, 285-311.</p>

<p>12. Nauen, R., Ebbinghaus-Kintscher, U., Salgado, V. L., & Kaussmann, M. (2003). Thiamethoxam is a neonicotinoid precursor converted to clothianidin in insects and plants. Pesticide Biochemistry and Physiology, 76(2), 55-69.</p>

<p>13. Nettles, R., Watkins, J., Ricks, K., Boyer, M., Licht, M., Atwood, L. W., ... & Koide, R. T. (2016). Influence of pesticide seed treatments on rhizosphere fungal and bacterial communities and leaf fungal endophyte communities in maize and soybean. Applied Soil Ecology, 102, 61-69.</p>

<p>14. Paulsrud, B. E., Martin, D., Babadoost, M., Malvick, D., Weinzierl, R., Lindholm, D. C., ... & Maynard, R. (2001). Oregon pesticide applicator training manual. Seed treatment. University of Illinois Board of Trustees, Urbana.</p>

<p>15. Sharma, K. K., Singh, U. S., Sharma, P., Kumar, A., & Sharma, L. (2015). Seed treatments for sustainable agriculture-A review. Journal of Applied and Natural Science, 7(1), 521-539.</p>
16. Taylor, A. G., & Harman, G. E. (1990). Concepts and technologies of selected seed treatments. Annual review of phytopathology, 28(1), 321-339.</p>

<p>17. Taylor, A. G., & Harman, G. E. (1990). Concepts and technologies of selected seed treatments. Annual review of phytopathology, 28(1), 321-339.</p>

<p>18. Yao, X. H., Min, H., Lü, Z. H., & Yuan, H. P. (2006). Influence of acetamiprid on soil enzymatic activities and respiration. European Journal of Soil Biology, 42(2), 120-126.</p>

</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

Template:Chapters 7.7

2022-06-20T16:18:06Z

41.212.82.212:

<div>
<div class="title"><h3>7.7 - Pesticide seed application</h3><br><h3 class="ch-owner">Nick Moroz, University of Guelph, Canada</h3></div>
<div class="hero-img-2">
[[File:4.jpg|300px]]
<p>Suggested citation for this chapter.</p>
<p>Author name (2022) title of chapter. In Farmpedia, The Encyclopedia for Small Scale Farmers. Editor, M.N. Raizada, University of Guelph, Canada. http://www.farmpedia.org</p>
</div>
<div class="ch-navber" style="display: flex; justify-content: space-between;">
<div class="center-side" style="max-width: 100%;margin-right: 3%;">
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Introduction to Pesticide Seed Treatment and Alternative Seed Treatments</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Seed treatment – the application of insecticides, fungicides and/or other growth-promoting materials to seeds – is a rapidly expanding field for pre-harvest pathogen control, working effectively to kill and reduce pests and pathogens living directly on or within seeds as well as in the soils surrounding a treated seed (Mancini & Romanazzi, 2014; Taylor & Harman, 1990). Fungi and insect pathogens, including seed-borne pathogens, can infect a variety of seeds while also harboring disease and potentially transferring infection to the next seasons’ crops (Munkvold, 2009, p.295). There are a variety of seeds vulnerable to many pathogens, including cereals and vegetable seeds, requiring sterilization and protection (Mathre, Johnston, & Grey, 2006; Mancini & Romanazzi, 2014). Pesticide seed treatments have been shown to prevent plant disease epidemics caused by seed-borne infections, while also reducing the amount of pesticides needed to manage disease (Mancini & Romanazzi, 2014). An effective seed treatment requires a relatively small amount of pesticides to treat a seed, and new systemic pesticides will eliminate the need for multiple foliar or field applications of pesticides later in the growing season (Mancini & Romanazzi, 2014; Taylor & Harman, 1990). Seed-borne pathogens are killed before they get into the field, saving money and resources.</p>

<p>Applications of fungicides are almost always effective (Mancini & Romanazzi, 2014). However, they can also have poor effects on their non-target environment as well as contribute to greater pathogen resistance (Mancini & Romanazzi, 2014). Furthermore, aggravated use of pesticides can pose a serious hazard to farmers applying these substances without advanced safety equipment. Although pesticide seed treatment was found to be a substantial solution to reduce overall pesticide use, alterative disease-reducing treatments to pesticide use have also been sought to completely eliminate synthetic pesticide use (Mancini & Romanazzi, 2014).</p>

<p>Although the main goal of this critical review is to point to the effectiveness of pesticide seed treatment, it also directs the reader to consider effective alternative treatments, including physical treatments and bio-pesticides and bio-control agents. These alternatives can be used with pesticide seed treatments or if pesticide seed treatments are not an option. Chapters on “Compost Teas” and “Surface Sterilization of Seeds” within this encyclopedia also provide more information on less-effective but beneficial technologies. Overall, modern pesticide seed treatments are a safe and affordable pest and pathogen preventative measures, leading to increased seedling survival, disease-free plants and higher yields (Taylor & Harman, 1990).</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">What is Pesticide Seed Treatment?</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Pesticide seed treatments are specifically the application of a small amount of chemical agents to seeds in order to provide protection to seeds, at the time of planting and thereafter, against a broad range of pests and pathogens, while also helping with the establishment of healthy crops (Taylor & Harman, 1990). Plant pathogens can reduce the quantity and quality of seeds harvested for future planting seasons, and can also preserved in seed lots if they are seed-borne pathogens, leading to infection and disease in future crops (Mancini & Romanazzi, 2014). Thus, management of plant diseases is important as it directly impacts current yields, disease prevalence, and the quality of seeds that will be used for future yields (Mancini & Romanazzi, 2014).</p>

<p>Synthetic pesticides (fungicides, insecticides, etc.) for foliar use (i.e. pesticide leaf-spray) have some major drawbacks, as they are expensive and are typically not effective against viruses. Often foliar and soil spraying-pesticides are applied manually and in excess in regions with poor knowledge of sustainable pesticide management, posing a threat to human health and the environment. However, pesticide seed applications use less pesticide and can effectively reduce plant disease while also being much more affordable.</>

<p>pesticide seed application can greatly enhance crop disease-resistance while reducing the harmful effects of aggravated pesticide use on humans and the environment. Fungicides represent a variety of modern pesticide chemicals used to treat seeds. Modern fungicides used today for seed treatment are generally low in toxicity to plant and animal life and are applied in such low doses they have a minimized impact on the environment (Mathre, Johnston, & Grey, 2006). Doses of these modern fungicides can be as low as 1 gram of active ingredient per hectare (0.4 grams/acre), resulting in a cost per hectare that is usually less than $5 per hectare and often lower than $2.50 per hectare, making seed treatment one of the least expensive growing applications on farms (Mathre, Johnston, & Grey, 2006).</p>

<p>The seed and crop protection industries have rapidly expanded both insecticide and fungicide seed applications since the 1990s, while also aiming to reduce the harmful impacts of active ingredients (Munkvold, 2009; Elbert, Haas, Springer, Thielert, & Nauen, 2008). This has led to systemic seed treatments that fight disease during germination, emergence, and plant growth (Munkvold, 2009). While breeding crops for pathogen resistance is key, crop protection products, such as seed treatments, are also needed to address unanticipated agronomic challenges (Munkvold, 2009). Finally, modern seed treatments can be, and is often, more than a single coating of fungicide or insecticide, and can contain several layers of active ingredients, wetting agents, colorants, and bird/wildlife repellents (DeLiberto & Werner, 2016; Munkvold, 2009).</p>

</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Insecticides Seed Treatment for Fighting Pests and Pathogens</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>This section outlines various insecticide seed treatments, the diseases they control, the chemicals used, and their systemic/non-systemic effects on preventing insect-related plant disease. Table 1.0 outlines various seed-applied insecticide chemicals that have become widespread in the past two decades, most notably the neonicotinoid chemicals. Insecticide seed treatments only became widespread with the introduction of neonicotinoid active ingredients, starting with imidacloprid in 1991 (Munkvold, 2009; Elbert et al., 2008). Prior to this some insecticides were approved but use was often limited and sometimes dangerous (Munkvold, 2009). Imidacloprid was first used as a seed treatment for maize in 1995 and was replaced by thiamethoxam in 1997 and clothianidin in 2003 (Munkvold, 2009). Since 2000, approximately 90% of the maize planted in the USA has been seed treated with either thiamethoxam or clothianidin (Munkvold, 2009). The increased use of pesticides seed treatment in crops like maize is prevalent, and this trend is occurring for many other crops, such as in sugarbeet in the United Kingdom (Munkvold, 2009). Sugarbeet insecticide seed treatment applications went from 0% in 1993 to 75% in 2002 in the area sown to sugarbeet, corresponding to a 95% drop in overall insecticide use in sugarbeets in the United Kingdom (Munkvold, 2009). This drop occurred because soil-applied insecticides were readily replaced by insecticide seed treatments (Munkvold, 2009). Now the same seed-applied insecticides (thiamethoxam or clothianidin) are also used on canola, soybean, and cottonseeds throughout North America (Munkvold, 2009).</p>
[[File:Capture_98.JPG]]
<p>Adapted from: Munkvold, 2009 and aPaulsrud et al., 2001; aPaulsrud et al., 2001; bYao et al., 2006; cHainzl & Casida, 1996; dGunning et al., 1996; eNauen et al., 2003</p>
<p>Insecticides seed treatments can be broad spectrum, meaning they are toxic to a variety of insects, or narrow spectrum, meaning they specifically target only a one or a few insect species. Seed-applied insecticides are used to control soil-borne insects, but these compound also have the systemic ability to control above ground leaf (foliar) and stem-feeding insects (Munkvold, 2009). The modern active ingredients mentioned in table 1.0 can provide broad-spectrum, long-lasting control of pests and diseases (Munkvold, 2009; Elbert et al., 2008). Pesticide seed treatments opened the door to more seed applications, going further than simple seed-dressings to include film coating, pelleting or multilayer coating (Elbert et al., 2008). Neonicotinoids are used for seed treatment in cotton, corn, cereals, sugar beet, oilseed rape and other crops to control against a broad range of plant disease from different orders (Coleoptera, Lepidoptera, Diptera, etc.) (Elbert et al., 2008).</p>

</div>
</div>

<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Fungicides Seed Treatment for Fighting Pests and Pathogens</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>As in the previous section, this section outlines various fungicide seed treatments, the diseases controled, the chemicals employed, and the various modes of action of these treatments that prevent fungal-related plant disease. Table 2.0 outlines various seed-applied fungicidal chemicals that have also become widespread in the past two decades, as well as some older chemicals, such as Carboxin, which was introduced in the late1960s. Historically, fungicides were developed using dangerous sulfur, copper and mercury compounds, but the toxicity of these compounds resulted in the banning of these substances for health and environmental reasons (Mancini & Romanazzi, 2014). The use of mercury fungicides continued up until the 1970s, when concerns of their toxicity in humans and animals let to their expiration (Mathre, Johnston, & Grey, 2006). Now fungicide seed treatments protect seedlings from common soil-inhabiting fungi that often cause seed rots and damping-off diseases (Paulsrud et al., 2001). </p>
[[File:Capture_101.JPG]]
[[File:Capture 102.JPG]]
<P>Because is environmental and health concerns, there was a need to find strong replacements that were effective and affordable, and Carboxin was the first modern systemic fungicide to act as a replacement (Mathre, Johnston, & Grey, 2006). Carboxin was found to prevent loose smut in wheat and barley and to prevent common bunt in wheat (Mathre, Johnston, & Grey, 2006). This is impressive as loose smut pathogen can survive from one season to the next by living inside the seed embryo, so the fungicide had to penetrate into the developing seed and eliminate the pathogen (Mathre, Johnston, & Grey, 2006). Carboxin was effective in this regard (Mathre, Johnston, & Grey, 2006). Now fungicides can control various plant diseases, helping farmers produce grains (Mathre, Johnston, & Grey, 2006). Table 3.0 outlines the modes of action of many of the chemicals listed in table 2.0. Readers are directed to Mathre, Johnston, and Grey’s (2006) review, which outlines many applications of fungicidal seed treatments for fighting a variety of diseases that impact wheat and barley in a useful and concise summary.</P>
[[File:Capture_103.JPG]]
<p>Like insecticides, fungicide seed treatments can be broad spectrum or narrow spectrum and there are various types of fungicides, including contact fungicides and systemic fungicides, in which the latter can destroy pathogens living within seed tissue (Mancini & Romanazzi, 2014). Successful seed treatment depends on the pathogen’s location within the seed (Mancini & Romanazzi, 2014). Contact fungicides do not stop internal infections and are only effective in preventing fungal spores from growing on the seed surface (Mancini & Romanazzi, 2014). Cytotropic fungicides do penetrate the outer seed layers where some fungal infections can persist (Mancini & Romanazzi, 2014). Finally, other systemic fungicides can penetrate deep into the seed, protecting against early infection from airborne and soil-borne diseases, although these fungicides are more effective later in seed development (Mancini & Romanazzi, 2014). As such, based on the fungicide’s purpose and the disease threats, farmers can select the appropriate fungicide for a particular seed treatment.</p>
</div>
</div>

<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Protection of Seeds and Seedlings</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Without seed treatment, it may be difficult to control for seed-borne or early season pests and diseases (Mancini & Romanazzi, 2014). Alternative treatments would have to be sought, and this could lead to the need for foliar pesticide spraying that is both harmful and expensive. Environmental stresses, including heavy rains, crusted soils, deep planting, cool soil, and very dry soils, led to ideal settings for even weak pathogens to contribute to plant population losses in young plants infected since germination and mal-equipped to survived extended such environmental stressors (Paulsrud et al., 2001).</p>

<p>Non-systemic fungicides or insecticides form a chemical barrier over the surface of the germinating seed preventing pests and pathogens from entering from systemic fungicides or insecticides protect the foliar parts from insects, diseases, and root rot (Paulsrud et al., 2001). Even a delay in infection can reduce plant losses due to stressors while early infection leads to more damage (Paulsrud et al., 2001). Some seed treatments last 10-14 days beyond planting, while other active ingredients can protect seedlings much longer if applied at the highest specified rate and given favorable environmental conditions (Paulsrud et al., 2001). Typically pesticide breakdown is most rapid in warm and moist conditions (Paulsrud et al., 2001). Finally, seed treatments can assist in plant-stand formation when seeds are planted in unfavorable soils or slow to germinate (Paulsrud et al., 2001; Mancini & Romanazzi, 2014).</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Specific Types of Seed Treatments</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Seed coating includes any process that for the addition of materials to seeds, but pesticide seed treatment itself has many forms, and seed coating can refer to seeds that have been dressed with dry powder, coated, or pelleted (Taylor & Harman, 1990). Seed dressing is when a dry formulation or a wet liquid formulation of this powder is applied to seeds and this method can be applied at the farm level (Taylor & Harman, 1990). However, these materials do not adhere well to the seed surface and active ingredients may be lost, therefore seed dressings are best applied in the form of a slurry (Taylor & Harman, 1990; Sharma, Singh, Sharma, Kumar, & Sharma, 2015). Seed coating is a formulation used with a special binders that enhance adherence of the active ingredient to the seed, increasing the seed size and shape (Taylor & Harman, 1990). Adhesives used for seed coating include methyl cellulose, dextran, gum Arabic, and vegetable oils (Taylor & Harman, 1990). Finally, seed pelleting an advanced seed treatment, changing the seed size and weight with the addition of multiple inert fillers/adhesives that also work to enhance seed growth and protection (Taylor & Harman, 1990). Seed coating and pelleting usually require treatment application machinery and, therefore, can be more expensive (Taylor & Harman, 1990; Paulsrud et al., 2001). Seed coating and pelleting has been reviewed (Taylor & Harman, 1990) and are not discussed further in this chapter.</p>

<p>In order for the safe application of insecticide/fungicide seed treatments, or combinations of active ingredients to seed treatments, ensure the composition of the seed treatment is thoroughly understood. The quality of the final seed treatment will depend on the treatment mixture, processing conditions, the application rate of the formulation, and the equipment available (Paulsrud et al., 2001). Seed treatments can be applied to true seeds (corn, wheat, soybean, all which have a seed coat and embryo conformation) or to vegetative propagation materials (including bulbs, corms, or tubers), such as potato seed pieces (Paulsrud et al., 2001). All pesticide seed treatment active ingredients and additives are applied to the seed stage.</p>

</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Advantages and Disadvantages of Pesticide Seed Treatment</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Seed treatments have many important benefits, as outlined in the above sections, but they also pose some risks that should be considered. As many of the advantages of seed treatment are mentioned above, this section will outline some of the risks and disadvantages to seed treatment to offer a critical approach.</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Advantages</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Seed treatments are very effective are preventing seed-borne pathogens, such as smut or bunt, by protecting seeds and attacking these pathogens when they are weak during their seed-borne phase (Paulsrud et al., 2001). Seedlings are generally more vulnerable to disease then mature plants, so the timing of seed treatment is optimal (Paulsrud et al., 2001). It should be noted that seed treatments, in protecting against pathogens and insects, can also ensure uniform stand establishment of crops, as is done for maize in many parts of the USA (Paulsrud et al., 2001). Seed treatments can also suppress root rots in some crops (Paulsrud et al., 2001). Finally, as mentioned in previous sections, new systemic seed treatments provide an alternative to traditional broadcast pesticide sprays for early-season foliar diseases (Paulsrud et al., 2001). </p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Disadvantages </h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>The risks of pesticide seed treatments revolve around human, environment, and food supply exposure to pesticides. Accidental exposure to workers who produce and apply seed treatment poses a constant risk of seed treatments (Paulsrud et al., 2001). Contamination of food supplies via accidental mixing of treated seed with finished foods is also a risk (Paulsrud et al., 2001). Treated seeds are intended for planting and can be harmful if ingested. Accidental poisoning is also a concern for livestock, as treated seed can look like food to animals, and some seed treatments may require grazing restrictions (Paulsrud et al., 2001). </p>

<p>The treated seed itself has a limited active ingredient capacity and duration of protection (Paulsrud et al., 2001). The treatment is limited to how much active ingredient will stick to the seed, which is why seed-coatings can help (Paulsrud et al., 2001). Still, there is a short duration of protection because of the small amount of ingredient applied, the dilution of the chemical as the plant grows, and its natural breakdown (Paulsrud et al., 2001). At high-doses, a few treatments can partially cause plant-toxicity, or phytotoxicity, damaging tender seed tissue and possibly leading to lower germination and stunting, although generally treatment phytotoxicity is low (Paulsrud et al., 2001).</p>

<p>On a macro-level, an increase of chemical inputs in seed treatments can have the negative effects of increased pathogen resistance as well as the spreading of active ingredients to non-target organisms in the environment (Mancini & Romanazzi, 2014). Furthermore, pesticide seed treatments have been shown to significantly impact the plant rhizosphere’s (root system) fungal and bacterial communities, although the consequences of these effects must be further studied and taken in context (Nettles et al., 2016). Finally, workers can be exposed to the active ingredients of pesticides when applying seed treatments.</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Seed Treatment as Part of Integrated Pest Management </h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Combining the use of synthetic pesticides and organic or ecological approaches is called Integrated Pest Management (IPM). The goal is IPM is to maximize crop productivity while minimizing the damages caused by pests and pathogens, while also using the practical resources available and minimizing environmental damages. IPM also aims to reduce pesticide residues from entering the food supply chain and environment, encouraging natural methods for pest control (Paulsrud et al., 2001; Elbert et al., 2008). Seed treatment is thus an integral part of IPM (Paulsrud et al., 2001). Pesticide seed treatment can control pests while reducing pesticide use per hectare, operator expose to pesticides, and can fit well into IPM programs (Elbert et al., 2008). Seed treatment can then be used in combination with biological mechanism to further control pests with IPM.</p>

<p>To implement IPM, identify the pests of interest and consider integrated synthetic and biological options needed to effectively manage the pest. This encyclopedia can direct the reader to other biological methods in this chapter outlined below as well as chapters on “Compost Teas” and “Surface Sterilization of Seeds” and that can be blended with the pesticide seed treatments discusses above for IPM. IPM calls for an integration of pesticide seed treatments with alternative methods for pest and pathogen control.</p.
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Supplemental Seed Treatment Additives </h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Seed treatment products often contain a variety of additives to supplement the active ingredient, such as seed treatments with enhanced adhesive coatings in the pelleted form (Elbert et al., 2008; Paulsrud et al., 2001). If important additives are not in the initial seed treatment then they can be added to any pretreatment mixing tank before seed coating (Paulsrud et al., 2001). Be aware of the potential for redundant additives already supplied in the initial formulation in order to conserve resources (Paulsrud et al., 2001). Colorants are also a useful additive, often used to distinguish treated seeds from food grain for animals and to ensure uniformity in treatment coverage on seeds (Paulsrud et al., 2001). A specific colourant, Anthraquinone, has been shown to selectively repel birds from eating seeds treated with it, resulting from a learned avoidance of seeds treated with Anthraquinone by Avian species (DeLiberto & Werner, 2016). Anthraquinone is a common dye and a safe chemical repellent, deterring many wild birds, as well as mammals, from consuming treated seeds (DeLiberto & Werner, 2016).</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Summary</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>In general, insecticide and fungicide seed treatments can eradicate or reduce seed-borne pathogens and are more reliable than the proposed alternative treatments, such as physical treatment, or biological controls (Mancini & Romanazzi, 2014). Despite this, alternative treatments are still often effective and sometime as effective as chemical treatments, especially physical treatments (Mancini & Romanazzi, 2014). Chemical seed treatments with insecticides and fungicides, along with alternative seed treatments, can improve crop stand quality and increase crop yields through protection and disinfection from seed-borne, and later airborne and soil-borne, pathogens (Mancini & Romanazzi, 2014).</p>

</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 style="background: #FBB03B;padding: 15px;font-weight: 600;color: #000;font-size: 22px;margin:unset;text-align:center;">Resources Moving Forward</h1>
<div style="background: #FFD8A4;padding: 15px;font-weight: 400;color: #212529;font-size: 16px;margin:unset;line-height: 1.5;">

<p>FAO on integrated pest management: http://www.fao.org/agriculture/crops/core-themes/theme/pests/ipm/en/</p>
<p>FAO on chemical controls for seed storage: http://www.fao.org/docrep/t1838e/T1838E1g.htm#Chemical%20control%20techniques</p>
<p>Website on Pesticide Environmental Stewardship: https://pesticidestewardship.org/pollinator-protection/seed-treatment-concerns/</p>

<p>Excellent research book of many aspects of seed treatments: Gullino, M. L., & Munkvold, G. (Eds.). (2014). Global Perspectives on the Health of Seeds and Plant Propagation Material (Vol. 6). Springer.</p>
<p>Excellent outline of many pests and pathogens that seed treatments can prevent, as well as the many active ingredients in seed treatments that prevent infections: Paulsrud, B. E., Martin, D., Babadoost, M., Malvick, D., Weinzierl, R., Lindholm, D. C., ... & Maynard, R. (2001). Oregon pesticide applicator training manual. Seed treatment. University of Illinois Board of Trustees, Urbana.</p>

<p>Queensland Government Website on Integrated Pest Management: http://ipmguidelinesforgrains.com.au/ipm-information/chemical-control/seed-dressings-treatments/</p>
<p>OMAFRA: http://www.omafra.gov.on.ca/english/crops/insects/ipm.html</p>
<p>USDA: http://www.ipmcenters.org</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">References</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>1. Bartlett, D. W., Clough, J. M., Godwin, J. R., Hall, A. A., Hamer, M., & Parr‐Dobrzanski, B. (2002). The strobilurin fungicides. Pest management science, 58(7), 649-662.</p>

<p>2. Davidse, L. C., Looijen, D., Turkensteen, L. J., & Van der Wal, D. (1981). Occurrence of metalaxyl-resistant ttrains of Phytophthora infestans in Dutch potato fields. European Journal of Plant Pathology, 87(2), 65-68.</p>

<p>3. DeLiberto, S. T., & Werner, S. J. (2016). Review of anthraquinone applications for pest management and agricultural crop protection. Pest management science, 72(10), 1813-1825.</p>

<p>4. Elbert, A., Haas, M., Springer, B., Thielert, W., & Nauen, R. (2008). Applied aspects of neonicotinoid uses in crop protection. Pest management science, 64(11), 1099-1105.</p>

<p>5. Gunning, R. V., Moores, G. D., & Devonshire, A. L. (1996). Insensitive Acetylcholinesterase and Resistance to Thiodicarb in AustralianHelicoverpa armigeraHübner (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae). Pesticide Biochemistry and Physiology, 55(1), 21-28.</p>

<p>6. Hainzl, D., & Casida, J. E. (1996). Fipronil insecticide: novel photochemical desulfinylation with retention of neurotoxicity. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 93(23), 12764-12767.</p>

<p>7. Huston, D. H., Roberts, T. R., & Jewess, P. J. (1999). Metabolic Pathways of Agrochemicals part 2. Instecticides and Fungicides. Royal Society of Chemistry.</p>

<p>8. Mancini, V., & Romanazzi, G. (2014). Seed treatments to control seedborne fungal pathogens of vegetable crops. Pest management science, 70(6), 860-868.</p>

<p>9. Mathre, D. E., R. H. Johnston, and W. E. Grey. 2001. Small Grain Cereal Seed Treatment. The Plant Health Instructor. DOI: 10.1094/PHI-I-2001-1008-01.Updated, 2006.</p>

<p>10. Morton, V., & Staub, T. (2008). A short history of fungicides. APSnet Features.</p>

<p>11. Munkvold, G. P. (2009). Seed pathology progress in academia and industry. Annual review of phytopathology, 47, 285-311.</p>

<p>12. Nauen, R., Ebbinghaus-Kintscher, U., Salgado, V. L., & Kaussmann, M. (2003). Thiamethoxam is a neonicotinoid precursor converted to clothianidin in insects and plants. Pesticide Biochemistry and Physiology, 76(2), 55-69.</p>

<p>13. Nettles, R., Watkins, J., Ricks, K., Boyer, M., Licht, M., Atwood, L. W., ... & Koide, R. T. (2016). Influence of pesticide seed treatments on rhizosphere fungal and bacterial communities and leaf fungal endophyte communities in maize and soybean. Applied Soil Ecology, 102, 61-69.</p>

<p>14. Paulsrud, B. E., Martin, D., Babadoost, M., Malvick, D., Weinzierl, R., Lindholm, D. C., ... & Maynard, R. (2001). Oregon pesticide applicator training manual. Seed treatment. University of Illinois Board of Trustees, Urbana.</p>

<p>15. Sharma, K. K., Singh, U. S., Sharma, P., Kumar, A., & Sharma, L. (2015). Seed treatments for sustainable agriculture-A review. Journal of Applied and Natural Science, 7(1), 521-539.</p>
16. Taylor, A. G., & Harman, G. E. (1990). Concepts and technologies of selected seed treatments. Annual review of phytopathology, 28(1), 321-339.</p>

<p>17. Taylor, A. G., & Harman, G. E. (1990). Concepts and technologies of selected seed treatments. Annual review of phytopathology, 28(1), 321-339.</p>

<p>18. Yao, X. H., Min, H., Lü, Z. H., & Yuan, H. P. (2006). Influence of acetamiprid on soil enzymatic activities and respiration. European Journal of Soil Biology, 42(2), 120-126.</p>

</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

Template:Chapters 7.7

2022-06-20T16:16:02Z

41.212.82.212:

<div>
<div class="title"><h3>7.7 - Pesticide seed application</h3><br><h3 class="ch-owner">Nick Moroz, University of Guelph, Canada</h3></div>
<div class="hero-img-2">
[[File:4.jpg|300px]]
<p>Suggested citation for this chapter.</p>
<p>Author name (2022) title of chapter. In Farmpedia, The Encyclopedia for Small Scale Farmers. Editor, M.N. Raizada, University of Guelph, Canada. http://www.farmpedia.org</p>
</div>
<div class="ch-navber" style="display: flex; justify-content: space-between;">
<div class="center-side" style="max-width: 100%;margin-right: 3%;">
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Introduction to Pesticide Seed Treatment and Alternative Seed Treatments</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Seed treatment – the application of insecticides, fungicides and/or other growth-promoting materials to seeds – is a rapidly expanding field for pre-harvest pathogen control, working effectively to kill and reduce pests and pathogens living directly on or within seeds as well as in the soils surrounding a treated seed (Mancini & Romanazzi, 2014; Taylor & Harman, 1990). Fungi and insect pathogens, including seed-borne pathogens, can infect a variety of seeds while also harboring disease and potentially transferring infection to the next seasons’ crops (Munkvold, 2009, p.295). There are a variety of seeds vulnerable to many pathogens, including cereals and vegetable seeds, requiring sterilization and protection (Mathre, Johnston, & Grey, 2006; Mancini & Romanazzi, 2014). Pesticide seed treatments have been shown to prevent plant disease epidemics caused by seed-borne infections, while also reducing the amount of pesticides needed to manage disease (Mancini & Romanazzi, 2014). An effective seed treatment requires a relatively small amount of pesticides to treat a seed, and new systemic pesticides will eliminate the need for multiple foliar or field applications of pesticides later in the growing season (Mancini & Romanazzi, 2014; Taylor & Harman, 1990). Seed-borne pathogens are killed before they get into the field, saving money and resources.</p>

<p>Applications of fungicides are almost always effective (Mancini & Romanazzi, 2014). However, they can also have poor effects on their non-target environment as well as contribute to greater pathogen resistance (Mancini & Romanazzi, 2014). Furthermore, aggravated use of pesticides can pose a serious hazard to farmers applying these substances without advanced safety equipment. Although pesticide seed treatment was found to be a substantial solution to reduce overall pesticide use, alterative disease-reducing treatments to pesticide use have also been sought to completely eliminate synthetic pesticide use (Mancini & Romanazzi, 2014).</p>

<p>Although the main goal of this critical review is to point to the effectiveness of pesticide seed treatment, it also directs the reader to consider effective alternative treatments, including physical treatments and bio-pesticides and bio-control agents. These alternatives can be used with pesticide seed treatments or if pesticide seed treatments are not an option. Chapters on “Compost Teas” and “Surface Sterilization of Seeds” within this encyclopedia also provide more information on less-effective but beneficial technologies. Overall, modern pesticide seed treatments are a safe and affordable pest and pathogen preventative measures, leading to increased seedling survival, disease-free plants and higher yields (Taylor & Harman, 1990).</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">What is Pesticide Seed Treatment?</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Pesticide seed treatments are specifically the application of a small amount of chemical agents to seeds in order to provide protection to seeds, at the time of planting and thereafter, against a broad range of pests and pathogens, while also helping with the establishment of healthy crops (Taylor & Harman, 1990). Plant pathogens can reduce the quantity and quality of seeds harvested for future planting seasons, and can also preserved in seed lots if they are seed-borne pathogens, leading to infection and disease in future crops (Mancini & Romanazzi, 2014). Thus, management of plant diseases is important as it directly impacts current yields, disease prevalence, and the quality of seeds that will be used for future yields (Mancini & Romanazzi, 2014).</p>

<p>Synthetic pesticides (fungicides, insecticides, etc.) for foliar use (i.e. pesticide leaf-spray) have some major drawbacks, as they are expensive and are typically not effective against viruses. Often foliar and soil spraying-pesticides are applied manually and in excess in regions with poor knowledge of sustainable pesticide management, posing a threat to human health and the environment. However, pesticide seed applications use less pesticide and can effectively reduce plant disease while also being much more affordable.</>

<p>pesticide seed application can greatly enhance crop disease-resistance while reducing the harmful effects of aggravated pesticide use on humans and the environment. Fungicides represent a variety of modern pesticide chemicals used to treat seeds. Modern fungicides used today for seed treatment are generally low in toxicity to plant and animal life and are applied in such low doses they have a minimized impact on the environment (Mathre, Johnston, & Grey, 2006). Doses of these modern fungicides can be as low as 1 gram of active ingredient per hectare (0.4 grams/acre), resulting in a cost per hectare that is usually less than $5 per hectare and often lower than $2.50 per hectare, making seed treatment one of the least expensive growing applications on farms (Mathre, Johnston, & Grey, 2006).</p>

<p>The seed and crop protection industries have rapidly expanded both insecticide and fungicide seed applications since the 1990s, while also aiming to reduce the harmful impacts of active ingredients (Munkvold, 2009; Elbert, Haas, Springer, Thielert, & Nauen, 2008). This has led to systemic seed treatments that fight disease during germination, emergence, and plant growth (Munkvold, 2009). While breeding crops for pathogen resistance is key, crop protection products, such as seed treatments, are also needed to address unanticipated agronomic challenges (Munkvold, 2009). Finally, modern seed treatments can be, and is often, more than a single coating of fungicide or insecticide, and can contain several layers of active ingredients, wetting agents, colorants, and bird/wildlife repellents (DeLiberto & Werner, 2016; Munkvold, 2009).</p>

</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Insecticides Seed Treatment for Fighting Pests and Pathogens</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>This section outlines various insecticide seed treatments, the diseases they control, the chemicals used, and their systemic/non-systemic effects on preventing insect-related plant disease. Table 1.0 outlines various seed-applied insecticide chemicals that have become widespread in the past two decades, most notably the neonicotinoid chemicals. Insecticide seed treatments only became widespread with the introduction of neonicotinoid active ingredients, starting with imidacloprid in 1991 (Munkvold, 2009; Elbert et al., 2008). Prior to this some insecticides were approved but use was often limited and sometimes dangerous (Munkvold, 2009). Imidacloprid was first used as a seed treatment for maize in 1995 and was replaced by thiamethoxam in 1997 and clothianidin in 2003 (Munkvold, 2009). Since 2000, approximately 90% of the maize planted in the USA has been seed treated with either thiamethoxam or clothianidin (Munkvold, 2009). The increased use of pesticides seed treatment in crops like maize is prevalent, and this trend is occurring for many other crops, such as in sugarbeet in the United Kingdom (Munkvold, 2009). Sugarbeet insecticide seed treatment applications went from 0% in 1993 to 75% in 2002 in the area sown to sugarbeet, corresponding to a 95% drop in overall insecticide use in sugarbeets in the United Kingdom (Munkvold, 2009). This drop occurred because soil-applied insecticides were readily replaced by insecticide seed treatments (Munkvold, 2009). Now the same seed-applied insecticides (thiamethoxam or clothianidin) are also used on canola, soybean, and cottonseeds throughout North America (Munkvold, 2009).</p>
[[File:Capture_98.JPG]]
<p>Adapted from: Munkvold, 2009 and aPaulsrud et al., 2001; aPaulsrud et al., 2001; bYao et al., 2006; cHainzl & Casida, 1996; dGunning et al., 1996; eNauen et al., 2003</p>
<p>Insecticides seed treatments can be broad spectrum, meaning they are toxic to a variety of insects, or narrow spectrum, meaning they specifically target only a one or a few insect species. Seed-applied insecticides are used to control soil-borne insects, but these compound also have the systemic ability to control above ground leaf (foliar) and stem-feeding insects (Munkvold, 2009). The modern active ingredients mentioned in table 1.0 can provide broad-spectrum, long-lasting control of pests and diseases (Munkvold, 2009; Elbert et al., 2008). Pesticide seed treatments opened the door to more seed applications, going further than simple seed-dressings to include film coating, pelleting or multilayer coating (Elbert et al., 2008). Neonicotinoids are used for seed treatment in cotton, corn, cereals, sugar beet, oilseed rape and other crops to control against a broad range of plant disease from different orders (Coleoptera, Lepidoptera, Diptera, etc.) (Elbert et al., 2008).</p>

</div>
</div>

<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Fungicides Seed Treatment for Fighting Pests and Pathogens</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>As in the previous section, this section outlines various fungicide seed treatments, the diseases controled, the chemicals employed, and the various modes of action of these treatments that prevent fungal-related plant disease. Table 2.0 outlines various seed-applied fungicidal chemicals that have also become widespread in the past two decades, as well as some older chemicals, such as Carboxin, which was introduced in the late1960s. Historically, fungicides were developed using dangerous sulfur, copper and mercury compounds, but the toxicity of these compounds resulted in the banning of these substances for health and environmental reasons (Mancini & Romanazzi, 2014). The use of mercury fungicides continued up until the 1970s, when concerns of their toxicity in humans and animals let to their expiration (Mathre, Johnston, & Grey, 2006). Now fungicide seed treatments protect seedlings from common soil-inhabiting fungi that often cause seed rots and damping-off diseases (Paulsrud et al., 2001). </p>
[[File:Capture_101.JPG]]
[[File:Capture 102.JPG]]
<P>Because is environmental and health concerns, there was a need to find strong replacements that were effective and affordable, and Carboxin was the first modern systemic fungicide to act as a replacement (Mathre, Johnston, & Grey, 2006). Carboxin was found to prevent loose smut in wheat and barley and to prevent common bunt in wheat (Mathre, Johnston, & Grey, 2006). This is impressive as loose smut pathogen can survive from one season to the next by living inside the seed embryo, so the fungicide had to penetrate into the developing seed and eliminate the pathogen (Mathre, Johnston, & Grey, 2006). Carboxin was effective in this regard (Mathre, Johnston, & Grey, 2006). Now fungicides can control various plant diseases, helping farmers produce grains (Mathre, Johnston, & Grey, 2006). Table 3.0 outlines the modes of action of many of the chemicals listed in table 2.0. Readers are directed to Mathre, Johnston, and Grey’s (2006) review, which outlines many applications of fungicidal seed treatments for fighting a variety of diseases that impact wheat and barley in a useful and concise summary.</P>
[[File:Capture_103.JPG]]
<p>Like insecticides, fungicide seed treatments can be broad spectrum or narrow spectrum and there are various types of fungicides, including contact fungicides and systemic fungicides, in which the latter can destroy pathogens living within seed tissue (Mancini & Romanazzi, 2014). Successful seed treatment depends on the pathogen’s location within the seed (Mancini & Romanazzi, 2014). Contact fungicides do not stop internal infections and are only effective in preventing fungal spores from growing on the seed surface (Mancini & Romanazzi, 2014). Cytotropic fungicides do penetrate the outer seed layers where some fungal infections can persist (Mancini & Romanazzi, 2014). Finally, other systemic fungicides can penetrate deep into the seed, protecting against early infection from airborne and soil-borne diseases, although these fungicides are more effective later in seed development (Mancini & Romanazzi, 2014). As such, based on the fungicide’s purpose and the disease threats, farmers can select the appropriate fungicide for a particular seed treatment.</p>
</div>
</div>

<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Protection of Seeds and Seedlings</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Without seed treatment, it may be difficult to control for seed-borne or early season pests and diseases (Mancini & Romanazzi, 2014). Alternative treatments would have to be sought, and this could lead to the need for foliar pesticide spraying that is both harmful and expensive. Environmental stresses, including heavy rains, crusted soils, deep planting, cool soil, and very dry soils, led to ideal settings for even weak pathogens to contribute to plant population losses in young plants infected since germination and mal-equipped to survived extended such environmental stressors (Paulsrud et al., 2001).</p>

<p>Non-systemic fungicides or insecticides form a chemical barrier over the surface of the germinating seed preventing pests and pathogens from entering from systemic fungicides or insecticides protect the foliar parts from insects, diseases, and root rot (Paulsrud et al., 2001). Even a delay in infection can reduce plant losses due to stressors while early infection leads to more damage (Paulsrud et al., 2001). Some seed treatments last 10-14 days beyond planting, while other active ingredients can protect seedlings much longer if applied at the highest specified rate and given favorable environmental conditions (Paulsrud et al., 2001). Typically pesticide breakdown is most rapid in warm and moist conditions (Paulsrud et al., 2001). Finally, seed treatments can assist in plant-stand formation when seeds are planted in unfavorable soils or slow to germinate (Paulsrud et al., 2001; Mancini & Romanazzi, 2014).</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Specific Types of Seed Treatments</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Seed coating includes any process that for the addition of materials to seeds, but pesticide seed treatment itself has many forms, and seed coating can refer to seeds that have been dressed with dry powder, coated, or pelleted (Taylor & Harman, 1990). Seed dressing is when a dry formulation or a wet liquid formulation of this powder is applied to seeds and this method can be applied at the farm level (Taylor & Harman, 1990). However, these materials do not adhere well to the seed surface and active ingredients may be lost, therefore seed dressings are best applied in the form of a slurry (Taylor & Harman, 1990; Sharma, Singh, Sharma, Kumar, & Sharma, 2015). Seed coating is a formulation used with a special binders that enhance adherence of the active ingredient to the seed, increasing the seed size and shape (Taylor & Harman, 1990). Adhesives used for seed coating include methyl cellulose, dextran, gum Arabic, and vegetable oils (Taylor & Harman, 1990). Finally, seed pelleting an advanced seed treatment, changing the seed size and weight with the addition of multiple inert fillers/adhesives that also work to enhance seed growth and protection (Taylor & Harman, 1990). Seed coating and pelleting usually require treatment application machinery and, therefore, can be more expensive (Taylor & Harman, 1990; Paulsrud et al., 2001). Seed coating and pelleting has been reviewed (Taylor & Harman, 1990) and are not discussed further in this chapter.</p>

<p>In order for the safe application of insecticide/fungicide seed treatments, or combinations of active ingredients to seed treatments, ensure the composition of the seed treatment is thoroughly understood. The quality of the final seed treatment will depend on the treatment mixture, processing conditions, the application rate of the formulation, and the equipment available (Paulsrud et al., 2001). Seed treatments can be applied to true seeds (corn, wheat, soybean, all which have a seed coat and embryo conformation) or to vegetative propagation materials (including bulbs, corms, or tubers), such as potato seed pieces (Paulsrud et al., 2001). All pesticide seed treatment active ingredients and additives are applied to the seed stage.</p>

</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Advantages and Disadvantages of Pesticide Seed Treatment</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Seed treatments have many important benefits, as outlined in the above sections, but they also pose some risks that should be considered. As many of the advantages of seed treatment are mentioned above, this section will outline some of the risks and disadvantages to seed treatment to offer a critical approach.</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Advantages</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Seed treatments are very effective are preventing seed-borne pathogens, such as smut or bunt, by protecting seeds and attacking these pathogens when they are weak during their seed-borne phase (Paulsrud et al., 2001). Seedlings are generally more vulnerable to disease then mature plants, so the timing of seed treatment is optimal (Paulsrud et al., 2001). It should be noted that seed treatments, in protecting against pathogens and insects, can also ensure uniform stand establishment of crops, as is done for maize in many parts of the USA (Paulsrud et al., 2001). Seed treatments can also suppress root rots in some crops (Paulsrud et al., 2001). Finally, as mentioned in previous sections, new systemic seed treatments provide an alternative to traditional broadcast pesticide sprays for early-season foliar diseases (Paulsrud et al., 2001). </p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Disadvantages </h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>The risks of pesticide seed treatments revolve around human, environment, and food supply exposure to pesticides. Accidental exposure to workers who produce and apply seed treatment poses a constant risk of seed treatments (Paulsrud et al., 2001). Contamination of food supplies via accidental mixing of treated seed with finished foods is also a risk (Paulsrud et al., 2001). Treated seeds are intended for planting and can be harmful if ingested. Accidental poisoning is also a concern for livestock, as treated seed can look like food to animals, and some seed treatments may require grazing restrictions (Paulsrud et al., 2001). </p>

<p>The treated seed itself has a limited active ingredient capacity and duration of protection (Paulsrud et al., 2001). The treatment is limited to how much active ingredient will stick to the seed, which is why seed-coatings can help (Paulsrud et al., 2001). Still, there is a short duration of protection because of the small amount of ingredient applied, the dilution of the chemical as the plant grows, and its natural breakdown (Paulsrud et al., 2001). At high-doses, a few treatments can partially cause plant-toxicity, or phytotoxicity, damaging tender seed tissue and possibly leading to lower germination and stunting, although generally treatment phytotoxicity is low (Paulsrud et al., 2001).</p>

<p>On a macro-level, an increase of chemical inputs in seed treatments can have the negative effects of increased pathogen resistance as well as the spreading of active ingredients to non-target organisms in the environment (Mancini & Romanazzi, 2014). Furthermore, pesticide seed treatments have been shown to significantly impact the plant rhizosphere’s (root system) fungal and bacterial communities, although the consequences of these effects must be further studied and taken in context (Nettles et al., 2016). Finally, workers can be exposed to the active ingredients of pesticides when applying seed treatments.</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Seed Treatment as Part of Integrated Pest Management </h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Combining the use of synthetic pesticides and organic or ecological approaches is called Integrated Pest Management (IPM). The goal is IPM is to maximize crop productivity while minimizing the damages caused by pests and pathogens, while also using the practical resources available and minimizing environmental damages. IPM also aims to reduce pesticide residues from entering the food supply chain and environment, encouraging natural methods for pest control (Paulsrud et al., 2001; Elbert et al., 2008). Seed treatment is thus an integral part of IPM (Paulsrud et al., 2001). Pesticide seed treatment can control pests while reducing pesticide use per hectare, operator expose to pesticides, and can fit well into IPM programs (Elbert et al., 2008). Seed treatment can then be used in combination with biological mechanism to further control pests with IPM.</p>

<p>To implement IPM, identify the pests of interest and consider integrated synthetic and biological options needed to effectively manage the pest. This encyclopedia can direct the reader to other biological methods in this chapter outlined below as well as chapters on “Compost Teas” and “Surface Sterilization of Seeds” and that can be blended with the pesticide seed treatments discusses above for IPM. IPM calls for an integration of pesticide seed treatments with alternative methods for pest and pathogen control.</p.
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Supplemental Seed Treatment Additives </h1>
<div class="cont-bg">

<p>Seed treatment products often contain a variety of additives to supplement the active ingredient, such as seed treatments with enhanced adhesive coatings in the pelleted form (Elbert et al., 2008; Paulsrud et al., 2001). If important additives are not in the initial seed treatment then they can be added to any pretreatment mixing tank before seed coating (Paulsrud et al., 2001). Be aware of the potential for redundant additives already supplied in the initial formulation in order to conserve resources (Paulsrud et al., 2001). Colorants are also a useful additive, often used to distinguish treated seeds from food grain for animals and to ensure uniformity in treatment coverage on seeds (Paulsrud et al., 2001). A specific colourant, Anthraquinone, has been shown to selectively repel birds from eating seeds treated with it, resulting from a learned avoidance of seeds treated with Anthraquinone by Avian species (DeLiberto & Werner, 2016). Anthraquinone is a common dye and a safe chemical repellent, deterring many wild birds, as well as mammals, from consuming treated seeds (DeLiberto & Werner, 2016).</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Summary</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>In general, insecticide and fungicide seed treatments can eradicate or reduce seed-borne pathogens and are more reliable than the proposed alternative treatments, such as physical treatment, or biological controls (Mancini & Romanazzi, 2014). Despite this, alternative treatments are still often effective and sometime as effective as chemical treatments, especially physical treatments (Mancini & Romanazzi, 2014). Chemical seed treatments with insecticides and fungicides, along with alternative seed treatments, can improve crop stand quality and increase crop yields through protection and disinfection from seed-borne, and later airborne and soil-borne, pathogens (Mancini & Romanazzi, 2014).</p>

</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 style="background: #FBB03B;padding: 15px;font-weight: 600;color: #000;font-size: 22px;margin:unset;text-align:center;">Resources Moving Forward</h1>
<div style="background: #FFD8A4;padding: 15px;font-weight: 400;color: #212529;font-size: 16px;margin:unset;line-height: 1.5;">

<p>FAO on integrated pest management: http://www.fao.org/agriculture/crops/core-themes/theme/pests/ipm/en/</p>
<p>FAO on chemical controls for seed storage: http://www.fao.org/docrep/t1838e/T1838E1g.htm#Chemical%20control%20techniques</p>
<p>Website on Pesticide Environmental Stewardship: https://pesticidestewardship.org/pollinator-protection/seed-treatment-concerns/</p>

<p>Excellent research book of many aspects of seed treatments: Gullino, M. L., & Munkvold, G. (Eds.). (2014). Global Perspectives on the Health of Seeds and Plant Propagation Material (Vol. 6). Springer.</p>
<p>Excellent outline of many pests and pathogens that seed treatments can prevent, as well as the many active ingredients in seed treatments that prevent infections: Paulsrud, B. E., Martin, D., Babadoost, M., Malvick, D., Weinzierl, R., Lindholm, D. C., ... & Maynard, R. (2001). Oregon pesticide applicator training manual. Seed treatment. University of Illinois Board of Trustees, Urbana.</p>

<p>Queensland Government Website on Integrated Pest Management: http://ipmguidelinesforgrains.com.au/ipm-information/chemical-control/seed-dressings-treatments/</p>
<p>OMAFRA: http://www.omafra.gov.on.ca/english/crops/insects/ipm.html</p>
<p>USDA: http://www.ipmcenters.org</p>
<p>Pesticides can be absorbed by your skin and become harmful to the body, gloves provide an extra barrier to block them from entering in a farmer's body (Furlong, et al., 2015). Fertilizers such as nitrogen can also be caustic, and these are usually spread through broadcasting by hand. Mud can get under your nails and into cracked or cut skin and can infect a farmer's hands. Gloves will keep the mud out and keep hands clean. Both liquid pesticides and dry fertilizers can irritate skin if they come into contact with it (Kim, et al., 2013). Wearing the proper gloves, rubber ones in this case, can save their hands from becoming itchy (Keeble et al., 1996). Human skin can also absorb the pesticides which are harmful to your body, wearing gloves would prevent the pesticides from ever touching your skin.</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">References</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>1. Bartlett, D. W., Clough, J. M., Godwin, J. R., Hall, A. A., Hamer, M., & Parr‐Dobrzanski, B. (2002). The strobilurin fungicides. Pest management science, 58(7), 649-662.</p>

<p>2. Davidse, L. C., Looijen, D., Turkensteen, L. J., & Van der Wal, D. (1981). Occurrence of metalaxyl-resistant ttrains of Phytophthora infestans in Dutch potato fields. European Journal of Plant Pathology, 87(2), 65-68.</p>

<p>3. DeLiberto, S. T., & Werner, S. J. (2016). Review of anthraquinone applications for pest management and agricultural crop protection. Pest management science, 72(10), 1813-1825.</p>

<p>4. Elbert, A., Haas, M., Springer, B., Thielert, W., & Nauen, R. (2008). Applied aspects of neonicotinoid uses in crop protection. Pest management science, 64(11), 1099-1105.</p>

<p>5. Gunning, R. V., Moores, G. D., & Devonshire, A. L. (1996). Insensitive Acetylcholinesterase and Resistance to Thiodicarb in AustralianHelicoverpa armigeraHübner (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae). Pesticide Biochemistry and Physiology, 55(1), 21-28.</p>

<p>6. Hainzl, D., & Casida, J. E. (1996). Fipronil insecticide: novel photochemical desulfinylation with retention of neurotoxicity. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 93(23), 12764-12767.</p>

<p>7. Huston, D. H., Roberts, T. R., & Jewess, P. J. (1999). Metabolic Pathways of Agrochemicals part 2. Instecticides and Fungicides. Royal Society of Chemistry.</p>

<p>8. Mancini, V., & Romanazzi, G. (2014). Seed treatments to control seedborne fungal pathogens of vegetable crops. Pest management science, 70(6), 860-868.</p>

<p>9. Mathre, D. E., R. H. Johnston, and W. E. Grey. 2001. Small Grain Cereal Seed Treatment. The Plant Health Instructor. DOI: 10.1094/PHI-I-2001-1008-01.Updated, 2006.</p>

<p>10. Morton, V., & Staub, T. (2008). A short history of fungicides. APSnet Features.</p>

<p>11. Munkvold, G. P. (2009). Seed pathology progress in academia and industry. Annual review of phytopathology, 47, 285-311.</p>

<p>12. Nauen, R., Ebbinghaus-Kintscher, U., Salgado, V. L., & Kaussmann, M. (2003). Thiamethoxam is a neonicotinoid precursor converted to clothianidin in insects and plants. Pesticide Biochemistry and Physiology, 76(2), 55-69.</p>

<p>13. Nettles, R., Watkins, J., Ricks, K., Boyer, M., Licht, M., Atwood, L. W., ... & Koide, R. T. (2016). Influence of pesticide seed treatments on rhizosphere fungal and bacterial communities and leaf fungal endophyte communities in maize and soybean. Applied Soil Ecology, 102, 61-69.</p>

<p>14. Paulsrud, B. E., Martin, D., Babadoost, M., Malvick, D., Weinzierl, R., Lindholm, D. C., ... & Maynard, R. (2001). Oregon pesticide applicator training manual. Seed treatment. University of Illinois Board of Trustees, Urbana.</p>

<p>15. Sharma, K. K., Singh, U. S., Sharma, P., Kumar, A., & Sharma, L. (2015). Seed treatments for sustainable agriculture-A review. Journal of Applied and Natural Science, 7(1), 521-539.</p>
16. Taylor, A. G., & Harman, G. E. (1990). Concepts and technologies of selected seed treatments. Annual review of phytopathology, 28(1), 321-339.</p>

<p>17. Taylor, A. G., & Harman, G. E. (1990). Concepts and technologies of selected seed treatments. Annual review of phytopathology, 28(1), 321-339.</p>

<p>18. Yao, X. H., Min, H., Lü, Z. H., & Yuan, H. P. (2006). Influence of acetamiprid on soil enzymatic activities and respiration. European Journal of Soil Biology, 42(2), 120-126.</p>

</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>